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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">yvpBJjjKg89LRZG94bdjQdM</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00494</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2021000400494</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2021005002203</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200426</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200426</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>GDF-15 como Biomarcador em Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9670-8748</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>May</surname>
            <given-names>Bruna Miers</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1489-5349</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pimentel</surname>
            <given-names>Mauricio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9980-9114</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Zimerman</surname>
            <given-names>Leandro Ioschpe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rohde</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label> 1 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de: Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de: Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares , Porto Alegre , RS - Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label> 2 </label>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre , Porto Alegre , RS - Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01">Correspond&#234;ncia: Mauricio Pimentel &#8226; Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre - Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. CEP 90000-000, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil E-mail: <email>mpimentelrs@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos Autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: May BM, Pimentel M; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: May BM, Pimentel M, Zimerman LI, Rohde LE.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>08</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>116</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>494</fpage>
      <lpage>500</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, v&#225;rios biomarcadores est&#227;o ganhando import&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica de pacientes com doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. O fator de crescimento e diferencia&#231;&#227;o celular-15 (GDF-15) &#233; uma citocina induzida por estresse e inflama&#231;&#227;o, membro da fam&#237;lia do TGF-, cuja produ&#231;&#227;o no mioc&#225;rdio foi demonstrada experimentalmente em resposta &#224; inj&#250;ria isqu&#234;mica ou sobrecarga card&#237;aca. Este novo marcador foi positivamente correlacionado com aumento do risco de eventos cardiovasculares em estudos populacionais e configurou-se preditor independente de mortalidade e progn&#243;stico adverso em pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Este trabalho tem como objetivo revisar o valor diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico do GDF-15 em diferentes cen&#225;rios na cardiologia.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarcadores</kwd>
        <kwd>GDF-15 Fator de Diferencia&#231;&#227;o de Crescimento</kwd>
        <kwd>Citocinas</kwd>
        <kwd>Estresse</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflama&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Progn&#243;stico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="56"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O fator de crescimento e diferencia&#231;&#227;o celular-15 (GDF-15) &#233; uma citocina da fam&#237;lia do fator de transforma&#231;&#227;o do crescimento beta (TGF-) encontrada em baixa quantidade nos tecidos e no plasma, exceto pela placenta e pr&#243;stata. Antigamente chamado de citocina inibidora de macr&#243;fagos-1 (MIC-1), o GDF-15 foi descoberto h&#225; mais de 20 anos e assim nomeado devido a um poss&#237;vel papel antagonista ap&#243;s a ativa&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos por citocinas inflamat&#243;rias (interleucinas e fator de necrose tumoral) em estudos experimentais. A sua fun&#231;&#227;o no organismo permanece incerta at&#233; hoje e pode variar conforme o tecido estudado. A express&#227;o desse marcador &#233; regulada por estresse e inj&#250;ria tecidual, e est&#225; associada a condi&#231;&#245;es inflamat&#243;rias em diferentes &#243;rg&#227;os, inclusive no mioc&#225;rdio. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em modelos animais, o GDF-15 apresentou-se inicialmente como uma prote&#237;na cardioprotetora, prevenindo morte celular, e dilata&#231;&#227;o e hipertrofia card&#237;aca. Express&#227;o aumentada do marcador foi encontrada ap&#243;s est&#237;mulos agressores como sobrecarga de press&#227;o e isquemia tecidual. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A ativa&#231;&#227;o da enzima NOS-2 (&#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase 2), em situa&#231;&#245;es de estresse, participa na regula&#231;&#227;o positiva de GDF-15 por vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o intracelular dependentes de &#243;xido n&#237;trico. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Em ratos geneticamente modificados para apresentarem defici&#234;ncia de GDF-15, na isquemia mioc&#225;rdica induzida, eram observadas &#225;reas de infarto maiores com maior apoptose de mi&#243;citos, indicando uma poss&#237;vel fun&#231;&#227;o de limita&#231;&#227;o de dano mioc&#225;rdico do marcador. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> apresenta os principais fatores que influenciam a express&#227;o do GDF-15.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Fatores que modificam a express&#227;o do fator de crescimento e diferencia&#231;&#227;o celular-15 (GDF-15) no sistema cardiovascular.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-03-0494-00426-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Outro trabalho experimental correlacionou n&#237;veis elevados do GDF-15 em cardiomi&#243;citos de ratos com uma redu&#231;&#227;o na ativa&#231;&#227;o do horm&#244;nio do crescimento (GH), sugerindo sua participa&#231;&#227;o na via de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o do GH. Ap&#243;s essa descoberta, os mesmos autores realizaram estudo em crian&#231;as com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita, encontrando n&#237;veis significativamente maiores de GDF-15 no plasma de crian&#231;as com cardiopatia e defici&#234;ncia de crescimento, em rela&#231;&#227;o a controles saud&#225;veis e a cardiopatas com crescimento normal. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Ap&#243;s os resultados dos trabalhos iniciais, o GDF-15 passou a ser investigado em v&#225;rios contextos cl&#237;nicos, apresentando-se na maior parte dos estudos como um biomarcador associado a maior risco de desenvolver eventos cardiovasculares. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Atualmente, a dosagem s&#233;rica do GDF-15 encontra-se dispon&#237;vel comercialmente apenas na Europa, em outras regi&#245;es os kits s&#227;o acess&#237;veis apenas para fins de pesquisa cl&#237;nica e experimental. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A dosagem &#233; realizada por imunoensaios, ensaios por quantifica&#231;&#227;o de complexos ant&#237;geno-anticorpo marcados por radiois&#243;topos (t&#233;cnica de imunorradiometria &#8211; IRMA), por enzimas (ELISA) ou luminescentes (quimioluminesc&#234;ncia). A faixa de detec&#231;&#227;o varia entre 400-20000 ng/L, com boa precis&#227;o e reprodutibilidade (taxas de imprecis&#227;o intra e inter-ensaios abaixo de 10%). O m&#233;todo mais utilizado hoje &#233; o por ELISA, pelo menor custo e maior acessibilidade. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O objetivo deste artigo &#233; revisar o papel do GDF-15 em diferentes cen&#225;rios da cardiologia, avaliando-se a possibilidade de sua incorpora&#231;&#227;o como biomarcardor no diagn&#243;stico e estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de cardiopatias prevalentes.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Risco Cardiovascular em Indiv&#237;duos Saud&#225;veis</title>
