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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">RdXYRrH6pHzkFKywF4HCN5G</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021000200248</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20190403</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20190403</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Galectina-3 Associada a Formas Graves e Mortalidade em Longo Prazo em Pacientes com Doen&#231;a de Chagas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn_ast1">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4187-5482</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Henrique Valente</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn_ast1">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Lea Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza-Basqueira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ianni</surname>
            <given-names>Barbara Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lorenzo</surname>
            <given-names>Claudia di</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2437-2485</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ramires</surname>
            <given-names>Felix Jos&#233; Alvarez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nastari</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cunha-Neto</surname>
            <given-names>Edecio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2740-0042</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio L.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Renato Delascio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Keating</surname>
            <given-names>Sheila M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sabino</surname>
            <given-names>Ester Cerdeira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8838-199X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mady</surname>
            <given-names>Charles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP- Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Infectologia Emilio Ribas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Infectologia Emilio Ribas, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Centro de Telessa&#250;de</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - Centro de Telessa&#250;de - Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Belo Horizonte, MG - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Duke University Hospital</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Durham</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">North Carolina</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Duke University Hospital, Durham, North Carolina - EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Blood Systems Research Institute</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">San Francisco</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Calif&#243;rnia</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, Calif&#243;rnia &#8211; EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: F&#225;bio Fernandes &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Av. Dr. Eneas C. Aguiar, 44. CEP 05403-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>fabio.fernandes@incor.usp.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Fernandes F, Moreira CHV, Ianni BM, Ramires FJA, Nastari L, Cunha-Neto E, Ribeiro AL, Sabino EC, Mady C; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Fernandes F, Moreira CHV, Oliveira LC, Souza-Basqueira M, di Lorenzo C, Nastari L, Ribeiro AL, Keating SM, Sabino EC; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Fernandes F, Moreira CHV, Oliveira LC, Souza-Basqueira M, Ianni BM, di Lorenzo C, Ramires FJA, Lopes RD, Keating SM, Sabino EC, Mady C; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Moreira CHV, Ianni BM; Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Fernandes F, Ramires FJA, Nastari L, Sabino EC, Mady C; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Fernandes F, Moreira CHV, Ianni BM, Ramires FJA, Lopes RD, Sabino EC, Mady C; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Fernandes F, Moreira CHV, di Lorenzo C, Cunha-Neto E, Lopes RD, Sabino EC, Mady C.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="con" id="fn_ast1">
          <label>*</label>
          <p> Ambos os autores contribu&#237;ram igualmente como primeiro autor.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>01</day>
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>116</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>248</fpage>
      <lpage>256</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> As caracter&#237;sticas histopatol&#243;gicas da doen&#231;a de Chagas (DCC) s&#227;o: presen&#231;a de miocardite, destrui&#231;&#227;o das fibras card&#237;acas e fibrose mioc&#225;rdica. A Galectina-3 (Gal-3) &#233; um biomarcador envolvido no mecanismo de fibrose e inflama&#231;&#227;o que pode ser &#250;til para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos com DCC por risco.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Nosso objetivo foi avaliar se n&#237;veis elevados de Gal-3 est&#227;o associados a formas graves de cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica (CC) e s&#227;o preditivos de mortalidade.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Estudamos doadores de sangue (DS) positivos para anti-<italic>T. cruzi</italic>: n&#227;o-CC-DS (187 DS sem CC com eletrocardiograma [ECG] e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo [FEVE] normais); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS (46 DS com CC e apresentando ECG anormal, mas FEVE normal); e 153 controles negativos correspondentes. Esta amostra foi composta por 97 pacientes com CC grave (CC-Dis). Usamos as correla&#231;&#245;es de Kruskall-Wallis e Spearman para testar a hip&#243;tese de associa&#231;&#245;es, assumindo um p bicaudal &lt;0,05 como significativo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> O n&#237;vel de Gal-3 foi de 12,3 ng/mL para n&#227;o-CC-DS, 12,0 ng/mL para CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS, 13,8 ng/mL para controles e 15,4 ng/mL para CC-Dis. FEVE &lt;50 foi associada a n&#237;veis mais elevados de Gal-3 (p=0,0001). Em nosso modelo de regress&#227;o linear ajustado, encontramos associa&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de Gal-3 e os par&#226;metros do ecocardiograma em indiv&#237;duos positivos para <italic>T. cruzi</italic>. Nos pacientes CC-Dis, encontramos uma associa&#231;&#227;o significativa de n&#237;veis mais elevados de Gal-3 (&#8805;15,3 ng/mL) e morte ou transplante card&#237;aco em acompanhamento de cinco anos (Hazard ratio &#8211; HR 3,11; IC95% 1,21&#8211; 8,04; p=0,019).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <p> Em pacientes com CC, n&#237;veis mais elevados de Gal-3 estiveram significativamente associados a formas graves da doen&#231;a e maior taxa de mortalidade em longo prazo, o que significa que pode ser um meio efetivo para identificar pacientes de alto risco. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2021; 116(2):248-256)</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a de Chagas</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Chag&#225;sica</kwd>
        <kwd>Mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Galectina 3</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarcadores</kwd>
        <kwd>Eletrocardiografia/m&#233;todos</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="6"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="30"/>
        <page-count count="9"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica (CC), uma das principais causas de cardiopatia e morte na Am&#233;rica Latina, tem um progn&#243;stico ruim em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;s cardiomiopatias n&#227;o inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O curso natural da doen&#231;a de Chagas (DCC) envolve uma fase aguda, seguida da fase cr&#244;nica. Ainda n&#227;o se sabe, entretanto, quais pacientes t&#234;m maior probabilidade de progredir para as formas graves. Les&#227;o direta pelo parasita, inflama&#231;&#227;o desencadeada pelo sistema imunol&#243;gico e disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica s&#227;o fatores importantes na patog&#234;nese da CC. Quando o tecido card&#237;aco sofre les&#227;o, a fibrose de substitui&#231;&#227;o parece ser uma causa de desorganiza&#231;&#227;o estrutural e geom&#233;trica, e preju&#237;zo funcional do cora&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A galectina-3 (Gal-3) &#233; secretada por macr&#243;fagos ativados e est&#225; envolvida na fibrog&#234;nese da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC). Tal biomarcador foi recentemente associado ao desenvolvimento de IC e mortalidade. Em um modelo experimental de DCC, a Gal-3 promoveu infiltra&#231;&#227;o celular no cora&#231;&#227;o e fibrose.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>,<xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A falta de um bom marcador de infec&#231;&#227;o ativa ou CC incipiente torna o desenvolvimento de novos tratamentos nessa popula&#231;&#227;o um desafio. O uso de biomarcadores que podem prever com precis&#227;o os resultados cl&#237;nicos na CC teria o potencial de orientar a terapia, identificando pacientes com maior risco e que necessitariam de interven&#231;&#227;o mais precoce, intensiva e personalizada.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O objetivo do nosso estudo foi avaliar se n&#237;veis elevados de Gal-3 est&#227;o associados a formas graves da CC e se trata-se de um fator preditivo de mortalidade ou necessidade de transplante card&#237;aco.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Desenho do Estudo</title>
        <p>As amostras foram coletadas durante o <italic>Retrovirus Epidemiology Donor Study-II</italic> (REDS-II),<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> um estudo retrospectivo em que doadores de sangue (DS) soropositivos para <italic>T. cruzi</italic> foram identificados por triagem em bancos de sangue em 1996-2002 (233 da cidade de S&#227;o Paulo), al&#233;m de 153 doadores-controle soronegativo (pareados por ano de doa&#231;&#227;o, idade e sexo). A amostra foi composta por 97 casos de CC previamente diagnosticados pelo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (INCOR) da Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo. De julho de 2008 a outubro de 2010, indiv&#237;duos recrutados (pacientes DS e com CC) preencheram question&#225;rios de sa&#250;de e passaram por avalia&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas, incluindo eletrocardiograma (ECG), ecocardiograma (ECO) e flebotomia com processamento e criopreserva&#231;&#227;o de amostras para subsequentes an&#225;lises cegas em lote de marcadores card&#237;acos, rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) para detec&#231;&#227;o de <italic>T. cruzi</italic> e outros biomarcadores (ver abaixo).</p>
        <p>Primeiro, realizamos um estudo transversal em que participantes positivos para <italic>T. cruzi</italic> preencheram um question&#225;rio e passaram por uma avalia&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica (par&#226;metros laboratoriais, ECG e ECO), resultando em grupos estratificados pelo status da CC. Em seguida, foi realizado um estudo de coorte longitudinal, no qual 97 pacientes soropositivos para <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, portadores de formas cr&#244;nicas e mais graves de CC, foram acompanhados em um servi&#231;o ambulatorial do INCOR, onde havia dados sobre &#8220;tempo at&#233; o evento&#8221;.</p>
        <p>Todas as amostras de sangue foram coletadas em tubos de EDTA e de soro, processadas para detec&#231;&#227;o do parasita ou submetidas &#224; centrifuga&#231;&#227;o e divididas em al&#237;quotas. Todas as amostras foram congeladas no Brasil a -20 &#176;C at&#233; o envio ao Laborat&#243;rio Central REDS-II (<italic>Blood Systems Research Institute</italic>, San Francisco, CA) em gelo seco e mantidas a -70 &#176;C.</p>
