<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">48ngThJGMbXS67MGvJ3tJCn</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00129</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2021000100129</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200485</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200485</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial (Parte 1): Fisiopatologia, Fatores de Risco e Bases Terap&#234;uticas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3361-7061</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cintra</surname>
            <given-names>Fatima Dumas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3477-4667</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Figueiredo</surname>
            <given-names>Marcio Jansen de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Fatima Dumas Cintra &#8226; Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Medicina - R. Botucatu, 740. CEP 04023-062, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>fatimacintra@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito, Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Cintra FD, Figueiredo MJO.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesses</p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>03</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>116</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>129</fpage>
      <lpage>139</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial &#233; a arritmia sustentada mais comum na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica com predile&#231;&#227;o pelas faixas et&#225;rias mais avan&#231;adas. Com o envelhecimento populacional, as proje&#231;&#245;es para as pr&#243;ximas d&#233;cadas s&#227;o alarmantes. Al&#233;m de sua import&#226;ncia epidemiol&#243;gica, a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial &#233; destacada por suas repercuss&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, incluindo fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos, hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es e maior taxa de mortalidade. Seu mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico &#233; complexo, envolvendo uma associa&#231;&#227;o de fatores hemodin&#226;micos, estruturais, eletrofisiol&#243;gicos e auton&#244;micos. Desde os anos 1990, o estudo Framingham em an&#225;lises multivariadas j&#225; demonstrou que, al&#233;m da idade, a presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o, diabetes, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e doen&#231;a valvar &#233; preditor independente dessa normalidade do ritmo. Entretanto, recentemente, v&#225;rios outros fatores de risco est&#227;o sendo implicados no aumento do n&#250;mero de casos de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, tais como sedentarismo, obesidade, anormalidades do sono, tabagismo e uso excessivo de &#225;lcool. Al&#233;m disso, as mudan&#231;as na qualidade de vida apontam para uma redu&#231;&#227;o na recorr&#234;ncia de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, tornando-se uma nova estrat&#233;gia para o tratamento de excel&#234;ncia dessa arritmia card&#237;aca. A abordagem terap&#234;utica envolve um amplo conhecimento do estado de sa&#250;de e h&#225;bitos do paciente, e compreende quatro pilares principais: mudan&#231;a de h&#225;bitos de vida e tratamento rigoroso de fatores de risco; preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos; controle da frequ&#234;ncia; e controle do ritmo. Pela dimens&#227;o de fatores envolvidos no cuidado ao paciente portador de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, a&#231;&#245;es integradas com equipes multiprofissionais est&#227;o associadas aos melhores resultados cl&#237;nicos.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Arritmias Card&#237;acas/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Sedentarismo</kwd>
        <kwd>Terapia Combinada</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="92"/>
        <page-count count="11"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) &#233; caracterizada pela completa desorganiza&#231;&#227;o da atividade el&#233;trica atrial e consequente perda da s&#237;stole atrial com padr&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fico caracter&#237;stico e de f&#225;cil reconhecimento. Entretanto, o diagn&#243;stico &#233; desafiador, uma vez que muitos pacientes se apresentam assintom&#225;ticos ou com sintomas fugazes, dificultando o registro da arritmia. &#201; a arritmia sustentada mais comum na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica afetando 3% da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta, com predile&#231;&#227;o para faixas et&#225;rias mais avan&#231;adas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Com o envelhecimento populacional, as proje&#231;&#245;es para as pr&#243;ximas d&#233;cadas s&#227;o alarmantes. Estima-se que o n&#250;mero de pacientes portadores de FA com idade superior a 55 anos ser&#225; mais