        <p>O primeiro estudo em humanos a relacionar o GDF-15 com doen&#231;a cardiovascular foi publicado em 2002 e incluiu 27 628 mulheres saud&#225;veis acompanhadas por quatro anos. Os resultados demonstraram um aumento de 2,7 vezes no risco de evoluir com eventos cardiovasculares (infarto, acidente vascular cerebral e morte cardiovascular) nas participantes com n&#237;veis da citocina acima de 856 ng/L. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Em uma coorte com 1391 pacientes sem doen&#231;a cardiovascular estabelecida, o marcador foi preditor independente de mortalidade por todas as causas e de morte cardiovascular com <italic>hazard ratio</italic> (HR) de 1,5 (IC 95%: 1,3-1,8), com poder discriminat&#243;rio compar&#225;vel ao pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral (BNP) (HR 1,3; IC 95%: 1,2-1,5). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dados do Framingham Heart Study, onde foram avaliados 85 biomarcadores (incluindo BNP, PCR e GDF-15) em 3523 participantes ao longo de 14 anos de seguimento, mostraram que o GDF-15 foi o &#250;nico marcador, em an&#225;lise multivariada, a manter associa&#231;&#227;o significativa com os tr&#234;s desfechos avaliados: eventos card&#237;acos ateroscler&#243;ticos (HR 1,43; IC 95%: 1,20-1,58), insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) (HR 2,08; IC 95%: 1,72-2,53) e mortalidade (HR 1,96; IC 95%: 1,76-2,17). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana (DAC)</title>
        <p>O GDF-15 foi estudado em pacientes admitidos no hospital ap&#243;s s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA) e em portadores de doen&#231;a coronariana est&#225;vel.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>S&#237;ndromes Coronarianas Agudas</title>
          <p>Pacientes que apresentavam n&#237;veis aumentados de GDF-15 em dosagem realizada na interna&#231;&#227;o devido &#224; SCA evolu&#237;ram com um n&#250;mero maior de eventos como morte cardiovascular, reinfarto e acidente vascular cerebral em 12 meses de seguimento ap&#243;s a alta, demostrando um valor progn&#243;stico com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; progress&#227;o de doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Outro estudo observacional recente demonstrou a mesma associa&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica do marcador com eventos cardiovasculares maiores (mortalidade total, infarto n&#227;o fatal e interna&#231;&#227;o por IC). Por&#233;m, em an&#225;lise multivariada ajustada para outros fatores de risco, o GDF-15 permaneceu significativo apenas para mortalidade e desenvolvimento de IC. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Ainda no contexto de doen&#231;a aguda, um ensaio cl&#237;nico avaliando estrat&#233;gia invasiva versus conservadora na SCA sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST encontrou incid&#234;ncia significativa mais alta de eventos nos pacientes com n&#237;veis elevados de GDF-15 alocados no grupo da estrat&#233;gia conservadora. Os autores sugerem que a dosagem do marcador possa complementar os escores de risco na sele&#231;&#227;o daqueles que se beneficiam mais da estrat&#233;gia invasiva precoce. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Corroborando com essa ideia, o uso do escore GRACE, ajustado para GDF-15, associado &#224; medida dos n&#237;veis de GDF-15 na admiss&#227;o ao hospital, aumentou a acur&#225;cia do escore [&#225;rea sob a curva (AUC) ROC de 0,79 para 0,85]. Entre os pacientes que n&#227;o apresentaram eventos durante o seguimento de 6 meses, 54 foram classificados como risco intermedi&#225;rio pelo escore de GRACE e teriam sido reclassificados em baixo risco se utilizado o escore ajustado. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Tzikas et al., <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> encontraram que o GDF-15 &#233; preditor independente de eventos cardiovasculares de modo semelhante &#224; troponina, com forte correla&#231;&#227;o com a gravidade da doen&#231;a coronariana avaliada pelo escore Syntax ap&#243;s cateterismo card&#237;aco. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Avaliando-se especificamente pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST (IAMCSST) tratados com angioplastia prim&#225;ria, a taxa de mortalidade em 10 anos ap&#243;s o evento agudo aumentou de 6% para 19% nos pacientes com GDF-15 acima da mediana. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Outro estudo avaliou a altera&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica do GDF-15 durante as primeiras 24 horas de um evento de IAMCSST e mostrou pico da citocina em 12 horas, e manuten&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis elevados at&#233; final das 24 horas. N&#237;veis maiores na dosagem realizada ap&#243;s 24 horas se correlacionaram &#224; maior mortalidade em 30 dias. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; extens&#227;o do infarto e progn&#243;stico, quanto maior a dosagem do marcador, maior o risco de remodelamento e dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular em 12 meses. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Estudo prospectivo analisou 92 biomarcadores em 847 pacientes com doen&#231;a coronariana acompanhados por seis anos ap&#243;s infarto agudo. GDF-15 foi um dos dois &#250;nicos marcadores com poder para predizer mortalidade, ap&#243;s ajuste para fatores cl&#237;nicos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em metan&#225;lise incluindo oito estudos com pacientes acompanhados ap&#243;s uma SCA, o GDF-15 foi considerado um forte preditor de mortalidade com risco relativo (RR) de 6,08 (IC 95%: 4,79-7,71; p &lt; 0,001) e reinfarto n&#227;o-fatal, com RR de 1,76 (IC 95%: 1,49-2,07; p &lt; 0,001). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Uma metan&#225;lise mais recente com 13 estudos e um total de 43 547 pacientes com SCA corrobora esses resultados: RR para mortalidade de 6,75 (IC 95%: 5,81-7,84; p &lt; 0,001) e para reinfarto n&#227;o-fatal 1,95 (IC 95%: 1,72-2,21, p &lt; 0,001). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Ainda no cen&#225;rio de SCAs, em que est&#225; indicado o uso de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, o GDF-15 tamb&#233;m foi preditor de risco de sangramento. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Em uma an&#225;lise post-hoc do ensaio cl&#237;nico PLATO (ticagrelor x clopidogrel no IAMCSST), foi identificado um risco tr&#234;s vezes mais alto de sangramento nos pacientes que mant&#233;m n&#237;veis do marcador acima de 1800 ng/L em dosagem realizada um m&#234;s ap&#243;s a SCA, independentemente da droga utilizada. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, em que os n&#237;veis de GDF-15 mant&#234;m-se elevados ap&#243;s o evento agudo, um marcador de risco de sangramento pode ajudar na decis&#227;o de manter a terapia antitromb&#243;tica dupla al&#233;m do tempo usualmente recomendado.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Doen&#231;a Coronariana Est&#225;vel</title>
          <p>Na doen&#231;a coronariana cr&#244;nica, GDF-15 foi dosado em uma coorte com 14577 pacientes portadores de angina est&#225;vel, revasculariza&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via, e doen&#231;a multiarterial ou infarto h&#225; mais de um ano. Ao longo do seguimento, n&#237;veis acima de 1827 ng/L associaram-se a maior risco de morte cardiovascular (HR 2,63; IC 95%: 1,9-3,6; p&lt;0,001), morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca (HR 3,06; IC 95%: 1,9-4,8; p&lt;0,001) e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC (HR 5,8; IC 95%: 3,2-10; p = 0,006), de forma independente a outros marcadores como troponina, prote&#237;na C reativa e BNP. Neste estudo, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> o GDF-15 n&#227;o se correlacionou com novo evento tromb&#243;tico ap&#243;s ajuste para os demais biomarcadores.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (IC)</title>