        <p>Foram criados quatro grupos: um grupo controle soronegativo e tr&#234;s grupos soropositivos para <italic>T. cruzi</italic>: DS sem cardiomiopatia, apresentando ECG normal e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda (FEVE) (N&#227;o-CC-DS); DS com CC e apresentando anormalidades no ECG, mas fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica normal (CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS); e participantes com CC e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda (CC-Dis). A disfun&#231;&#227;o foi definida como FEVE &lt;50% identificada no ECO.</p>
        <p>Os dados relativos &#224; an&#225;lise de tempo at&#233; o evento estavam dispon&#237;veis apenas para os indiv&#237;duos do grupo CC-Dis. De julho a setembro de 2015, procedemos com a an&#225;lise do prontu&#225;rio e liga&#231;&#245;es para os pacientes com CC-Dis para monitorar eventos e anotar as respectivas datas.</p>
        <p>Os comit&#234;s de &#233;tica locais aprovaram o protocolo do estudo e todos os participantes assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Procedimentos PCR</title>
        <p>Coletamos de cada participante 20 mL de sangue anticoagulado com EDTA que foram imediatamente misturados com igual volume de solu&#231;&#227;o de cloridrato de guanidina 6M/EDTA -0,2 M. O teste de PCR em tempo real de captura de alvo utilizado neste estudo foi desenvolvido com base no m&#233;todo PCR descrito por Virreira et al.,<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup> visando o DNA do minic&#237;rculo mitocondrial do cinetoplasto <italic>T. cruzi</italic>. A extra&#231;&#227;o do DNA foi aprimorada com uma etapa de captura do alvo usando esferas magn&#233;ticas revestidas com um oligonucleot&#237;deo de captura 20-mer espec&#237;fico para <italic>T. cruzi</italic>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medidas Card&#237;acas</title>
        <p>Foram registrados ECGs de repouso de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es (eletrocardi&#243;grafo General Electric MAC 1200; GE Healthcare, Waukesha, WI).<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>,<xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os ecocardiogramas foram realizados em aparelho de ultrassom Sequoia<sup>TM</sup> 512 (Acuson, Mountain View, CA), de acordo com as diretrizes da American Society of Echocardiography.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>,<xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup> Os estudos foram gravados em formato digital e todas as medidas foram feitas em loops digitais, em uma esta&#231;&#227;o de an&#225;lise offline Digisonics (software vers&#227;o 3.2; Digisonics, Houston, TX) no laborat&#243;rio de ecocardiografia do departamento cardiovascular, no <italic>National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute</italic> (Bethesda, MD).<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarcadores Sol&#250;veis</title>
        <p>Biomarcadores associados &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>T. cruzi</italic> foram descritos anteriormente.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Amostras de plasma foram testadas usando kits Milliplex (Millipore) com gr&#226;nulos revestidos de anticorpo para detec&#231;&#227;o do fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;), interleucina (IL) 6 (IL-6), IL-8, IL-10 e interferon gama (IFN&#947;). Curvas e amostras-padr&#227;o foram testadas em duplicata. Os resultados foram adquiridos em um analisador Labscan 200 (Luminex) usando o software gerenciador Bio-Plex v6.1 (Bio-Rad). O IFN- esteve, na maioria dos casos, abaixo do limiar de detec&#231;&#227;o (57%).</p>
        <p>As concentra&#231;&#245;es de pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico do tipo B (NT-proBNP) e troponina foram medidas em testes aprovados pela Food and Drug Administration (FDA) no Sistema VITROS (Ortho Clinical Diagnostics, Raritan, NJ).</p>
        <p>Os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de Gal-3 foram determinados por um teste de fluoresc&#234;ncia ligada &#224; enzima e medidos em um sistema BioMerieux Vidas 30 (BioMerieux, Marcy l&#8217;Etoile, Lyon, Fran&#231;a), seguindo as recomenda&#231;&#245;es do fabricante.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise Estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>A normalidade foi avaliada pelo teste de Shapiro-Wilk. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas sem distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foram: idade, n&#237;veis de Gal-3, fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e outros biomarcadores card&#237;acos e inflamat&#243;rios, todos expressos em mediana e intervalo interquartil. As diferen&#231;as entre os grupos quanto &#224;s vari&#225;veis foram comparadas com o teste de Kruskal-Wallis, enquanto o teste do qui-quadrado ou de Fisher e a regress&#227;o log&#237;stica foram usados para avaliar o tipo e a distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis. As classifica&#231;&#245;es na an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia de um crit&#233;rio e an&#225;lise post-hoc foram feitas por meio do teste de Dunn para avaliar as diferen&#231;as de valores medianos entre os grupos com ajuste de Bonferroni para compara&#231;&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas. As correla&#231;&#245;es foram analisadas pela correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman, reportando-se valores de p.</p>
        <p>Curvas de caracter&#237;sticas de opera&#231;&#227;o do receptor (curva ROC) foram criadas para as vari&#225;veis Gal-3 e NT-proBNP para otimizar a defini&#231;&#227;o do ponto de corte que melhor discriminaria o evento durante o acompanhamento, e foi identificada uma &#225;rea sob a curva ROC (AUC). Ambas foram comparadas pelos testes DeLong e qui-quadrado.</p>
        <p>Para a an&#225;lise de tempo at&#233; o evento, o grupo CC-Dis foi dividido em dois perfis em rela&#231;&#227;o aos valores de corte para Gal-3 e NT-proBNP: Gal-3 ou NT-proBNP baixos (&#8804; valor de corte) e Gal-3 ou NT-proBNP altos (&#8805; valor de corte). A incid&#234;ncia de eventos cumulativos nos estratos Gal-3 e NT-proBNP e o valor aditivo de Gal-3 em rela&#231;&#227;o ao NT-proBNP foram analisados por um m&#233;todo semelhante a Kaplan-Meier, seguido do teste log-rank.</p>
        <p>Modelos de regress&#227;o de risco proporcional de Cox bivariados e multivariados foram constru&#237;dos para avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o dos valores de Gal-3 e NT-proBNP (abaixo <italic>versus </italic>acima ou igual ao valor de corte) com incidentes e eventos. Os modelos foram ajustados para sexo, idade, creatinina s&#233;rica, classifica&#231;&#227;o da New York Heart Association (NYHA) e FEVE; Intervalos de confian&#231;a de 95% (IC) foram usados para representar a associa&#231;&#227;o de cada marcador com os eventos no modelo final de risco proporcional de Cox ajustado. A sensibilidade foi analisada usando os valores de Gal-3 e NT-proBNP como vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas. Valor de p&lt;0,05 bicaudal foi considerado significativo.</p>
        <p>Todos os gr&#225;ficos e an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram feitos no software Stata (vers&#227;o 13.0, Stata Corp., College Station, TX).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>Dos 570 participantes originais do REDS-II, 483 tinham amostras dispon&#237;veis para o teste Gal-3; 153 eram negativos para <italic>T. cruzi</italic> e os demais foram classificados em tr&#234;s grupos: 187 N&#227;o-CC-DS apresentando ECG e FEVE normais; 46 CC-n&#227;o-Dis; e 97 CC-Dis (<xref rid="f01" ref-type="fig">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Fluxograma de inclus&#227;o.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>
            <italic>CC: cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica; N&#227;o-CC-DS: doadores de sangue com sorologia positiva para T. cruzi e sem cardiomiopatia, apresentando eletrocardiograma (ECG) e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE) normais; CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS: doadores de sangue com sorologia positiva para T. cruzi apresentando anormalidades no ECG e FEVE normal em repouso; CC-Dis: pacientes com sorologia positiva para T. cruzi e CC, com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda.</italic>
          </attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-02-0248-90403-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>Caracter&#237;sticas Cl&#237;nicas e Biomarcadores dos Pacientes</title>
        <p>As caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas e cl&#237;nicas est&#227;o descritas na <xref rid="t1" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref>. Os n&#237;veis de Gal-3 estavam mais altos nos pacientes do grupo CC-Dis, em compara&#231;&#227;o com outros grupos cl&#237;nicos. N&#237;veis mais elevados de Gal-3 tamb&#233;m foram observados nos controles quando comparados aos n&#227;o-CC-DS. N&#227;o observamos diferen&#231;as significativas nos n&#237;veis de Gal-3 entre N&#227;o-CC-DS e CC-n&#227;o-Dis-DS, ou entre CC-n&#227;o-Dis-DS e controles. Marcadores inflamat&#243;rios (TNF-&#945;, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10), bem como biomarcadores associados &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o ou dano card&#237;aco (NT-proBNP e troponina) estavam elevados em pacientes com CC-Dis em compara&#231;&#227;o aos outros grupos (<xref rid="t1" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Achados cl&#237;nicos, laboratoriais e ecocardiogr&#225;ficos</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>N&#227;o-CC-DS</th>
                  <th>CC-n&#227;o-Dis-DS</th>
                  <th>CC-Dis</th>
                  <th>Controles</th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>n=187 (38,6%)</th>
                  <th>n=46 (9,5%)</th>
                  <th>n=97 (20,2%)</th>
                  <th>n=153 (31,6%)</th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal">valor de p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Idade (anos)</td>
                  <td align="center">49 [41-58]</td>
                  <td align="center">50 [44-59]</td>
                  <td align="center">48,5 [43-54]</td>
                  <td align="center">48 [42-55]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,20</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Masculino, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">110 (58,8)</td>
                  <td align="center">29 (63)</td>
                  <td align="center">59 (60,2)</td>
                  <td align="center">89 (58,2)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,39</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">63 [60-65]</td>
                  <td align="center">60 [55-65]</td>
                  <td align="center">30 [20-40]</td>
                  <td align="center">64 [60-65]</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0,001*</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Biomarcadores card&#237;acos</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Galectina-3 (ng/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">12,3 [10-15,4]</td>
                  <td align="center">12,0 [9,5-14,9]</td>
                  <td align="center">15,4 [11,8-19,8]</td>
                  <td align="center">13,8 [11,2-16,2]</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0,001<sup>&#8224;</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>NT-proBNP (pg/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">40,6 [23,6-66,8]</td>
                  <td align="center">59 [35,0-109,1]</td>
                  <td align="center">748 [379,20-2223,41]</td>
                  <td align="center">27,5 [19,3-48,1]</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0,001<sup>&#8225;</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Troponina</td>