que o dobro em 2060, o que consumir&#225; grande quantidade de recursos dos cofres p&#250;blicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Al&#233;m da import&#226;ncia epidemiol&#243;gica, a FA &#233; destacada pelas suas repercuss&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, incluindo os fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos, com aumento, em m&#233;dia, de 4 vezes a chance de um acidente vascular cerebral (AVC), al&#233;m de ser associada ao maior risco de mortalidade por todas as causas e outras importantes condi&#231;&#245;es, como insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A incid&#234;ncia ajustada para idade e a preval&#234;ncia de FA &#233; menor nas mulheres em compara&#231;&#227;o com os homens; contudo, n&#227;o acontece com a morbimortalidade. A FA est&#225; associada ao maior risco relativo para mortalidade por todas as causas, AVC, mortalidade cardiovascular, eventos card&#237;acos e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca no sexo feminino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Pacientes com essa anormalidade do ritmo tamb&#233;m s&#227;o mais vulner&#225;veis a hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es. Em uma recente metan&#225;lise incluindo 35 estudos e 311.314 pacientes, a incid&#234;ncia de admiss&#227;o hospitalar foi de 43,7/100 pessoas ao ano. As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares representam as maiores causas de hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es; no entanto, as causas n&#227;o cardiovasculares tamb&#233;m s&#227;o frequentes nesse grupo de pacientes, como c&#226;ncer e doen&#231;as pulmonares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Este artigo tem por objetivo revisar aspectos fisiopatol&#243;gicos, fatores de risco e bases para o tratamento. As diretrizes para preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos e a abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter ser&#227;o abordadas em outros manuscritos.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos</title>
        <p>V&#225;rias altera&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas levam &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de fibrila&#231;&#227;o, incluindo fatores hemodin&#226;micos, eletrofisiol&#243;gicos, estruturais, auton&#244;micos (moduladores), al&#233;m de fatores desencadeantes representados pelas extrass&#237;stoles e taquicardias atriais ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ). Essas variam desde polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos a modifica&#231;&#245;es macrosc&#243;picas da estrutura do &#225;trio, interferindo na atividade el&#233;trica das c&#233;lulas e resultando em desorganiza&#231;&#227;o da atividade el&#233;trica atrial.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fatores fisiopatol&#243;gicos implicados na g&#234;nese de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0129-00485-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>As propriedades el&#233;tricas do mioc&#225;rdio s&#227;o controladas por canais i&#244;nicos presentes na membrana celular. A ativa&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas depende basicamente de canais de s&#243;dio, c&#225;lcio e pot&#225;ssio. O per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio da c&#233;lula depende, grosseiramente, do tempo entre a ativa&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula e o retorno do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o ao n&#237;vel inicial. O aumento das correntes de influxo i&#244;nico (c&#225;lcio e s&#243;dio) prolonga o per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio celular, e o aumento da corrente de efluxo (pot&#225;ssio) resulta no seu encurtamento. Outro componente importante na eletrofisiologia normal do cora&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o as conexinas, que s&#227;o prote&#237;nas presentes nas jun&#231;&#245;es entre os cardiomi&#243;citos, respons&#225;veis pela permeabilidade i&#244;nica entre as c&#233;lulas, permitindo a propaga&#231;&#227;o normal do impulso el&#233;trico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Na FA, ocorrem altera&#231;&#245;es desses componentes da eletrofisiologia normal das c&#233;lulas, o que se convencionou chamar de remodelamento el&#233;trico. A sua forma mais comum decorre da entrada acentuada de c&#225;lcio nas c&#233;lulas que se despolarizam com frequ&#234;ncia aumentada. Esse aumento leva &#224; inativa&#231;&#227;o de correntes de c&#225;lcio e aumento de correntes de pot&#225;ssio, que resultam no encurtamento da dura&#231;&#227;o do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o e aumento da vulnerabilidade &#224; FA, al&#233;m de favorecer a recorr&#234;ncia precoce ap&#243;s a cardiovers&#227;o e a progress&#227;o de formas parox&#237;sticas para formas mais persistentes da arritmia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Fatores gen&#233;ticos podem estar relacionados a defeitos dos canais i&#244;nicos, e podem predispor &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de FA. Formas familiares da arritmia, embora sejam situa&#231;&#245;es raras e heterog&#234;neas, s&#227;o bem descritas na literatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> O papel da gen&#233;tica na FA est&#225; sendo estudado, sendo uma corrente promissora na busca, cada vez mais atual, de formas de tratamento personalizado.</p>