      <p>O GDF-15 foi avaliado em diversas coortes de pacientes portadores de IC e comparado, na maioria, a pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos [BNP ou fragmento N-terminal do pr&#243;-horm&#244;nio do BNP (NT-proBNP)]. A principal diferen&#231;a entre eles &#233; a propor&#231;&#227;o do aumento no plasma conforme o tipo de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. O NT-proBNP, um marcador de estresse hemodin&#226;mico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, est&#225; aumentado na IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida de forma mais significativa do que na IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada. Em contrapartida, o GDF-15 encontra-se elevado de forma semelhante na disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica, sugerindo que inj&#250;ria inflamat&#243;ria seja parte da fisiopatologia de ambas as condi&#231;&#245;es. O GDF-15 apresentou-se como importante preditor de eventos adversos e mortalidade, independentemente da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de NT-proBNP. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>IC com Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o Teduzida (ICFEr)</title>
      <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o do GDF-15 em diferentes est&#225;gios da IC define-o como um biomarcador de evolu&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a, aumentando exponencialmente conforme a piora de classe funcional e o remodelamento do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Os n&#237;veis de GDF-15 j&#225; est&#227;o elevados na fase pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica da IC (est&#225;gio B) e a associa&#231;&#227;o do marcador ao NT-proBNP aumentou a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica para IC, inclusive nessa fase inicial. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Na mesma dire&#231;&#227;o, outro estudo prospectivo correlacionou o GDF-15 &#224; progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e perda de capacidade funcional em pacientes com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o menor que 35%, encontrando n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos progressivamente maiores conforme a gravidade da IC. Este resultado se manteve significativo ap&#243;s ajuste para outros fatores de risco como o consumo de oxig&#234;nio de pico (VO2 pico), idade e taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O primeiro grande estudo que avaliou o valor progn&#243;stico do GDF-15 na ICFEr foi realizado utilizando-se a base de dados do ensaio cl&#237;nico Val-HeFT ( <italic>Valsartan Heart Failure Trial</italic> ), que avaliou o uso de valsartan em pacientes com IC. O GDF-15 foi avaliado no in&#237;cio do estudo (n=1734) e ap&#243;s 12 meses de seguimento (n=1517). No in&#237;cio do estudo, 85% dos pacientes apresentavam valores de GDF-15 elevados (&gt;1200ng/ml). Em an&#225;lise multivariada incluindo vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas, BNP, troponina e prote&#237;na C reativa, valores elevados de GDF-15 permaneceram associados de forma independente com aumento do risco de mortalidade total (HR 1,007; IC 95%: 1,001-1,014; p=0,02), mas n&#227;o com a ocorr&#234;ncia de primeiro evento m&#243;rbido (HR 1,003; IC 95%: 0,997-1,008; p=0,34), que inclu&#237;a morte, morte s&#250;bita com ressuscita&#231;&#227;o, hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por IC, ou necessidade de uso de inotr&#243;picos ou vasodilatadores intravenosos por mais de 4h sem hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Em 12 meses de seguimento, os valores de GDF-15 aumentaram de modo semelhante no grupo placebo e no grupo valsartan, sendo associados de modo independente com mortalidade total e primeiro evento m&#243;rbido. Este achado sugere que o GDF-15 represente um eixo fisiopatol&#243;gico que n&#227;o &#233; afetado pelas terapias prescritas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Mais recentemente, o GDF-15 foi estudado em 1935 pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo PARADIGM-HF, que comparou sacubitril/valsartana versus enalapril em pacientes com ICFEr. O GDF-15 basal e os seus n&#237;veis em um e oito meses de tratamento foram associados significativamente com aumento do risco de mortalidade total e de eventos cardiovasculares. Cada incremento de 20% no GDF-15 basal foi associado com maior risco de mortalidade total (HR 1,13; IC 95%:1,08-1,18; p&lt;0,001), desfecho combinado de morte cardiovascular ou hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC (HR 1,09; IC 95%: 1,05-1,14; P&lt;0,001) e morte por IC (HR 1,16; IC 95% 1,05-1,28; p&lt;0,001). O incremento no n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de GDF-15 durante o estudo n&#227;o foi influenciado pelos tratamentos prescritos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O papel do marcador foi estudado ainda em pacientes submetidos a implante de ressincronizador card&#237;aco. Durante o seguimento de 158 pacientes, 72% apresentaram boa resposta &#224; ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o, mas aqueles em que o n&#237;vel s&#233;rico basal do GDF-15 era superior a 2720 ng/L tiveram risco significativamente maior de morte cardiovascular e reinterna&#231;&#245;es por IC em 2,5 anos. Apesar de se demonstrar o valor progn&#243;stico do biomarcador nesta popula&#231;&#227;o, o n&#237;vel basal e a varia&#231;&#227;o em um ano p&#243;s-implante n&#227;o foram capazes de predizer resposta ao dispositivo. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
      <p>No cen&#225;rio de doen&#231;a avan&#231;ada, foram dosados cinco biomarcadores (PCR, NT-proBNP, GDF-15, galectina-3 e troponina) em pacientes com classe funcional NYHA (New York Heart Association) III. Entre eles, o GDF-15 foi o melhor preditor de mortalidade a longo prazo, inclusive com maior valor preditivo que NT-proBNP (AUC 0,78 versus 0,63). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em pacientes com miocardiopatia n&#227;o-isqu&#234;mica grave, GDF-15 foi analisado em bi&#243;psias realizadas durante implante de dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia ventricular ou transplante card&#237;aco, e se mostrou fortemente correlacionado ao grau de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica nessas amostras. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Nesta coorte, observou-se que um m&#234;s ap&#243;s o implante do suporte circulat&#243;rio, os n&#237;veis do marcador reduziram-se significativamente comparado ao pr&#233;-implante, sugerindo mais uma vez a sua associa&#231;&#227;o com o grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>IC com Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o Preservada (ICFEp)</title>
        <p>Atualmente, os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para ICFEp s&#227;o baseados principalmente em sintomas de IC e altera&#231;&#245;es ecocardiogr&#225;ficas sugerindo eleva&#231;&#227;o nas press&#245;es de enchimento card&#237;acas. Ainda assim, h&#225; bastante heterogeneidade nos conceitos e crit&#233;rios adotados pelas Sociedades e no diagn&#243;stico de consult&#243;rio na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Em pacientes com ICFEp, foram detectados n&#237;veis elevados de GDF-15, e sua associa&#231;&#227;o direta com a rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8217; no ecocardiograma. A combina&#231;&#227;o de NT-proBNP e GDF-15 elevados aumentou a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica (atingindo uma AUC de 0,93) para ICFEp. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Ainda, estudos de coorte prospectivos com esta popula&#231;&#227;o demonstraram que quanto maior o n&#237;vel s&#233;rico do GDF-15, maior o grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e pior a classe funcional NYHA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um desafio diagn&#243;stico &#233; a defini&#231;&#227;o de ICFEp em obesos m&#243;rbidos, devido a limita&#231;&#245;es ecocardiogr&#225;ficas como janela desfavor&#225;vel, dispneia multifatorial e n&#237;veis reduzidos de BNP. No estudo de Baessler et al., <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> em pacientes com &#237;ndice de massa corporal acima de 30 kg/m <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> , o GDF-15 se correlacionou com eleva&#231;&#227;o nas press&#245;es de enchimento ao ecocardiograma. A adi&#231;&#227;o do GDF-15 aos crit&#233;rios ecocardiogr&#225;ficos de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica obteve melhor performance diagn&#243;stica nessa popula&#231;&#227;o, comparada &#224; associa&#231;&#227;o do BNP aos mesmos crit&#233;rios (AUC 0,76 x AUC 0,56, respectivamente). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>IC Agudamente Descompensada</title>