                  <td align="center">0,012 [0,01-0,012]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,012 [0,012-0,015]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,021 [0,12-0,03]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,012 [0,012-0,012]</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0,001<sup>&#167;</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Marcadores inflamat&#243;rios</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TNF-&#945;</td>
                  <td align="center">2,94 [1,64-4,59]</td>
                  <td align="center">3,02 [1,25-4,69]</td>
                  <td align="center">3,65 [2,57-5,52]</td>
                  <td align="center">2,84 [1,62-3,91]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,002<sup>#</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IL-6</td>
                  <td align="center">0,69 [0,32-1,63]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,77 [0,32-1,8]</td>
                  <td align="center">1,60 [0,64-3,13]</td>
                  <td align="center">1,14 [0,32-1,7]</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0,001**</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IL-8</td>
                  <td align="center">1,61 [0,95-2,79]</td>
                  <td align="center">1,53 [0,99-2,5]</td>
                  <td align="center">2,23 [1,38-3,2]</td>
                  <td align="center">1,44 [0,95-2,54]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,003<sup>&#8224;&#8224;</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IL-10</td>
                  <td align="center">1,28 [0,32-4]</td>
                  <td align="center">2,02 [0,32-4,11]</td>
                  <td align="center">4,37 [1,62-8,06]</td>
                  <td align="center">1,22 [0,32-3,35]</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0,001<sup>&#8225;&#8225;</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IFN-&#947;</td>
                  <td align="center">0,32 [0,32-0,64]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,32 [0,32-0,84]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,32 [0,32-1,07]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,32 [0,32-0,39]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,06</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Carga parasit&#225;ria</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                  <td align="center"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Estimativa do parasita por 20mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0,05 [0-2,5]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,68 [0,03-5,47]</td>
                  <td align="center">1,77 [0,16-5]</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0,001<sup>&#167;&#167;</sup></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>
                  <italic>Valores de p foram reportados para os testes de hip&#243;tese post-hoc de Kruskal-Wallis e Dunn.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>
                  <italic>Mediana [intervalo interquartil] reportada para todos os biomarcadores testados. N&#227;o-CC-DS, doadores de sangue sem cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica; CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS, doadores de sangue com cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica; CC-Dis, pacientes com cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica e disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca; NT-proBNP, N-terminal do pr&#243;-horm&#244;nio do pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico do tipo B; TNF, fator de necrose tumoral; IL, interleucina; IFN, interferon. </italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>
                  <italic>* Diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa nos n&#237;veis de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o entre N&#227;o-CC-DS /CC-Dis (p&lt;0.001); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS/CC-Dis (p&lt;0,001); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS/controles (p=0,042); CC-Dis/controles (p&lt;0,001). </italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <p>
                  <italic>&#8224;Diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa nos n&#237;veis de Gal-3 entre N&#227;o-CC-DS/CC-Dis (p&lt;0,001); N&#227;o-CC-DS/controles (p=0,010); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS/CC-Dis (p&lt;0,001); CC-Dis/controles (p=0,028).</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN5">
                <p>
                  <italic>&#8225;Diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa nos n&#237;veis de NT-proBNP entre N&#227;o-CC-DS/CC-Dis (p&lt;0,001); N&#227;o-CC-DS/controles (p=0.004); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS/CC-Dis (p&lt;0,001); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS/controles (p&lt;0,001); CC-Dis/controles (p&lt;0,001). </italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN6">
                <p>
                  <italic>&#167; Diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa nos n&#237;veis de troponina entre N&#227;o-CC-DS/CC-Dis (p=0,024); N&#227;o-CC-DS/CC-controles (p&lt;0,001); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS/CC-Dis (p&lt;0,001); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS/controles (&lt;0,001); CC-Dis/controles (p&lt;0,001).</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN7">
                <p>
                  <italic>#Diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa nos n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; entre N&#227;o-CC-DS/CC-Dis (p=0,019); CC-Dis/controles (p&lt;0,001).</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN8">
                <p>
                  <italic>**Diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa nos n&#237;veis de IL-6 entre N&#227;o-CC-DS/CC-Dis (p&lt;0,001); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS/CC-Dis (p=0,032); CC-Dis/controles (p=0,004). </italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN9">
                <p>
                  <italic>&#8224;&#8224;Diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa nos n&#237;veis de IL-8 entre N&#227;o-CC-DS/CC-Dis (p=0,016); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS/CC-Dis (p=0,039); CC-Dis/controles (p=0,001).a </italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN10">
                <p>
                  <italic>&#8225;&#8225; Diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa nos n&#237;veis de IL-10 entre N&#227;o-CC-DS/CC-Dis (p&lt;0,001); CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS/CC-Dis (p=0,001); CC-Dis/controles (p&lt;0,001).</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN11">
                <p>
                  <italic>&#167;&#167; Diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa na estimativa do parasita por 20mL entre N&#227;o-CC-DS/CC-Dis (p=0,011); N&#227;o-CC-DS/controles (p&lt;0,001).</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>A PCR positiva para <italic>T. cruzi</italic> indicou diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos N&#227;o-CC-DS e CC: CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS (p=0,010) e CC-Dis. Por outro lado, n&#227;o foi observada diferen&#231;a na parasitemia ao comparar os grupos CC-N&#227;o-Dis-DS e CC-Dis (<xref rid="t1" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref>). Tamb&#233;m n&#227;o encontramos diferen&#231;a significativa em pacientes com CC-Dis entre a PCR para <italic>T. cruzi</italic> e a ocorr&#234;ncia do evento. Nenhuma associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre PCR para <italic>T. cruzi</italic> e Gal-3 foi encontrada.</p>
        <p>A correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman foi aplicada entre os indiv&#237;duos infectados por <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, para avaliar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre Gal-3 e biomarcadores card&#237;acos, mediadores inflamat&#243;rios e carga parasit&#225;ria. Houve uma correla&#231;&#227;o fraca para TNF-&#945; (rs=0,25, p&lt;0,001) e IL-8 (rs=0,22, p&lt;0,001). Nenhuma associa&#231;&#227;o entre Gal-3 e troponina, NT-proBNP, IL-6, IL-10, IFN&#947;, ou com carga parasit&#225;ria foi observada.</p>
        <p>O ecocardiograma foi realizado, correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman, para verificar qualquer rela&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de Gal-3 e par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos em pacientes infectados por <italic>T. cruzi</italic>. Nenhuma correla&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significativa moderada ou forte foi encontrada entre os n&#237;veis de Gal-3 e o di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (DDFVE) (rs=0,09, p=0,07), dimens&#227;o sist&#243;lica final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (DSFVE) (rs=0,11, p=0,03), FEVE (rs=-0,16, p=0,001), di&#226;metro do &#225;trio esquerdo (rs=0,11, p=0,02), volume atrial esquerdo indexado &#224; &#225;rea de superf&#237;cie corporal (rs=0,09, p=0,18), &#225;rea do &#225;trio direito (rs=0,032, p=0,53) e rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8217; septal (rs=0,135, p=0,009).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sobreviv&#234;ncia e An&#225;lise de Risco</title>
        <p>Os dados sobre tempo at&#233; o evento estavam dispon&#237;veis para 97 pacientes, com seguimento m&#233;dio de 51,2 &#177; 10,8 meses e mediana de 58 meses (varia&#231;&#227;o: 8 a 60 meses). Foram observados eventos em 28 pacientes (29%): tr&#234;s (10,8%) transplantes card&#237;acos e 25 (89,2%) &#243;bitos por todas as causas. Entre os pacientes envolvidos em eventos, as concentra&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dias de Gal-3 e NT-pro-BNP foram significativamente maiores, enquanto a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o foi significativamente menor. Idade, sexo, classe NYHA&gt;I, fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o na ecocardiografia e dados laboratoriais de pacientes com evento relatado est&#227;o na <xref rid="t2" ref-type="table">Tabela 2</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Informa&#231;&#245;es demogr&#225;ficas e laboratoriais dos pacientes com CC-Dis segundo &#243;bito ou transplante card&#237;aco</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>Sem eventos</th>
                  <th>Eventos</th>
                  <th rowspan="2">valor de p</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>(n=69)</th>
                  <th>(n=28)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Idade (anos)</td>
                  <td align="center">49 [42-54]</td>
                  <td align="center">47,5 [44,5-52]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,96</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Masculino, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">42 (61%)</td>
                  <td align="center">16 (57%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,73</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Creatinina (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">1,01 [0,85-1,14]</td>
                  <td align="center">1,14 [0,87-1,23]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,06</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">35 [25-40]</td>
                  <td align="center">20 [20-30]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>NYHA &gt;1</td>
                  <td align="center">29</td>
                  <td align="center">20</td>
                  <td align="center">0,009</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Galectina-3 (ng/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">14,4 [10,9-19,1]</td>
                  <td align="center">18,5 [14,7-23,4]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,005</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Baixo</td>
                  <td align="center">39</td>
                  <td align="center">7</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Alto</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                  <td align="center">21</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>NT-proBNP (pg/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">542 [281-1337]</td>