        <p>Atualmente, as teorias mais aceitas para o in&#237;cio da arritmia e a sua manuten&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o a presen&#231;a de focos ect&#243;picos como deflagradores da arritmia e a reentrada como fator de manuten&#231;&#227;o. Estudos iniciais j&#225; indicavam que a aplica&#231;&#227;o t&#243;pica de subst&#226;ncias estimulantes no &#225;trio, como a aconitina (alcaloide capaz de ocasionar bradicardia e hipotens&#227;o), no &#225;trio originava taquicardia atrial r&#225;pida, que, por sua vez, induzia a FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> O estudo crucial no entendimento da origem focal da FA foi conduzido por Ha&#239;ssaguerre et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> no qual os autores, mapeando a atividade el&#233;trica atrial em pacientes com FA, observaram focos ect&#243;picos precoces que precediam a ocorr&#234;ncia da arritmia provenientes, principalmente, do interior das veias pulmonares ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Focos deflagradores de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial em v&#225;rios pontos nos &#225;trios (pontos escuros) provenientes, predominantemente, das veias pulmonares. Adaptada de Ha&#239;ssaguerre M, Ja&#239;s P, Shah DC et al.12 Spontaneous initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating in the pulmonary veins. N Engl J Med. 1998; 339(10):659&#8211;66.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0129-00485-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Enquanto a atividade focal &#233; necess&#225;ria para o in&#237;cio da FA, um substrato atrial prop&#237;cio para a sua manuten&#231;&#227;o &#233; igualmente importante. Caracter&#237;sticas estruturais, anat&#244;micas e eletrofisiol&#243;gicas s&#227;o fundamentais para a ocorr&#234;ncia e a manuten&#231;&#227;o de circuitos de reentrada, que s&#227;o tidos, atualmente, como fundamentais na manuten&#231;&#227;o da arritmia. A reentrada pode ser anat&#244;mica (com obst&#225;culos criando zonas de condu&#231;&#227;o lenta, como fibrose) ou funcional (refratariedade heterog&#234;nea, decorrente de propaga&#231;&#227;o err&#225;tica da frente de onda de ativa&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica atrial). Essas condi&#231;&#245;es aumentam a probabilidade de ocorr&#234;ncia de m&#250;ltiplas ondas simult&#226;neas de reentrada, facilitando a perpetua&#231;&#227;o da FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A atividade auton&#244;mica tamb&#233;m desempenha papel importante no in&#237;cio e na manuten&#231;&#227;o da FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A ativa&#231;&#227;o vagal pode alterar correntes de pot&#225;ssio dependentes da acetilcolina, com consequente redu&#231;&#227;o da dura&#231;&#227;o do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o podendo, assim, estabilizar circuitos de reentrada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a ativa&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica pode provocar o ac&#250;mulo de c&#225;lcio intracelular, o que pode deflagrar a arritmia.</p>
        <p>Mudan&#231;as na estrutura do mioc&#225;rdio atrial, particularmente a fibrose, separam as fibras musculares, interferindo na continuidade da condu&#231;&#227;o do impulso el&#233;trico, resultando em redu&#231;&#227;o da velocidade de condu&#231;&#227;o, que &#233; fundamental para a reentrada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> A fibrose leva &#224; progress&#227;o da FA, podendo ser um alvo terap&#234;utico<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> e um preditor da resposta ao tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Embora fatores eletrofisiol&#243;gicos, incluindo o remodelamento el&#233;trico, e morfol&#243;gicos, como a fibrose e a dilata&#231;&#227;o atrial (remodelamento estrutural), sejam considerados os principais fatores envolvidos na fisiopatologia da FA, vem crescendo a quantidade de evid&#234;ncias que processos infecciosos ou inflamat&#243;rios podem permear e unir essas duas situa&#231;&#245;es. Um estudo de caso controle com 56.870 participantes analisou a associa&#231;&#227;o entre infec&#231;&#227;o pelo virus influenza, vacina&#231;&#227;o e risco de FA. Os autores demonstraram que a infe&#231;&#227;o aumentou o risco para o desenvolvimento da arritmia, ao passo que a vacina&#231;&#227;o apresentou efeito protetor em diferentes grupos de pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A presen&#231;a de infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio, necrose celular e fibrose intersticial em pacientes com FA sem doen&#231;a card&#237;aca estrutural documentada &#233; maior em compara&#231;&#227;o com um grupo de pacientes sem a arritmia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Esses estudos v&#234;m demonstrando maior concentra&#231;&#227;o de mediadores ou de marcadores de atividade inflamat&#243;ria, como a interleucina 6 ou a prote&#237;na C-reativa ultrassens&#237;vel em pacientes com FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fatores de risco para fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