      <p>A concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica do GDF-15 na admiss&#227;o de pacientes agudamente descompensados &#233; elevada (a maioria dos estudos encontrou valores acima de 1200 ng/L). Quanto mais alta a concentra&#231;&#227;o do marcador ou se os n&#237;veis aumentam durante a interna&#231;&#227;o, maior o risco de reinterna&#231;&#245;es por IC e mortalidade ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Estudo <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> com 55 pacientes portadores de ICFEr realizou dosagens seriadas de diversos biomarcadores durante a interna&#231;&#227;o por descompensa&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e 30 dias ap&#243;s a alta, demonstrando que a curva do GDF-15 se assemelha &#224; de dois outros marcadores: ST2 (biomarcardor pertencente &#224; fam&#237;lia dos receptores de interleucina-1) e BNP. Neste estudo, um r&#225;pido decr&#233;scimo no n&#237;vel do marcador &#233; evidenciado com a melhora cl&#237;nica dos pacientes, diferente do que ocorreu com outras prote&#237;nas inflamat&#243;rias como prote&#237;na C reativa, TNF-alfa, IL-6, galectinas e mieloperoxidase. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Modelos constru&#237;dos adicionando o GDF-15 a marcadores cl&#225;ssicos como troponina e BNP demonstram que a sua dosagem na IC aguda acrescenta valor progn&#243;stico. Esse dado sugere a presen&#231;a de v&#225;rias vias fisiopatol&#243;gicas independentes em pacientes hospitalizados por IC e novamente denota relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica do marcador nesse cen&#225;rio. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref> apresenta as principais correla&#231;&#245;es do GDF-15 com diferentes aspectos cl&#237;nicos da IC.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Implica&#231;&#227;o do aumento nos n&#237;veis de fator de crescimento e diferencia&#231;&#227;o celular-15 (GDF-15) em diferentes aspectos cl&#237;nicos na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; CV: cardiovasculares; ICFEp: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada; NYHA: New York Heart Association; ICFEr: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-03-0494-00426-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Morte S&#250;bita</title>
      <p>O GDF-15 tamb&#233;m foi estudado no contexto de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de morte s&#250;bita em pacientes com doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. No cen&#225;rio de doen&#231;a coronariana est&#225;vel, demonstrou-se que pacientes com GDF-15 elevado apresentam maior risco de morte s&#250;bita com raz&#227;o de risco ( <italic>hazard ratio</italic> ) de 3,0 (IC 95%: 1,94-4,84; p &lt; 0,001). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em um estudo coorte recente, realizou-se a dosagem de ST2 e GDF-15 em 52 pacientes portadores de IC de etiologia n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, acompanhados por um tempo m&#233;dio de sete anos. O GDF-15 correlacionou-se com um aumento em duas vezes no risco de morte por arritmia e morte s&#250;bita com ressuscita&#231;&#227;o (HR 2,2; IC 95% 1,1-4,5; p=0,028) e foi superior ao ST2 em predizer mortalidade por qualquer causa (HR 2,4; IC 95%: 1,4-4,2; p = 0,003 <italic>versus</italic> HR 1,6; IC 95%: 1,05-2,7; p = 0,03). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial (FA)</title>
      <p>Em pacientes com FA, em tratamento adequado e anticoagulados, aqueles com n&#237;veis mais elevados do marcador apresentaram taxas 4 a 5 vezes mais altas de mortalidade, independentemente da idade, sexo e escore CHA <sub>2</sub> DS <sub>2</sub> VASc. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Resultado semelhante foi encontrado por Sharma et al., <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> sendo o GDF-15 fortemente associado &#224; morte por progress&#227;o da IC e sangramento. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Pacientes portadores de FA n&#227;o valvar, n&#227;o anticoagulados, cujos n&#237;veis de GDF-15 s&#233;rico s&#227;o acima de 809 ng/dL t&#234;m mais risco de ter trombo no &#225;trio esquerdo, independente de idade, volume do &#225;trio e CHA <sub>2</sub> DS <sub>2</sub> VASc. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em um estudo com 14.798 pacientes anticoagulados, foi encontrado um risco 3,5 vezes mais elevado de sangramento maior nos participantes com GDF-15 elevado, independente da terapia antitromb&#243;tica utilizada e demais comorbidades. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s esse achado, foi desenvolvido nesta popula&#231;&#227;o e validado em outra amostra semelhante o escore de risco ABC (baseado em idade, biomarcadores - GDF-15, hemoglobina e troponina - e hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica de sangramento), para sangramentos, sendo o GDF-15 o integrante de maior contribui&#231;&#227;o para o risco. Esse escore obteve melhor acur&#225;cia que o escore mais utilizado na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica (HAS-BLED). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Doen&#231;a Renal Cr&#244;nica</title>
      <p>Remodelamento card&#237;aco, fibrose e inflama&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o poss&#237;veis fatores envolvidos no aumento da incid&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes com doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (DRC).</p>
      <p>Avaliando-se biomarcadores possivelmente representativos dessas condi&#231;&#245;es, demonstrou-se que as prote&#237;nas ST2, galectina-3 e GDF-15 associaram-se significativamente &#224; mortalidade nestes pacientes, mas n&#227;o a eventos ateroscler&#243;ticos. Entre esses, apenas o GDF-15 correlacionou-se ao risco de desenvolver IC. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Resultado semelhante foi encontrado por Bansal et al., <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> em que o GDF-15 foi preditor de IC em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, assim como o NT-proBNP. Entretanto, ao contr&#225;rio do pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico, o GDF-15 teve uma correla&#231;&#227;o mais forte com ICFEp. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Pacientes com taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular abaixo de 60 mL/min/1,73m <sup>2</sup> apresentam n&#237;veis significativamente maiores de GDF-15 e NT-proBNP, quando comparados a pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal. Em uma coorte com 358 pacientes com DRC e disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, o GDF-15 refinou a estratifica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica de pacientes com NT-proBNP baixo e foi fortemente associado a eventos adversos, de maneira mais significativa que o pr&#243;prio pept&#237;deo. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> encontram-se os valores, em m&#233;dia, dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de GDF-15 associados &#224;s condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas exploradas nesta revis&#227;o.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Pontos de corte do fator de crescimento e diferencia&#231;&#227;o celular-15 (GDF-15) empregados no diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico em diferentes condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas (valores expressos em ng/L)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Valor para diagn&#243;stico</th>