                  <td align="center">2643 [1047-4771]</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="3">&lt;0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Baixo</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                  <td align="center">7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Alto</td>
                  <td align="center">19</td>
                  <td align="center">21</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Estimativa parasit&#225;ria*</td>
                  <td align="center">1,77 [0,19-4,2]</td>
                  <td align="center">1,25 [0,16-12,61]</td>
                  <td align="center">0,08</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN12">
                <p>
                  <italic>Mediana [25&#186;, 75&#186; percentil) por morte ou transplante de cora&#231;&#227;o como resultado. CC-Dis: pacientes com sorologia positiva para T. cruzi e CC com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda; NT-proBNP: N-terminal do pr&#243;-horm&#244;nio do pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico do tipo B; NYHA: New York Heart Association. Galectina-3 baixa = &lt;15,3 ng/mL; NT-proBNP baixo = &lt;1278 pg/mL. *Carga parasit&#225;ria por 20mL.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>O valor de corte da Gal-3 (&lt;15,3 ng/mL) pela curva ROC foi usado para dividir os indiv&#237;duos CC-Dis em dois estratos (n&#237;veis baixo e alto), assim como o valor de corte de NT-proBNP (&lt;1278 pg/mL). A curva ROC identificou o potencial de se alcan&#231;ar um evento. Embora a AUC do NT-proBNP fosse maior do que a AUC da Gal-3, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as (p=0,22).</p>
        <p>Ap&#243;s o ajuste para sexo, idade, fun&#231;&#227;o renal, classe funcional da NYHA&gt; I e FEVE, encontramos uma associa&#231;&#227;o significativa de n&#237;veis mais elevados de Gal-3 com eventos subsequentes em acompanhamento de cinco anos (<xref rid="t3" ref-type="table">Tabela 3</xref> e <xref rid="f02" ref-type="fig">Figura 2</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, o risco de eventos tamb&#233;m aumentou &#224; medida que os n&#237;veis de NT-proBNP aumentaram (<xref rid="t3" ref-type="table">Tabela 3</xref>). Resultados semelhantes foram observados quando Gal-3 e NT-proBNP (por aumento de 100 unidades) foram analisados como vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas (Ap&#234;ndice).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Associa&#231;&#227;o entre galectina-3 e morte ou transplante card&#237;aco no subgrupo CC-Dis, analisada por meio de modelos de regress&#227;o Cox e curva ROC, ambos brutos e ajustados para idade, sexo, n&#237;vel de creatinina s&#233;rica, classe funcional NYHA&gt;I e LVEF, e usando Galectina -3 e NT-proBNP como vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th align="left" colspan="2">Modelo bruto</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Modelo ajustado</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">AUC</th>
                  <th align="left">Valor de corte</th>
                  <th align="left">N&#237;vel de corte</th>
                  <th align="left">p</th>
                  <th align="left">RR (IC95%)</th>
                  <th align="left">p</th>
                  <th align="left">RR (IC95%)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">Galectina-3 (ng/mL)</td>
                  <td>0,71</td>
                  <td>15,3</td>
                  <td>Baixo</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td>Alto</td>
                  <td>0,007</td>
                  <td>3,27 (1,39-7,71)</td>
                  <td>0,04</td>
                  <td>2,63 (1,00-6,90)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">NT-proBNP (pg/mL)</td>
                  <td>0,80</td>
                  <td>1278</td>
                  <td>Baixo</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td>Alto</td>
                  <td>&lt;0,001</td>
                  <td>5,69 (2,41-13,42)</td>
                  <td>0,02</td>
                  <td>3,44 (1,21-9,78)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN13">
                <p>
                  <italic>AUC: &#225;rea sob a curva ROC; IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a; RR: raz&#227;o de risco; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; NT-proBNP: N-terminal do pr&#243;-horm&#244;nio do pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico do tipo B; NYHA: New York Heart Association; ROC: curva caracter&#237;stica de opera&#231;&#227;o do receptor.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Curvas de tempo at&#233; o evento entre os n&#237;veis de Gal-3. Curvas de tempo at&#233; o evento entre n&#237;veis estratificados de Gal-3 em CC-Dis. Valor de corte: Gal-3 &lt;15,3 ng/mL.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-02-0248-90403-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Entre os pacientes que apresentam n&#237;veis mais elevados de Gal-3, houve diferen&#231;as nos eventos quando dicotomizados com ambos os estratos de NT-proBNP: os pacientes com n&#237;veis de NT-proBNP adicionalmente elevados tiveram probabilidade maior de evento do que os pacientes com NT-proBNP baixo. Al&#233;m disso, os pacientes nos estratos de Gal-3 mais baixos, quando dicotomizados pelos n&#237;veis de NT-proBNP, foram mais propensos a qualquer evento quando o NT-proBNP era mais alto (<xref rid="f03" ref-type="fig">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Taxas de eventos em 5 anos em fun&#231;&#227;o das concentra&#231;&#245;es de Gal-3 e NT-proBNP entre pacientes com CC. A porcentagem de pacientes que experimentaram algum evento &#233; mostrada para cada grupo. Gal-3 baixa: valores &lt;15,3 ng/mL; Gal-3 alta: valores &#8805;15,3 ng/mL; NT-proBNP baixo: valores &lt;1.278 pg/mL; NT-proBNP alto: valores &#8805;1.278 pg/mL.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-02-0248-90403-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Pacientes nos estratos mais altos de Gal-3 e NT-proBNP tiveram um risco 11 a 16 vezes maior de evento em compara&#231;&#227;o com pacientes com os n&#237;veis de biomarcadores mais baixos (RR n&#227;o ajustado, 16,22; IC95%: 3,71-70,83; p&lt;0,001; RR ajustada, 11,39; IC95%: 1,97&#8211;65,76; p=0,007). Indiv&#237;duos com Gal-3 baixa e NT-proBNP baixo tiveram as taxas de eventos mais baixas.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>N&#237;veis aumentados de Gal-3 foi um fator significativamente associado a formas graves de DCC e preditivo de morbidade/mortalidade subsequente.</p>
      <p>Gal-3 &#233; um biomarcador emergente que modula v&#225;rios processos fisiol&#243;gicos que contribuem para a IC, inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>-<xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> A inflama&#231;&#227;o &#233; um pr&#233;-requisito para a recupera&#231;&#227;o do tecido e forma&#231;&#227;o de cicatriz,<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref></sup> e a Gal-3 teve um papel importante como mediador em infec&#231;&#245;es parasit&#225;rias, virais<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>,<xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> e bacterianas revelado.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> Na DCC, estudos experimentais mostraram que a Gal-3 tem express&#227;o regulada positivamente ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>T. cruzi</italic> em c&#233;lulas dendr&#237;ticas, c&#233;lulas B<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>,<xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup> e macr&#243;fagos CD68+. Os macr&#243;fagos CD68+ representam 50% do infiltrado de c&#233;lulas mononucleares em cora&#231;&#245;es com CC.<sup><xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O <italic>T. cruzi</italic> e v&#225;rios mecanismos imunomediados t&#234;m um envolvimento direto na CC. Estudos anteriores reportaram que a Gal-3 se liga ao 45KD, aumentando sua ades&#227;o &#224; matriz extracelular e at&#233; mesmo sua entrada nas c&#233;lulas. Outros estudos j&#225; demonstraram a import&#226;ncia da Gal-3 no processo inicial de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, pois ela permite que o parasita se acumule na matriz extracelular antes de invadir as c&#233;lulas hospedeiras.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>,<xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um modelo experimental de infec&#231;&#227;o aguda por <italic>T. cruzi </italic>mostrou que a indu&#231;&#227;o de miocardite estava associada &#224; suprarregula&#231;&#227;o de Col I, Gal-3, IFN- e IL-13.21 A Gal-3 foi detectada principalmente em c&#233;lulas intersticiais e em n&#237;veis mais altos em &#225;reas fibr&#243;ticas. Nas &#225;reas de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica, a intensidade da miocardite e o remodelamento extracelular significativo da matriz foram correlacionados com a presen&#231;a de Col I e Gal-3. Al&#233;m disso, os miofibroblastos podem induzir a fibrose, que resulta em rigidez mioc&#225;rdica e disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. &#201; importante ressaltar que os miofibroblastos tamb&#233;m s&#227;o uma fonte significativa de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, incluindo TNF- e IL-1, que t&#234;m um conhecido efeito delet&#233;rio no mioc&#225;rdio. No entanto, n&#227;o encontramos nenhuma associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre Gal-3 e marcadores inflamat&#243;rios.</p>
      <p>Sabino et al.,<sup><xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref></sup> compararam a detec&#231;&#227;o do DNA do T<italic>. cruzi</italic> com marcadores cl&#237;nicos e laboratoriais conhecidos de gravidade da CC e observaram que a presen&#231;a de parasitemia estava associada a marcadores de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a, como dura&#231;&#227;o do intervalo QRS e QT, menor FEVE e eleva&#231;&#227;o de n&#237;veis de troponina e NT-proBNP. Observou-se, tamb&#233;m, que a detec&#231;&#227;o do DNA do <italic>T. cruzi</italic> foi significativamente maior nos pacientes com cardiomiopatia em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo N&#227;o-CC-DS; entretanto, a PCR para <italic>T. cruzi</italic> n&#227;o se correlacionou com a Gal-3. Tamb&#233;m n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa na detec&#231;&#227;o do DNA do <italic>T. cruzi</italic> entre pacientes com CC com e sem disfun&#231;&#227;o, nem entre pacientes com CC que experimentaram ou n&#227;o eventos. Assim, em nosso estudo, o parasitismo foi um marcador de altera&#231;&#245;es t&#237;picas da cardiomiopatia no ECG, mas n&#227;o da gravidade da doen&#231;a ou do progn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico.</p>
      <p>De Boer et al.,<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> sugeriram que a Gal-3 provavelmente representa um fen&#243;tipo &#250;nico de alto risco para o desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o de IC ou outras doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Eleva&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas da Gal-3 induzem fibrog&#234;nese ativa e podem provocar remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca patol&#243;gica. De Boer et al.<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m levantaram a hip&#243;tese de que pacientes com esse fen&#243;tipo de superexpress&#227;o de Gal-3 s&#227;o mais propensos a ter uma via &#8220;fibrog&#234;nica&#8221; para a remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Em nosso estudo, n&#237;veis elevados de Gal-3 foram associados &#224; forma mais grave de cardiomiopatia, mas sem uma forte associa&#231;&#227;o com par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos. Assim, os n&#237;veis de Gal-3 definiram uma popula&#231;&#227;o com doen&#231;a mais grave, caracterizada por disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica esquerda, maior di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico esquerdo e direito e n&#237;veis elevados de NT-proBNP e troponina.</p>