                <th colspan="4">Predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos adversos</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>Eventos cardiovasculares</th>
                <th>Morte cardiovascular</th>
                <th>Morte s&#250;bita</th>
                <th>Mortalidade total</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida <sup>7,33,34</sup></td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 1200</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 2040</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 2252</td>
                <td align="center">*</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 2040</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada <sup>31,40,42</sup></td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 1160</td>
                <td align="center">*</td>
                <td align="center">NA</td>
                <td align="center">NA</td>
                <td align="center">*</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda <sup>15,19</sup></td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 967</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 1550</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 1550</td>
                <td align="center">NA</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 1259</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Doen&#231;a arterial coronariana est&#225;vel <sup>27</sup></td>
                <td align="center">NA</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 1253</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 1827</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 1253</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 915</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>NA: N&#227;o avali&#225;vel (sem estudos para aquele desfecho ou estudos pequenos n&#227;o confi&#225;veis). * Uso do biomarcador como vari&#225;vel cont&#237;nua, sem ponto de corte espec&#237;fico.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>O GDF-15 &#233; um biomarcador s&#233;rico cuja express&#227;o parece ser afetada por estresse, inj&#250;ria tecidual e inflama&#231;&#227;o, embora seu eixo fisiopatol&#243;gico ainda n&#227;o seja completamente entendido. Estudos observacionais com pessoas saud&#225;veis demonstraram associa&#231;&#227;o do GDF-15 com maior risco de eventos cardiovasculares ao longo do tempo. Em pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e IC, o GDF-15 correlacionou-se a um risco elevado de mortalidade total e eventos adversos. A incorpora&#231;&#227;o do GDF-15 melhorou a performance diagn&#243;stica da ICFEp e contribuiu para a elabora&#231;&#227;o de escore mais acurado para risco de sangramento na FA. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o do GDF-15 na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica como marcador progn&#243;stico e sua capacidade de orientar a tomada de decis&#227;o cl&#237;nica depende ainda de novos estudos com maior n&#250;mero de pacientes.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    </ref-list>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Bruna Miers May pela Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de: Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> .O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>GDF-15 as a Biomarker in Cardiovascular Disease</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9670-8748</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>May</surname>
            <given-names>Bruna Miers</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1489-5349</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pimentel</surname>
            <given-names>Mauricio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9980-9114</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Zimerman</surname>
            <given-names>Leandro Ioschpe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rohde</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de: Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing Address: Mauricio Pimentel &#8226;</bold> Mailing Address: Mauricio Pimentel Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre - Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. Postal Code 90000-000, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil E-mail: mpimentelrs@gmail.com</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, Data acquisition and Analysis and interpretation of the data: May BM, Pimentel M; Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: May BM, Pimentel M, Zimerman LI, Rohde LE.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>In the last years, several diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers have been studied in cardiovascular disease. Growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15), a cytokine belonging to the transforming growth factor- (TGF-) family, is highly up-regulated in stress and inflammatory conditions and has been correlated to myocardial injury and pressure cardiac overload in animal models. This new biomarker has been positively correlated with increased risk of cardiovascular events in population studies and shown an independent predictor of mortality in patients with coronary artery disease and heart failure. This review aimed to summarize the current evidence on the diagnostic and prognostic value of GDF-15 in different settings in cardiology.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarkers</kwd>
        <kwd>GDF-15 Growth Differentiation Factor 15</kwd>
        <kwd>Cytokines</kwd>
        <kwd>Stress</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflammation, Prognostic</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>The growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15) is a cytokine belonging to the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-&#223;) family, with low concentrations in tissue and plasma, except for the placenta and prostate. GDF-15, discovered more than 20 years ago, was formerly named the macrophage inhibitory cytocine-1 (MIC-1) due to its possible role as an antagonist of macrophage activation by inflammatory cytokines (interleukins and tumor necrosis factor) in experimental studies. The role of this cytokine in human body has not been elucidated yet and seems to vary with tissue types. The expression of this marker is upregulated by stress and tissue damage, and is associated with inflammatory conditions of different organs, including the myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In animal models, the GDF-15 was initially reported as a cardioprotective protein, preventing cell death, and cardiac dilatation and hypertrophy. An increased expression of this marker was seen in response to damaging stimuli, such as pressure overload and tissue ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The activation of nitric oxide synthase (NOS-2) enzyme in stressful situations is involved in the up-regulation of GDF-15 via intracellular signaling pathways, depending on nitric oxide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> In genetically modified rats deficient in GDF-15, greater infarction areas with myocyte apoptosis were detected in induced myocardial infarction, suggesting a protective role of GDF-15 against myocardial injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Figure 3 presents the main factors that influence the GDF-15 expression.</p>
        <p>Another experimental study correlated the increased levels of GDF-15 in cardiomyocytes of rats with reduced activation of growth hormone (GH), suggesting the involvement of this marker in GH signaling pathway. After this finding, the same authors conducted a study on children with congenital heart disease, and found significantly higher levels of GDH-15 in plasma of children with concomitant heart disease and failure to thrive compared with healthy controls and children with heart disease and normal growth.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Since then, the GDF-15 has been investigated in several clinical conditions, and associated with a greater risk for cardiovascular events in most of the studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Today, the kits for determination of serum GDF-15 levels can be found commercially available in Europe, while in other regions, they are used for research and experimental purposes only.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The measurement is made by immunoassays, by immunoradiometric assay (IRMA) that determines the amount of the radiolabeled antigen&#8211;antibody complex, by enzymes (ELISA) or by luminescence (chemiluminescence). The detection range varies from 400 to 20000 ng/L, with good precision and reproducibility (within-and between-assay imprecision lower than 10%). The most used test today is the ELISA due to is lower cost and higher accessibility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The aim of this article is to review the role of GDF-15 in different cardiac diseases and evaluate the possibility of incorporating it as a biomarker in the diagnosis and risk stratification of common heart diseases.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiovascular Risk in Healthy Individuals</title>
          <p>The first human study to correlate GDF-15 with cardiovascular disease was published in 2002 and included 27,628 healthy women, followed-up for four years. The results indicated a 2.7-fold increase in the risk of developing cardiovascular events in women with GDF-15 concentrations above 856 ng/L.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> In a cohort of 1,391 patients with no history of heart disease, GDF-15 was an independent predictor of mortality and cardiovascular mortality, with a hazard ratio (HR) of 1.5 (95% CI 1.3-1.8), with a discriminatory power comparable to B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) (HR 1.3; 95% CI 1.2-1.5).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Data from the Framingham Heart study, in which 85 biomarkers were evaluated (including BNP, PCR and GDF-15) in 3,523 participants over 14 years, showed that the GDF-15 was the only marker, in a multivariate analysis, to show a significant association with the three outcome results: atherosclerotic events (HR 1.43; 95%CI: 1.20-1.58), heart failure (HF) (HR 2.08; 95%CI: 1.72-2.53) and mortality (HR 1.96; 95%CI: 1.76-2.17).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)</title>
          <p>GDF-15 was studied in patients admitted for acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and patients with stable coronary disease.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>Acute Coronary Syndromes</title>
            <p>Patients with elevated GDF-15 at admission for ACS had more events such as cardiovascular deaths, reinfarction and stroke at 12 months after discharge, indicating a prognostic value regarding the course of atherosclerotic disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Another recent observational study showed the same prognostic association of GDF-15 with major cardiovascular events (overall mortality, non-fatal infarction, and hospitalization for HF). However, in a multivariate analysis adjusted for other risk factors, the GDF-15 remained significant only for mortality and development of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Still in the context of acute diseases, a clinical trial comparing invasive versus conservative strategy in non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome showed a significantly higher incidence of events in patients with elevated GDF-15 levels, allocated to the conservative strategy group. The authors suggested that the determination of GDF-15 should complement risk scores in the screening for patients who would benefit more of an early invasive strategy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In agreement with this idea, the use of the GRACE risk score, adjusted for GDF-15, combined with GDF-15 measurement at hospital admission increased the score accuracy (area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve from 0.79 to 0.85). During the six-month follow-up, 54 of the patients without events were classified into low risk according to the adjusted score.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Tzikas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> found that GDF-15 is an independent predictor of cardiovascular events, comparable to troponin. Also, the authors observed that GDF-15 levels were strongly correlated with the severity of coronary disease assessed by the Syntax score after coronary revascularization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In a study on patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction treated with primary percutaneous coronary intervention, the10-year all-cause mortality rate following an acute event increased from 6% to 19% in patients GDF-15 levels above the median.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Another study evaluated GDF-15 temporal dynamics during the first 24 hours of ST-elevation myocardial infarction and showed that GDF-15 peaked at 12 h and remained elevated at 24 h. At 24 hours, higher levels of GDF-15 were correlated with higher 30-day mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> With respect to the extension of infarction and prognosis, the higher the GDF-15 levels, the greater the risk for ventricular remodeling and dilation in 12 months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> A prospective study analyzed 92 biomarkers in 847 patients with coronary disease followed for six years after acute infarction. GDF-15 was one of the markers with a predictive power for mortality after adjustments for clinical factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A meta-analysis of eight studies with STEMI patients, the GDF-15 was considered a strong predictor of mortality, with a relative risk (RR) of 6.08 (95%CI: 4.79-7.71; p &lt; 0.001) and of non-fatal reinfarction, with a RR of 1.76 (95%CI: 1.49-2.07; p &lt; 0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> These findings are corroborated in a more recent meta-analysis of 13 studies and 43,547 patients with ACS: RR for mortality of 6.75 (95%CI: 5.81-7.84; p &lt; 0.001) and RR for non-fatal reinfarction of 1.95 (95%CI: 1.72-2.21, p &lt; 0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In addition, for ACS patients with indication for dual antiplatelet therapy, GDF-15 was a predictor of bleeding risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In a post-hoc analysis of the PLATO trial (ticagrelor vs. clopidogrel in STEMI), patients with elevated GDF-15 (&gt;1800 ng/L) at one month after an ACS was associated with a three-fold increased risk of bleeding, regardless of the drug used.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> In this case of elevated GDF-15 levels after an acute event, a marker of bleeding risk may help in the decision to continue the dual antithrombotic therapy beyond the usual time.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Stable Coronary Disease</title>
        <p>In chronic coronary disease, GDF-15 was measured in a cohort of 14,577 patients with stable angina and history of revascularization, multivessel disease or infarction for more than one year. During the follow-up period, GDF-15 levels above 1,827ng/L were associated with increased risk of cardiovascular death (HR 2.63; 95%CI 1.9-3.6; p&lt;0.001), cardiac sudden death (HR 3.06; 95%CI: 1.9-4.8; p&lt;0.001) and hospitalization for HF (HR 5.8; 95%CI: 3.2-10.0; p = 0.006), regardless of other markers such as troponin, reactive C protein, and BNP. In this study,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> no correlation was found between GDF-15 and new thrombotic event after adjustment for the other biomarkers.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Heart Failure</title>