      <p>Echeverria et al.,<sup><xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref></sup> examinaram o valor diagn&#243;stico de um painel de biomarcadores para distinguir a gravidade da CC e n&#227;o encontraram associa&#231;&#245;es entre os n&#237;veis de sST2 e Gal-3. No entanto, a amostra era pequena e n&#227;o incluiu pacientes com est&#225;dio A (<italic>T. cruzi</italic> positivo, mas ECG e ecocardiografia normais), o que poderia ter permitido uma an&#225;lise do papel dos biomarcadores em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, j&#225; que eles tamb&#233;m n&#227;o fornecem qualquer informa&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica de Gal-3.</p>
      <p>Encontramos n&#237;veis de Gal-3 mais elevados no grupo controle em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo N&#227;o-CC-DS. No entanto, os valores foram menores em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo CC-Dis. Sabe-se, desde os estudos pioneiros de Carlos Chagas,<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup> que at&#233; 60% dos pacientes infectados n&#227;o apresentam evid&#234;ncias que sugiram envolvimento cardiovascular ou gastrointestinal. Acredita-se que esses indiv&#237;duos tenham a forma denominada &#8220;indeterminada&#8221;, definida em nosso estudo como N&#227;o-CC-DS. Como resultado, a sobrevida nesse grupo de pacientes parece ser compar&#225;vel &#224; da popula&#231;&#227;o geral. Nossos resultados mostraram baixos n&#237;veis de Gal-3 neste grupo, o que suporta este conceito.</p>
      <p>O fen&#243;tipo da galectina-3 &#233; um fator importante no in&#237;cio e progress&#227;o da IC. Sabe-se que pacientes com IC com baixos n&#237;veis de Gal-3 t&#234;m progress&#227;o lenta e resultados melhores do que pacientes com IC e altos n&#237;veis de Gal-3.<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>,<xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup>Mostrou-se que a Gal-3 pode prever o desenvolvimento de mortalidade por todas as causas e IC na popula&#231;&#227;o geral,<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup> al&#233;m de ser usada para definir e identificar pacientes com IC em risco muito baixo de mortalidade em 30 e 180 dias, e de reinterna&#231;&#245;es por IC ap&#243;s um epis&#243;dio agudo.29 Uma metan&#225;lise feita por Chen et al.30 relatou a Gal-3 s&#233;rica como fator preditor de mortalidade por todas as causas e mortalidade cardiovascular em pacientes com IC.<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O achado mais surpreendente de nosso estudo foi a rela&#231;&#227;o entre a Gal-3 e o risco de eventos entre pacientes com CC. Como Gal-3 e NT-proBNP foram preditores independentes de eventos adversos, tamb&#233;m mostramos que o aumento de ambos os marcadores estava associado &#224;s taxas mais altas de morte ou transplante card&#237;aco em pacientes com CC.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es do Estudo</title>
        <p>Este foi um estudo realizado em um &#250;nico centro, com uma amostra relativamente pequena. Al&#233;m disso, fizemos apenas uma medida pontual de Gal-3 e NT-proBNP e, portanto, n&#227;o avaliamos mudan&#231;as din&#226;micas nesses biomarcadores ao longo do tempo. Outra limita&#231;&#227;o foi a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de testes n&#227;o param&#233;tricos para analisar associa&#231;&#245;es entre vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas, resultando em perda de efici&#234;ncia.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>N&#237;veis elevados de Gal-3 no plasma foram significativamente associados &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e gravidade da CC. Nossos resultados sugerem que uma abordagem baseada em biomarcadores para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco em pacientes com DCC pode ajudar os m&#233;dicos a identificar pacientes com maior probabilidade resultados desfavor&#225;veis e, potencialmente, gui&#225;-los no desenvolvimento de estrat&#233;gias de tratamento para este grupo de alto risco.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>Agradecemos a Biomerieux pela doa&#231;&#227;o dos kits de Galectina-3.</p>
    </ack>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>* Material suplementar</p>
        <p>Para informa&#231;&#227;o adicional, por favor, clique aqui.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>.O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Galectin-3 Associated with Severe Forms and Long-term Mortality in Patients with Chagas Disease</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn_ast1001">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4187-5482</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Henrique Valente</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn_ast1001">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Lea Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza-Basqueira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ianni</surname>
            <given-names>Barbara Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lorenzo</surname>
            <given-names>Claudia di</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2437-2485</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ramires</surname>
            <given-names>Felix Jos&#233; Alvarez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nastari</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cunha-Neto</surname>
            <given-names>Edecio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2740-0042</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio L.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Renato Delascio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Keating</surname>
            <given-names>Sheila M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sabino</surname>
            <given-names>Ester Cerdeira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8838-199X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mady</surname>
            <given-names>Charles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP- Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Infectologia Emilio Ribas, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - Centro de Telessa&#250;de - Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Belo Horizonte, MG - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Duke University Hospital, Durham, North Carolina - EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, Calif&#243;rnia &#8211; EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing Address: F&#225;bio Fernandes</bold> &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Av. Dr. Eneas C. Aguiar, 44. Postal Code 05403-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: fabio.fernandes@incor.usp.br </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Fernandes F, Moreira CHV, Ianni BM, Ramires FJA, Nastari L, Cunha-Neto E, Ribeiro AL, Sabino EC, Mady C; Acquisition of data: Fernandes F, Moreira CHV, Souza-Basqueira M, di Lorenzo C, Nastari L, Ribeiro AL, Keating SM, Sabino EC; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Fernandes F, Moreira CHV, Souza-Basqueira M, Ianni BM, di Lorenzo C, Ramires FJA, Lopes RD, Keating SM, Sabino EC, Mady C; Statistical analysis: Moreira CHV, Ianni BM; Obtaining financing: Fernandes F, Ramires FJA, Nastari L, Sabino EC, Mady C; Writing of the manuscript: Fernandes F, Moreira CHV, Ianni BM, Ramires FJA, Lopes RD, Sabino EC, Mady C; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Fernandes F, Moreira CHV, di Lorenzo C, Cunha-Neto E, Lopes RD, Sabino EC, Mady C.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn_ast1001">
          <label>*</label>
          <p>Both authors contributed equally as first author.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> The histopathological characteristics of Chagas disease (ChD) are: presence of myocarditis, destruction of heart fibers, and myocardial fibrosis. Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is a biomarker involved in the mechanism of fibrosis and inflammation that may be useful for risk stratification of individuals with ChD.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p> We sought to evaluate whether high Gal-3 levels are associated with severe forms of Chagas cardiomyopathy (CC) and whether they are predictive of mortality.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> We studied anti-T. cruzi positive blood donors (BD): Non-CC-BD (187 BD without CC with normal electrocardiogram [ECG] and left ventricular ejection fraction [LVEF]); CC-Non-Dys-BD (46 BD with CC with abnormal ECG but normal LVEF); and 153 matched serum-negative controls. This cohort was composed of 97 patients with severe CC (CC-Dys). We used Kruskall-Wallis and Spearman&#8217;s correlation to test hypothesis of associations, assuming a two-tailed p&lt;0.05 as significant.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> The Gal-3 level was 12.3 ng/mL for Non-CC-BD, 12.0 ng/mL for CC-Non-Dys-BD, 13.8 ng/mL for controls, and 15.4 ng/mL for CC-Dys. LVEF&lt;50 was associated with higher Gal-3 levels (p=0.0001). In our linear regression adjusted model, we found association between Gal-3 levels and echocardiogram parameters in T. cruzi-seropositive subjects. In CC-Dys patients, we found a significant association of higher Gal-3 levels (&#8805;15.3 ng/mL) and subsequent death or heart transplantation in a 5-year follow-up (Hazard ratio &#8211; HR 3.11; 95%CI 1.21&#8211;8.04; p=0.019).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions</title>
          <p> In ChD patients, higher Gal-3 levels were significantly associated with severe forms of the disease and more long-term mortality, which means it may be a useful means to identify high-risk patients. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2021; 116(2):248-256)</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Chagas Disease</kwd>
        <kwd>Chagas, Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
        <kwd>Mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>Galectin-3</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarkers</kwd>
        <kwd>Electrocardiography/methods</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Chagas cardiomyopathy (CC), one of the leading causes of heart disease and death in Latin America, has a poor prognosis compared to noninflammatory cardiomyopathies.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The natural history of Chagas disease (ChD) involves an acute phase, followed by the chronic phase. It is still unknown, however, which patients are more likely to progress to severe forms. Direct parasite injury, inflammation triggered by the immune system, and autonomic dysfunction are role-players in the pathogenesis of CC. When the cardiac tissue is injured, replacement fibrosis appears to be a cause of structural disorganization, geometry, and functional heart impairment.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is secreted by activated macrophages and is involved in the fibrogenesis of heart failure (HF). This biomarker has recently been linked to development of HF and mortality. In an experimental model of ChD, Gal-3 promoted cell infiltration in the heart and fibrosis.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>,<xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The lack of a good marker of active infection or incipient CC makes the development of new treatments in this population a challenge. The use of biomarkers that can accurately predict clinical outcomes in CC would have the potential to guide therapy, by identifying patients at higher risk and who would need an earlier, more intensive, and personalized strategy.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The aim of our study was to evaluate whether high Gal-3 levels are associated with severe forms of CC and whether it is a predictive factor for subsequent mortality or the need for heart transplantation.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study Design</title>