        <p>GDF-15 was assessed in different cohorts of patients with HF, and compared with natriuretic peptides [BNP or the N-terminal fragment of BNP precursor (NT-proBNP)]. The main difference between them was the magnitude of increase in plasma concentrations according to the type of ventricular dysfunction. NT-proBNP, a marker for hemodynamic stress on the left ventricle was more significantly increased in HF with reduced ejection fraction than in HF with preserved ejection fraction. On the other hand. GDF-15 was similarly increased in both systolic and diastolic dysfunction, suggesting that the inflammatory injury is involved in the pathophysiology of both conditions. The GDF-15 was shown to be an important predictor of adverse events and mortality, independent of ejection fraction and serum levels of NT-proBNP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>HF with Reduced Ejection Fraction (HFrEF)</title>
        <p>The assessment of GDF-15 in different stages of HF has revealed that the cytokine is a biomarker of disease progression, which increases exponentially with worsening of functional class and remodeling of the left ventricle. The GDF-15 levels are already elevated in the preclinical stage of HF (stage B) and its combination with NT-proBNP increased the diagnostic accuracy for HF, including at this initial stage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> In the same line of thought, another prospective study correlated GDF-15 with ventricular dysfunction progression and loss of functional capacity in patients with ejection fraction below 35%, and showed that GDF-15 levels increased with the severity of HF. This result remained significant after adjustment for other risk factors such as peak oxygen consumption (VO2 peak), age and glomerular filtration rate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The first large study that evaluated the prognostic value of GDF-15 in HFrEF was conducted with data from the Valsartan Heart Failure Trial (Val-HeFT) that evaluated the use of valsartan in HF patients. GDF-15 levels were evaluated in the beginning of the study (n=1,734) and at 12 months of follow-up (n=1,517). In the beginning of the study, 85% of patients had increased GDF-15 levels (&gt;1,200 ng/mL). In a multivariate analysis including clinical variables, BNP, troponin and C-reactive protein, elevated levels of GDF-15 were independently associated with an increase in the risk of overall mortality (HR 1.007; 95%CI: 1.001-1.014; p=0.02), but not with the occurrence of the first morbid event (HR 1.003; 95%CI: 0.997-1.008; p=0.34), that included death, sudden death with resuscitation, hospitalization for HF, or administration of intravenous inotropic or vasodilator drugs for more than 4 hours without hospitalization. After 12 months of follow-up, the increase in the GDF-15 values was similar for the placebo and the valsartan groups and was independently associated with overall mortality and first morbid event. This result suggests that the GDF-15 represents a pathophysiological axis that is not addressed by the therapies prescribed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>More recently, the GDF-15 was studied in 1,935 patients included in the PAADIGM-HF study, which compared sacubitril/valsartan versus enalapril in patients with HFrEF. Baseline GDF-15 and the levels at one month and eight months of treatment were associated with increased risk of overall mortality and cardiovascular events (HR 1.13; 95%CI: 1.08-1.18; p&lt;0.001), combined endpoint of cardiovascular death or hospitalization for HF (HR 1.09, 95% CI 1.05-1.14, p &lt; 0.001) and HF death. The increment in GDF-15 levels was not influenced by the therapies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The role of GDF-15 was also evaluated in patients undergoing cardiac resynchronization therapy. Of 158 patients, 72% had a good response to treatment; however, patients with serum GDF-15 above 2,720 ng/L had significantly higher risk of cardiovascular mortality, and rehospitalization for HF in 2.5 years. Despite the prognostic value of GDF-15 in this population, baseline levels and changes from baseline one year after implantation failed to predict the response to the resynchronization device.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In advanced HF, five biomarkers (PCR, NT-proBNP, GDF-15, galectin-3, and troponin) were measured in patients New York Heart Association class III. Among these, GDF-15 was the marker that best predicted long-term mortality, with better predictive value as compared with NT-proBNP (area under the curve [AUC] 0.78 versus 0.63).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In patients with severe non-ischemic cardiomyopathy, GDF-15 was evaluated in myocardial tissue obtained during implantation of left ventricular assist devices or during heart transplantation, and found to be strongly correlated with the severity of myocardial fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> In this cohort, at one month after implantation of mechanical circulatory support, GDF-15 levels were significantly decreased compared with pre-implantation levels, which reinforces its association with the severity of myocardial dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>HF with Preserved Ejection Fraction (HFpEF)</title>
        <p>Today, the diagnostic criteria for HFpEF are mainly based on HF symptoms and echocardiographic changes suggesting elevated cardiac filling pressures. However, there is still high heterogeneity of concepts and criteria adopted by the Societies and in the diagnosis in clinical practice. In HFpEF patients, elevated GDF-15 were detected, with a direct association with echocardiographic E/e ratio. The combination of NT-proBNP with elevated GDF-15 increased the diagnostic accuracy (AUC of 0.93) for HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Also, prospective cohort studies with this population showed that the higher the GDF-15 levels, the more severe the diastolic dysfunction and NYHA functional class.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>One diagnostic challenge is the definition of HFpEF in morbidly obese patients, due to echocardiographic limitations such as unfavorable window, multifactorial dyspnea, and reduced BNP levels. In the study by Baessler et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> on patients with body mass index above 30 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> , GDF-15 correlated with increased filling pressures at echocardiography. The inclusion of the GDF-15 in the echocardiographic criteria for diastolic dysfunction yielded better diagnostic performance in this population, compared with the combination of BNP with the same criteria (AUC 0.76 x AUC 0.56, respectively).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Acutely Decompensated HF</title>
          <p>Serum GDF-15 concentrations of patients with acutely decompensated HF are elevated at admission (most studies have reported GDF-15 levels above 1,200 ng/L). The higher the GDF-15 concentrations, or if GDF-15 levels increased during hospitalization, the greater the risk of rehospitalizations for HF and post-discharge mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In a study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> with 55 patients with HFrEF, the authors conducted serial measurements of several biomarkers during hospitalization for cardiac decompensation and at 30 days of discharge, and showed that the curve pf GDF-15 was similar to two other markers: suppression of tumorigenicity 2 (ST2, a biomarker belonging to the interleukin-1 receptor family) and BNP. In this study, the rapid fall in GDF-15 levels was marked by an evident clinical improvement of patients, different to what was observed with other pro-inflammatory proteins, including C-reactive protein, TNF-alpha, IL-6, galectins and myeloperoxidase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Models combining the GDF-15 with classical biomarkers such as troponin and BNP have demonstrated that the measurement of this cytokine in acute HF adds prognostic value. This data suggests that the presence of several independent pathophysiological pathways in patients hospitalized for HF, and indicates, once again, the clinical relevance of this biomarker in this scenario.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