          <p>Samples were collected during the Retrovirus Epidemiology Donor Study-II (REDS-II),<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> a retrospective cohort study in which <italic>T. cruzi</italic>-seropositive blood donors (BD) were identified by screening blood banks in 1996-2002 (233 from the city of Sao Paulo), in addition to 153 serum-negative control BDs (matched by year of donation, age and gender). This cohort of BD was composed of 97 previously diagnosed cases of CC from the Heart Institute (INCOR) of the Medical School of Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo. From July 2008 to October 2010, recruited individuals (BD and CC patients) filled in health questionnaires and went through medical evaluations, including electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiogram (ECHO), and phlebotomy with processing and cryopreservation of samples for subsequent batched blinded analyses of cardiac markers, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detection of <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, and other biomarkers (see below).</p>
          <p>First, we performed a cross-sectional study in which <italic>T. cruzi</italic>-seropositive participants filled in a questionnaire and received a medical evaluation (laboratory, ECG, and ECHO parameters), resulting in groups stratified by CC status. Then, a longitudinal cohort study was carried out, in which 97 <italic>T. cruzi</italic>-seropositive patients suffering from chronic and more severe CC forms were followed up in an outpatient service from INCOR, in which time-to-event data was available.</p>
          <p>All blood samples were collected in EDTA and serum tubes, processed for parasite detection, or submitted to spinning and divided in aliquots. All specimens were frozen in Brazil at -20&#176;C until shipped to the REDS-II Central Laboratory (<italic>Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, CA</italic>) on dry ice and maintained at -70&#176;C.</p>
          <p>Four groups were created: a control serum-negative group and three <italic>T. cruzi</italic> seropositive groups: BD without cardiomyopathy, presenting with normal ECG and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) (Non-CC-BD); BD with CC, presenting with ECG abnormalities but normal systolic function (CC-Non-Dys-BD); and participants with CC and left ventricular dysfunction (CC-Dys). The dysfunction was defined as LVEF &lt;50% upon ECHO.</p>
          <p>Data regarding time-to-event analysis were available only for CC-Dys subjects. From July to September 2015, we proceeded with CC-Dys patients&#8217; chart analysis and phone calls to monitor events and get respective dates.</p>
          <p>The local ethics committees approved the study protocol, and all participants signed an informed consent form.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>PCR Procedures</title>
          <p>From each participant, we collected 20 mL of EDTA-anti-coagulated blood that were immediately mixed with an equal volume of 6 M guanidine hydrochloride -0.2M EDTA solution. The target-capture real-time PCR assay used in this study was developed based on the PCR method described by Virreira et al.,<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup> targeting the kinetoplast <italic>T. cruzi</italic> mitochondrial minicircle DNA. The DNA extraction was improved with a target-capture step using magnetic beads coated with a <italic>T. cruzi</italic>-specific 20-mer capture oligonucleotide.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiac Measurements</title>
          <p>Resting 12-lead ECGs were recorded (<italic>General Electric MAC 1200 electrocardiograph; GE Healthcare, Waukesha, WI</italic>).<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>,<xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Echocardiograms were performed using a Sequoia<sup>TM</sup> 512 ultrasound machine (<italic>Acuson, Mountain View, C</italic>A), per guidelines by the American Society of Echocardiography.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>,<xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup> Studies were recorded in digital format, and all measurements were made on digital loops using a <italic>Digisonics</italic> offline analysis station (<italic>version 3.2 software; Digisonics, Houston, TX</italic>) at the Cardiovascular Branch, Echocardiography Laboratory, of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (<italic>Bethesda, MD</italic>).<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Soluble Biomarkers</title>
          <p>Biomarkers associated with <italic>T. cruzi </italic>infection have been previously described.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Blinded plasma samples were tested using Milliplex kits (<italic>Millipore</italic>) with antibody-coated beads for detection of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;), interleukin (IL) 6 (IL-6), IL-8, IL-10, and interferon gamma (IFN&#947;). Standard curves and samples were tested in duplicate. Results were acquired on a Labscan 200 analyzer (Luminex) using the Bio-Plex manager software v6.1 (Bio-Rad). IFN&#947; was predominantly below the threshold of detection (57%).</p>
          <p>Concentrations of N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptides (NT-proBNPs) and troponin were measured using U.S. Food and Drug Administration-cleared assays on the VITROS System (<italic>Ortho Clinical Diagnostics, Raritan, NJ</italic>).</p>
          <p>Plasma Gal-3 levels were determined by an enzyme-linked fluorescence assay and measured on a BioMerieux Vidas 30 system (<italic>BioMerieux, Marcy l&#8217;Etoile, Lyon, France</italic>), following the manufacturer&#8217;s recommendations.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical Analyses</title>
          <p>Normality was tested with the Shapiro-Wilk test. Continuous non-normally distributed variables were: age, Gal-3 levels, ejection fraction, and other cardiac and inflammatory biomarkers, being expressed as median and interquartile range. Differences between groups as to variables were compared using the Kruskal-Wallis test, while chi-squared or Fisher&#8217;s test and logistic regression were used to assess variable type and distribution. Use of ranks in one-criterion variance analysis and post-hoc analysis was made with Dunn&#8217;s test to evaluate median-value differences between the groups with Bonferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons. For analysis of correlations, the Spearman&#8217;s correlation was used, reporting p values.</p>
          <p>Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were performed for Gal-3 and NT-proBNP to optimize the definition of the cutoff points that would best discriminates the event at follow-up, and an area under the curve (AUC) were identified. Both curves were compared with DeLong and chi-squared tests.</p>
          <p>For a time-to-event analysis, the CC-Dys group was divided in two profiles regarding Gal-3 and NT-proBNP cutoff values: low Gal-3 or NT-proBNP (&#8804; cutoff) and high Gal-3 or NT-proBNP (&#8805; cutoff). Analysis of incidence of cumulative events across Gal-3 and NT-proBNP strata and the additive value of Gal-3 relative to NT-proBNP was made by a Kaplan-Meier-like method followed by log-rank test.</p>
          <p>Bivariate and multivariate Cox proportional-hazards regression models were constructed to evaluate the association of Gal-3 and NT-proBNP values (below <italic>versus </italic>above or equal to the cutoff value) with incident events. Models were adjusted for sex, age, serum creatinine, New York Heart Association (NYHA) classification and LVEF; 95% confidence intervals (CI) were used to depict the association of each marker and the events in the final fitted Cox proportional-hazards model. Sensitivity was analyzed using Gal-3 and NT-proBNP as continuous variables. A two-tailed p&lt;0.05 was considered as significant.</p>
          <p>All graphs and statistical analyses were made in the software Stata (<italic>version 13.0, Stata Corp., College Station, TX</italic>).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>Of the original 570 participants in REDS-II, 483 had samples available for Gal-3 testing; 153 were anti-<italic>T. cruzi</italic> serum-negative BD, and the remainder were sorted into three groups: 187 Non-CC-BD presenting with normal ECG and LVEF; 46 CC-non-Dys; and 97 CC-Dys (<xref rid="f01001" ref-type="fig">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Flowchart of inclusion.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>
              <italic>CC: Chagas cardiomyopathy; Non-CC-BD: blood donors with positive T. cruzi serology and without cardiomyopathy, presenting normal electrocardiogram (ECG) and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF); CC-Non-Dys-BD: blood donors with positive T. cruzi serology and presenting ECG abnormalities and normal LVEF at rest; CC-Dys: patients with positive T. cruzi serology and CC, with left ventricular dysfunction.</italic>
            </attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-02-0248-90403-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>Patient Clinical and Biomarker Characteristics</title>
          <p>Demographic and clinical characteristics are described in <xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>. Gal-3 levels were greater in patients from the CC-Dys group, than other clinical groups. Higher Gal-3 levels were also seen in controls when compared with Non-CC-BD. We did not observe significant differences in Gal-3 levels between Non-CC-BD and CC-non-Dys-BD, or between CC-non-Dys-BD and controls. Inflammatory markers (TNF-&#945;, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10), as well as biomarkers associated with, cardiac dysfunction or damage (NT-proBNP and troponin) were elevated in CC-Dys patients compared to other groups (<xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Clinical, laboratory, and echocardiographic findings</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal" align="left"> </th>
                    <th>Non-CC-BD</th>
                    <th>CC-Non-Dys-BD</th>
                    <th>CC-Dys</th>
                    <th>Controls</th>
                    <th style="font-weight:normal" align="left"> </th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>n=187 (38.6%)</th>
                    <th>n=46 (9.5%)</th>
                    <th>n=97 (20.2%)</th>
                    <th>n=153 (31.6%)</th>
                    <th style="font-weight:normal" align="left">p-value</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age (y)</td>
                    <td align="center">49 [41-58]</td>
                    <td align="center">50 [44-59]</td>
                    <td align="center">48.5 [43-54]</td>
                    <td align="center">48 [42-55]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.20</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Male, n (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">110 (58.8)</td>
                    <td align="center">29 (63)</td>
                    <td align="center">59 (60.2)</td>
                    <td align="center">89 (58.2)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.39</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ejection fraction (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">63 [60-65]</td>
                    <td align="center">60 [55-65]</td>
                    <td align="center">30 [20-40]</td>
                    <td align="center">64 [60-65]</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;0.001*</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Cardiac biomarkers</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Galectin-3 (ng/mL)</td>
                    <td align="center">12.3 [10-15.4]</td>
                    <td align="center">12.0 [9.5-14.9]</td>
                    <td align="center">15.4 [11.8-19.8]</td>
                    <td align="center">13.8 [11.2-16.2]</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;0.001<sup>&#8224;</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>NT-proBNP (pg/mL)</td>
                    <td align="center">40.6 [23.6-66.8]</td>
                    <td align="center">59 [35.0-109.1]</td>
                    <td align="center">748 [379.20-2223.41]</td>