          <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref> shows the main correlations of GDF-15 with clinical aspects in HF.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Implications of increased growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15) levels in different clinical conditions of heart failure; HF: heart failure; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; NYHA: New York Heart Association; CAD: coronary artery disease</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-03-0494-00426-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sudden Death</title>
        <p>GDF-15 was also studied in risk stratification for sudden death in patients with cardiovascular diseases. Patients with stable coronary disease and elevated GDF-15 had increased risk for sudden death (HR 3.0) (95%CI: 1.94-4.84; p &lt; 0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In a recent cohort study, measurements of ST2 and GDF-15 levels were determined in 52 nonischemic HF patients followed for a mean of seven years. GDF-15 was correlated with a two-fold increased risk for death for arrhythmia and sudden death with resuscitation (HR 2.2; 95%CI 1.1-4.5; p=0.028) and was superior to ST2 in predicting all-cause mortality (HR 2.4; 95%CI: 1.4-4.2; p = 0.003 <italic>versus</italic> HR 1.6; 95%CI: 1.05-2.7; p = 0.03).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Atrial Fibrillation (AF)</title>
        <p>Among patients with atrial fibrillation, receiving adequate treatment and anticoagulation, those with elevated GDF-15 had four to five-fold higher mortality rate, independently of age, sex and CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> A similar finding was seen in the study by Sharma et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> where GDF-15 was strongly associated with death due to HF and bleeding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nonanticoagulated nonvalvular AF patients with serum levels of GDF-15 above 809 ng/dL are at higher risk for developing left atrial thrombus, regardless of age, atrial volume, and CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In a study with 14,798 anticoagulated patients, those with elevated GDF-15 levels had a 3.5-fold increased risk of major bleeding, regardless of the antithrombotic therapy and other comorbidities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> After this finding, the ABC (age, biomarkers [GDF-15, hemoglobin and troponin], and clinical history)-bleeding risk score was developed and validated, and the GDF-15 was the biomarker that most contributed to the risk. The ABC bleeding score showed better accuracy than the HAS-BLED score, which is the most used score in clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Chronic Renal Disease</title>
        <p>Cardiac remodeling, fibrosis, and inflammation are possibly involved in the increase of cardiovascular events in patients with chronic renal disease (CRD).</p>
        <p>Analysis of biomarkers possible representative of these conditions, the ST2, galectin-3 and GDF-15 were found to be significantly associated with mortality in these patients, but not with atherosclerotic events. Among these, only GDF-15 correlated with the risk of developing HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Similar results were found by Bansal et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> who reported that GDF-15 was a predictor of HF in patients with renal dysfunction, similarly to NT-proBNP. However, unlike the natriuretic peptide, the GDF-15 was more strongly correlated with HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Patients with a glomerular filtration rate below 60 mL/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>showed significantly higher levels of GDF-15 and NT-proBNP as compared with patients with normal renal function. In a cohort of 358 patients with CRD and systolic dysfunction, GDF-15 refined the prognostic stratification of patients with low NT-proBNP and was more strongly associated with adverse events than the peptide itself.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> describes serum GDF-15 levels (mean) associated with the clinical conditions addressed in this review.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Cut-off points of growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15) used for diagnosis and prognosis in different clinical conditions (values in ng/L)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Diagnostic cut-off levels</th>
                  <th colspan="4">Prediction of adverse events</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>Cardiovascular evens</th>
                  <th>Cardiovascular death</th>
                  <th>Sudden death</th>
                  <th>Overall mortality</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>HF with reduced ejection fraction<sup>7,33,34</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 1,200</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 2,040</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 2,252</td>
                  <td align="center">*</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 2,040</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HF with preserved ejection fraction<sup>31,40,42</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 1,160</td>
                  <td align="center">*</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>NA</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">*</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Acute coronary syndrome<sup>15,19</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 967</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 1,550</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 1,550</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 1,259</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Stable coronary artery disease<sup>27</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 1,253</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 1,827</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 1,253</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 915</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic>NA: Not accessible (no study including the outcome, or unreliable, small studies). * Use of growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15) as a continuous variable, without specific cut-off point.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>GDF-15 is a serum biomarker whose expression seems to be affected by stress, tissue damage, and inflammation, although its pathophysiological pathway has not been elucidated yet. Observational studies with healthy individuals have shown an association of GDF-15 with higher risk of cardiovascular events over time. In patients with coronary artery disease and HF, GDF-15 was correlated with increased risk of overall mortality and adverse events. The use of GDF-15 improved the diagnostic performance for detecting HFpEF and contributed to the development of a more accurate risk score to predict bleeding in AF. The use of GDF-15 as a prognostic marker in clinical practice and its capacity to guide the decision-making process still depends on new studies with larger samples.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Influencing factors of growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15) in the cardiovascular system.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-03-0494-00426-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Bruna Miers May, from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de: Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> .There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