                    <td align="center">27.5 [19.3-48.1]</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;0.001<sup>&#8225;</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Troponin</td>
                    <td align="center">0.012 [0.01-0.012]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.012 [0.012-0.015]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.021 [0.12-0.03]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.012 [0.012-0.012]</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;0.001&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Inflammatory markers</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>TNF-&#945;</td>
                    <td align="center">2.94 [1.64-4.59]</td>
                    <td align="center">3.02 [1.25-4.69]</td>
                    <td align="center">3.65 [2.57-5.52]</td>
                    <td align="center">2.84 [1.62-3.91]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.002<sup>#</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>IL-6</td>
                    <td align="center">0.69 [0.32-1.63]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.77 [0.32-1.8]</td>
                    <td align="center">1.60 [0.64-3.13]</td>
                    <td align="center">1.14 [0.32-1.7]</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;0.001 **</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>IL-8</td>
                    <td align="center">1.61 [0.95-2.79]</td>
                    <td align="center">1.53 [0.99-2.5]</td>
                    <td align="center">2.23 [1.38-3.2]</td>
                    <td align="center">1.44 [0.95-2.54]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.003<sup>&#8224;&#8224;</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>IL-10</td>
                    <td align="center">1.28 [0.32-4]</td>
                    <td align="center">2.02 [0.32-4.11]</td>
                    <td align="center">4.37 [1.62-8.06]</td>
                    <td align="center">1.22 [0.32-3.35]</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;0.001<sup>&#8225;&#8225;</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>IFN-&#947;</td>
                    <td align="center">0.32 [0.32-0.64]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.32 [0.32-0.84]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.32 [0.32-1.07]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.32 [0.32-0.39]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.06</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Parasite load</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Parasite estimate per 20mL</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>0.05 [0-2.5]</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>0.68 [0.03-5.47]</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>1.77 [0.16-5]</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">-</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>&lt;0.001<sup>&#167;&#167;</sup></bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>p-values were reported for Kruskal-Wallis and Dunn post-hoc hypothesis testing. Median [interquartile range] reported for all biomarkers tested. Non-CC-BD, blood donors without Chagas cardiomyopathy; CC-Non-Dys-BD, blood donors with Chagas cardiomyopathy; CC-Dys, Chagas cardiomyopathy patients with cardiac dysfunction; NT-proBNP, N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; IL, interleukin; IFN, interferon. *Statistically significant difference in ejection fraction levels between Non-CC BD/CC-Dys (p&lt;0.001); CC-Non-Dys-BD/CC-Dys (p&lt;0.001); CC-Non-Dys-BD/controls (p=0.042); CC-Dys/controls (p&lt;0.001). &#8224;Statistically significant difference in Gal-3 levels between Non-CC-BD/CC-Dys (p&lt;0.001); Non-CC-BD/controls (p=0.010); CC-Non-Dys-BD/CC-Dys (p&lt;0.001); CC-Dys/controls (p=0.028). &#8225;Statistically significant difference in NT-proBNP levels between Non-CC-BD/CC-Dys (p&lt;0.001); Non-CC-BD/controls (p=0.004); CC-Non-Dys-BD/CC-Dys (p&lt;0.001); CC-Non-Dys-BD/controls (p&lt;0.001); CC-Dys/controls (p&lt;0.001). &#167;Statistically significant difference in troponin levels between Non-CC-BD/CC-Dys (p=0.024); Non-CC-BD/CC-controls (p&lt;0.001); CC-Non-Dys-BD/CC-Dys (p&lt;0.001); CC-Non-Dys-BD/controls (&lt;0.001); CC-Dys/controls (p&lt;0.001). #Statistically significant difference in TNF-&#945; levels between Non-CC-BD/CC-Dys (p=0.019); CC-Dys/controls (p&lt;0.001). **Statistically significant difference in IL-6 levels between Non-CC-BD/CC-Dys (p&lt;0.001); CC-Non-Dys-BD/CC-Dys (p=0.032); CC-Dys/controls (p=0.004). &#8224;&#8224;Statistically significant difference in IL-8 levels between Non-CC-BD/CC-Dys (p=0.016); CC-Non-Dys-BD/CC-Dys (p=0.039); CC-Dys/controls (p=0.001). &#8225;&#8225;Statistically significant difference in IL-10 levels between Non-CC-BD/CC-Dys (p&lt;0.001); CC-Non-Dys-BD/CC-Dys (p=0.001); CC-Dys/controls (p&lt;0.001). &#167;&#167;Statistically significant difference in parasite estimate per 20mL between Non-CC-BD/CC-Dys (p=0.011); Non-CC-BD/controls (p&lt;0.001).</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Positive <italic>T. cruzi </italic>PCR indicated a statistically significant difference between Non-CC-BD and CC groups: CC-Non-Dys-BD (p=0.010) and CC-Dys. By contrast, no difference in parasitemia was observed when comparing CC-Non-Dys-BD and CC-Dys (<xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>). However, we did not finda</p>
          <p>significant difference in CC-Dys patients between <italic>T. cruzi</italic> PCR and event occurrence. No significant association between <italic>T. cruzi</italic> PCR and Ga<italic>l-3 was found.</italic></p>
          <p>Among the T. cruzi infected subjects, Spearman&#8217;s correlation was applied to assess the relationship between Gal-3 and cardiac biomarkers, inflammatory mediators, and parasite load. There was a weak correlation for TNF- (r<sub>s</sub>=0.25, p&lt;0.001) and IL-8 (r<sub>s</sub>=0.22, p&lt;0.001). By contrast, no association between Gal-3 and Troponin, NT-proBNP, IL-6, IL-10, IFN-, or with parasite load was found.</p>
          <p>Echocardiography was carried out, and we used Spearman&#8217;s correlation, to verify any relationship between Gal-3 levels and echocardiographic parameters among T. cruzi infected patients. No moderate or strong statistically significant correlation was found between Gal-3 levels and left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD) (rs=0.09, p=0.07), left ventricular end-systolic dimension (LVESD) (rs=0.11, p=0.03), LVEF (r<sub>s</sub>=-0.16, p=0.001), left atrial diameter (r<sub>s</sub>=0.11, p=0.02), left atrial volume indexed to body surface area (r<sub>s</sub>=0.09, p=0.18), right atrial area (r<sub>s</sub>=0.032, p=0.53) and septal E/e&#8217; ratio (r<sub>s</sub>=0.135, p=0.009).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Survival and Risk Analysis</title>
          <p>Time-to-event data were available for 97 patients, with mean follow-up of 51.2 &#177; 10.8 months and median of 58 months (range: 8 to 60 months). Events were observed in 28 patients (29%), and were due to three (10.8%) heart transplantations and 25 (89.2%) deaths by all causes. Among event-experienced patients, median concentrations of Gal-3 and NT-pro-BNP were significantly higher, while the ejection fraction was significantly lower. Age, sex, NYHA class &gt;I, ejection fraction on echocardiography, and laboratory data of event-experienced patients are compared in <xref rid="t2001" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Demographic and laboratory information of CC-Dys patients according to death or heart transplantation</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal" align="left"> </th>
                    <th>No events</th>
                    <th>Events</th>
                    <th rowspan="2">p-value</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>(n=69)</th>
                    <th>(n=28)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age (y)</td>
                    <td align="center">49 [42-54]</td>
                    <td align="center">47.5 [44.5-52]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.96</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Male, n (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">42 (61%)</td>
                    <td align="center">16 (57%)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.73</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Creatinine (mg/dL)</td>
                    <td align="center">1.01 [0.85-1.14]</td>
                    <td align="center">1.14 [0.87-1.23]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.06</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ejection fraction (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">35 [25-40]</td>
                    <td align="center">20 [20-30]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.001</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>NYHA &gt;1</td>
                    <td align="center">29</td>
                    <td align="center">20</td>
                    <td align="center">0.009</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Galectin-3 (ng/mL)</td>
                    <td align="center">14.4 [10.9-19.1]</td>
                    <td align="center">18.5 [14.7-23.4]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.005</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Low</td>
                    <td align="center">39</td>
                    <td align="center">7</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>High</td>
                    <td align="center">30</td>
                    <td align="center">21</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>NT-proBNP (pg/mL)</td>
                    <td align="center">542 [281-1337]</td>
                    <td align="center">2643 [1047-4771]</td>
                    <td rowspan="3" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Low</td>
                    <td align="center">50</td>
                    <td align="center">7</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>High</td>
                    <td align="center">19</td>
                    <td align="center">21</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Parasite estimate*</td>
                    <td align="center">1.77 [0.19-4.2]</td>
                    <td align="center">1.25 [0.16-12.61]</td>
                    <td align="center">0.08</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>Median [25<sup>th</sup>, 75<sup>th</sup> percentile) by death or heart transplantation as an outcome. CC-Dys: patients with positive T. cruzi serology and CC with left ventricular dysfunction; NT-proBNP: N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide; NYHA: New York Heart Association. Low Galectin-3 = &lt;15.3 ng/mL; Low NT-proBNP = &lt;1278 pg/mL. *Parasite load per 20mL.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Gal-3 cutoff point (&lt;15.3 ng/mL) by ROC curve was used to divide CC-Dys subjects into two strata (low and high levels), as was the NT-proBNP cutoff point (&lt;1278 pg/mL). ROC identified the potential to reach an event. Although the AUC of NT-proBNP was larger than the Gal-3 AUC, there were no differences (p=0.22).</p>
          <p>After adjusting for sex, age, renal function, NYHA functional class &gt;I, and LVEF, we found a significant association of higher levels of Gal-3 with subsequent events in a 5-year follow-up (<xref rid="t3001" ref-type="table">Table 3</xref> and <xref rid="f02001" ref-type="fig">Figure 2</xref>). Complementarily, the risk of events also increased as the levels of NT-proBNP climbed (<xref rid="t3001" ref-type="table">Table 3</xref>). Similar results were seen when Gal-3 and NT-proBNP (by 100-unit increase) were analyzed as continuous variables (Appendix).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3001">
              <label>Table 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Association between galectin-3 and death or heart transplantation in the CC-Dys subgroup using ROC and Cox regression models, both crude and adjusted for age, sex, serum creatinine level, NYHA functional class &gt;I and LVEF, and using Galectin-3 and NT-proBNP as categorical variables</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal" align="left"> </th>
                    <th style="font-weight:normal" align="left"> </th>
                    <th style="font-weight:normal" align="left"> </th>
                    <th style="font-weight:normal" align="left"> </th>
                    <th colspan="2" align="left">Crude Model</th>
                    <th colspan="2">Adjusted Model</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>AUC</th>
                    <th>Cutoff</th>
                    <th>Cutoff Level</th>
                    <th>p</th>
                    <th>HR (95%CI)</th>
                    <th>p</th>
                    <th>HR (95%CI)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="2">Galectin-3 (ng/mL)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.71</td>
                    <td align="center">15.3</td>
                    <td align="center">Low</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">High</td>
                    <td align="center">0.007</td>
                    <td align="center">3.27 (1.39-7.71)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.04</td>
                    <td align="center">2.63 (1.00-6.90)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="2">NT-proBNP (pg/mL)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.80</td>
                    <td align="center">1278</td>
                    <td align="center">Low</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">High</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                    <td align="center">5.69 (2.41-13.42)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.02</td>
                    <td align="center">3.44 (1.21-9.78)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN3001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>AUC: area under the curve; CI: confidence interval; HR: hazard ratio; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; NT-proBNP: N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide; NYHA: New York Heart Association; ROC: receiver operating characteristic</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Time-to-event curves between Gal-3 levels. Time-to-event curves between stratified Gal-3 levels results in CC-Dys. Cutoff level: Gal-3 &lt;15.3 ng/mL.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-02-0248-90403-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Among patients presenting higher Gal-3 levels, we found differences in events when dichotomized with both NT-proBNP strata: patients with additionally high NT-proBNP levels were more likely to experience any event than patients with low NT-proBNP. Moreover, patients in the lower Gal-3 strata, when dichotomized with NT-proBNP levels, were more likely to present any event when NT-proBNP was higher (<xref rid="f03001" ref-type="fig">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Event frequency at 5-year as a function of Gal-3 and NT-proBNP concentrations among CC patients. The percentage of patients who experienced any event is shown for each group. Low Gal-3: values &lt;15.3 ng/mL; high Gal-3: values &#8805;15.3 ng/mL; low NT-proBNP: values &lt;1,278 pg/mL; high NT-proBNP: values &#8805;1,278 pg/mL.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-02-0248-90403-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Patients in the higher strata of both Gal-3 and NT-proBNP levels had 11 to 16-fold increased risk of event compared with those with the lowest biomarker levels (unadjusted HR, 16.22; 95%CI: 3.71&#8211;70.83; p&lt;0.001; adjusted HR, 11.39; 95%CI: 1.97&#8211;65.76; p=0.007). Subjects with low Gal-3 and low NT-proBNP had the lowest event rates.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>Increased Gal-3 was significantly associated with severe forms of ChD and predictive of subsequent morbidity/mortality.</p>
        <p>Gal-3 is an emerging biomarker and modulates several physiological processes that contribute to HF, inflammation, and fibrosis.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>-<xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> Inflammation is a prerequisite for tissue healing and scar formation,<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref></sup> and Gal-3 has been shown to play a major role as a mediator in parasitic, viral,<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>,<xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> and bacterial infection.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> In ChD, experimental studies have shown that Gal-3 has upregulated expression following <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection in dendritic cells, B cells,<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>,<xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup> and CD68+ macrophages. Significantly, CD68+ macrophages represent 50% of the mononuclear cell infiltrate in hearts with CC.<sup><xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p><italic>T. cruzi</italic> and several immune-mediated mechanisms have a direct involvement in CC. Previous studies have reported that Gal-3 binds to 45KD, enhancing its adhesion to the extracellular matrix and even its entry into cells. Other studies have shown the importance of Gal-3 in the early process of <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection, as it allows parasites to accumulate in the extracellular matrix before invading host cells.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>,<xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup></p>
        <p>An experimental model of acute <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection showed that induction of myocarditis was associated with the upregulation of Col I, Gal-3, IFN-, and IL-13.<sup><xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup> Gal-3 was primarily detected in interstitial cells and was higher in fibrotic areas. In myocardial areas of fibrosis, the intensity of myocarditis and significant matrix extracellular remodeling was correlated with the presence of Col I and Gal-3. In addition, myofibroblasts can induce fibrosis, which results in myocardial stiffness and cardiac dysfunction. Importantly, myofibroblasts are also a significant source of proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-&#945; and IL-1, which have a known deleterious effect on the myocardium. However, we did not find any significant association between Gal-3 and inflammatory markers.</p>
        <p>Sabino et al.<sup><xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref></sup> compared the detection of <italic>T. cruzi</italic> DNA with known clinical and laboratory markers of CC severity and observed that the presence of parasitemia was associated with markers of disease progression, such as QRS and QT interval duration, lower LVEF, and elevated troponin and NT-proBNP levels. It was also observed that detection of <italic>T. cruzi</italic> DNA was significantly higher in patients with cardiomyopathy as compared to Non-CC-BD group; however, <italic>T. cruzi</italic> PCR did not correlate with Gal-3. Moreover, there was no significant difference in the detection of <italic>T. cruzi</italic> DNA between CC patients with and without dysfunction, nor between CC patients who did or did not experience events. Thus, in our study, parasitism was a marker of typical ECG changes in cardiomyopathy, but not of disease severity or clinical prognosis.</p>
        <p>De Boer et al.<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> suggested that Gal-3 likely represents a unique phenotype at high risk for the development and progression of HF or other cardiovascular diseases. Chronic elevations in Gal-3 induce active fibrogenesis and may provoke pathological cardiac remodeling. De Boer et al.<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> also hypothesized that patients with this phenotype of Gal-3 overexpression are more likely to have a &#8220;fibrogenic&#8221; pathway for cardiac remodeling. In our study, high levels of Gal-3 were associated with the most severe form of cardiomyopathy, but without a strong association with echocardiographic parameters. So, Gal-3 levels defined a population with more severe disease, characterized by left systolic and diastolic ventricular dysfunction, higher left and right diastolic diameter, and elevated of NT-proBNP and troponin levels.</p>
        <p>Echeverria et al.<sup><xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref></sup> examined the diagnostic value of a panel of biomarkers to distinguish the severity of CC and found no associations between sST2 and Gal-3 levels. However, the sample size was small and did not include patients with stage A (positive <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, but normal ECG and echocardiography), which could have allowed the examination of the role played by the biomarkers in asymptomatic patients. They also do not provide any prognostic information of Gal-3.</p>
        <p>We found higher Gal-3 levels in the control group compared to the Non-CC-BD group. However, the values were lower compared to the CC-Dys group. It is known, since Carlos Chagas&#8217; pioneering studies,<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup> that up to 60% of infected patients have no evidence suggesting cardiovascular or gastrointestinal involvement. These individuals are thought to have the so-called indeterminate form, defined as Non-CC-BD in our study. As a result, survival in this group of patients appears to be comparable to the general population. Our results showed low Gal-3 levels in this group, which supports this concept.</p>
        <p>Galectin-3 phenotype is an important factor in the onset and progression of HF. It is known that HF patients with low Gal-3 levels have slow progression and better outcomes than patients with HF and high Gal-3 levels.<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>,<xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup> Gal-3 was shown to predict the development of all-cause mortality and HF in the general population<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup> and can be used to define and identify patients with HF at very low risk for 30-day and 180-day mortality, and HF rehospitalizations after an episode of acute HF.<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup> A meta-analysis by Chen et al.<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup> reported the value of serum Gal-3 as a predictor factor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality in HF patients.<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Our study&#8217;s most striking finding was the relationship between Gal-3 and the risk of events among patients with CC. Because both Gal-3 and NT-proBNP were independent predictors of adverse events, we also showed that the increase of both markers was associated with the highest rates of death or heart transplantation in patients with CC.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Study Limitations</title>
          <p>This was a single-center study with a relatively small sample. In addition, we had only a single-time point measure of Gal-3 and NT-proBNP and, therefore, did not assess dynamic changes in these biomarkers over time. Another limitation was the use of non-parametric tests to analyze associations between continuous variables, resulting in loss of efficiency.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>High plasma Gal-3 levels were significantly associated with cardiac dysfunction and CC severity. Our findings suggest that a biomarker-based approach for risk stratification in ChD patients might help physicians identify patients who are more likely to have worse outcomes and potentially guide the development of treatment strategies for this high-risk group.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgment</title>
        <p>We thank Biomerieux for donating Galectin-3 kits.</p>
      </ack>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p> *Supplemental Materials</p>
          <p>For additional information, please click here.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold>.There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