        <p>O alto n&#250;mero de casos de FA encontrados na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica n&#227;o &#233; apenas justificado pela idade &#8211; outros fatores contribuem para esse desfecho. Desde os anos 1990, o estudo Framingham em an&#225;lises multivariadas j&#225; demonstrou que, al&#233;m da idade, a presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o, diabetes, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e doen&#231;a valvar &#233; preditora independente dessa normalidade do ritmo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Entretanto, recentemente, v&#225;rios outros fatores de risco s&#227;o implicados, e as mudan&#231;as na qualidade de vida apontam para uma redu&#231;&#227;o no n&#250;mero de casos de FA, tornando-se um novo pilar para o tratamento de excel&#234;ncia da FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Obesidade e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
        <p>A obesidade, definida como &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) superior a 30 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> , demonstra uma clara associa&#231;&#227;o com a ocorr&#234;ncia de FA. Uma importante metan&#225;lise incluindo 51 estudos e 626.603 indiv&#237;duos demonstrou um aumento no risco de FA em 29% para cada aumento de 5 unidades no IMC. Al&#233;m disso, o risco de FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria e p&#243;s-abla&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m foi 10% e 13% maior, respectivamente, para o mesmo aumento de peso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> A progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a da forma parox&#237;stica para a forma permanente tamb&#233;m &#233; mais significativa nos pacientes obesos conforme documenta&#231;&#227;o em estudo coorte longitudinal com 21 anos de acompanhamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> A gen&#233;tica tamb&#233;m parece justificar essa associa&#231;&#227;o. Um estudo com mais de 50.000 indiv&#237;duos demonstra que as variantes gen&#233;ticas associadas ao IMC alto se correlacionam com a incid&#234;ncia de FA, sugerindo uma rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre as duas condi&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A partir desse conhecimento, v&#225;rios estudos prospectivos foram conduzidos para demonstrar o impacto da redu&#231;&#227;o do peso na recorr&#234;ncia de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> O estudo <italic>Long-Term Effect of Goal-Directed Weight Management in an Atrial Fibrillation Cohort</italic> (LEGACY) incluiu 355 pacientes, que foram acompanhados por 4 anos e divididos em tr&#234;s grupos de acordo com a perda de peso no final do estudo. Uma probabilidade 6 vezes maior de estarem livres de anormalidades do ritmo foi observada nos participantes com perda e manuten&#231;&#227;o de peso superior a 10% do peso corporal em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo que perdeu menos de 3% ou ganhou peso no per&#237;odo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Outro estudo, prospectivo e observacional, avaliou 149 pacientes com IMC superior a 27 kg/m<sup>2</sup>submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o de FA e a um programa de redu&#231;&#227;o de peso presencial, demonstrando maior tempo de sobrevida livre de eventos arr&#237;tmicos em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Resultados semelhantes foram observados em um estudo prospectivo com 4.021 pacientes obesos, em ritmo sinusal e sem hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de arritmia. O grupo foi submetido a cirurgia bari&#225;trica ou tratamento conservador. A perda de peso observada no grupo com interven&#231;&#227;o foi associada &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o significativa no risco de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Por outro lado, em uma an&#225;lise secund&#225;ria do estudo <italic>Action for Health in Diabetes</italic> (Look AHEAD) que avaliou pacientes com diabetes, a implementa&#231;&#227;o de programa de perda de peso e atividade f&#237;sica n&#227;o reduziu a ocorr&#234;ncia de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Um outro estudo populacional demonstra que a baixa massa magra tamb&#233;m se relaciona com a presen&#231;a de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Dessa forma, o real papel da distribui&#231;&#227;o de gordura corporal na arritmog&#234;nese ainda requer mais esclarecimentos, entretanto, &#233; necess&#225;rio reconhecer a obesidade como um fator de risco potencialmente modific&#225;vel; e, em pacientes obesos e sobrepesos, a redu&#231;&#227;o do peso em, pelo menos, 10% pode reduzir o risco de FA.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Apneia obstrutiva do sono</title>
        <p>Apneia obstrutiva do sono (AOS) &#233; caracterizada pela obstru&#231;&#227;o completa ou parcial, recorrente das vias a&#233;rea superiores durante o sono, resultando em per&#237;odos de apneia, dessatura&#231;&#227;o de oxi-hemoglobina e despertares noturnos frequentes. O reconhecimento dessa anormalidade do sono por parte dos cardiologistas tornou-se fundamental ap&#243;s as publica&#231;&#245;es demonstrando aumento na mortalidade cardiovascular nos pacientes com AOS n&#227;o tratada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> V&#225;rios fatores contribuem para o dano cardiovascular nesses pacientes e, possivelmente in&#250;meros mecanismos estejam envolvidos. Entretanto, tr&#234;s fatores principais merecem destaque: hip&#243;xia intermitente, despertares frequentes e altera&#231;&#245;es na press&#227;o intrator&#225;cica. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es acabam por desencadear hiperatividade do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico; disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e inflama&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> A ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica observada nesses pacientes &#233; um importante fator que, em parte, justifica a elevada preval&#234;ncia de arritmias card&#237;acas nessa popula&#231;&#227;o, incluindo a FA. Al&#233;m disso, a AOS pode prejudicar o funcionamento do &#225;trio esquerdo. Estudos com ecocardiografia tridimensional demonstraram disfun&#231;&#227;o e remodelamento atrial esquerdo com revers&#227;o ap&#243;s tratamento efetivo com press&#227;o positiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em um estudo epidemiol&#243;gico, a ocorr&#234;ncia de arritmias card&#237;acas noturnas foi mais frequente nos pacientes portadores de AOS grave, definida como &#237;ndice de apneia/hiponeia (IAH) superior a 30 eventos/hora. A FA ocorreu em 1,65% dos casos de AOS grave e 0,2% nos controles (p=0,03).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Em outra an&#225;lise de pacientes em acompanhamento ambulatorial por FA cr&#244;nica em um hospital terci&#225;rio submetidos &#224; polissonografia basal, 81,6% apresentavam AOS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> De fato, AOS e FA s&#227;o condi&#231;&#245;es que compartilham fatores de risco como idade, sexo, obesidade, hipertens&#227;o e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e, dessa forma, a demonstra&#231;&#227;o de casualidade &#233; desafiadora na literatura cient&#237;fica.</p>
        <p>Em um estudo prospectivo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> com pacientes referidos para a cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica de FA/ <italic>flutter</italic> atrial, observou-se 82% de recorr&#234;ncia nos pacientes com AOS sem tratamento ou com tratamento inadequado e 42% de recorr&#234;ncia nos pacientes tratados (p=0,013). Al&#233;m disso, no grupo de pacientes n&#227;o tratados, a recorr&#234;ncia foi ainda maior entre os que apresentavam maior queda na satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio durante o evento de apneia (p=0,034). O tratamento da AOS reduz o risco de recorr&#234;ncia de FA n&#227;o somente em pacientes submetidos &#224; cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica, mas tamb&#233;m ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter. Em estudo com 426 pacientes submetidos ao isolamento el&#233;trico das veias pulmonares, 62 pacientes apresentaram AOS confirmada pela polissonografia, sendo 32 pacientes usu&#225;rios de CPAP e 30 pacientes sem tratamento. O uso do CPAP foi associado a uma maior taxa de sobrevida livre de FA quando comparado ao grupo sem o uso do CPAP (71,9% <italic>vs.</italic> 36,7%; p=0,01). Os autores conclu&#237;ram que o tratamento com CPAP em pacientes portadores de AOS submetidos a tratamento percut&#226;neo da FA melhora a recorr&#234;ncia da arritmia, e nos casos de AOS sem tratamento adequado, o isolamento el&#233;trico tem pouco valor terap&#234;utico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Uma metan&#225;lise foi, ent&#227;o, realizada para determinar o papel da AOS no paciente portador de FA submetido &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter, concluindo-se que a presen&#231;a de AOS &#233; associada ao maior risco de recorr&#234;ncia de FA ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o (RR 1,25, 95% CI 1,08 a 1,45, p=0,003).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Concluindo, a presen&#231;a de AOS &#233; alta em pacientes com FA, e os dados atuais sugerem a presen&#231;a de uma rela&#231;&#227;o dose-resposta entre a gravidade da AOS e a recorr&#234;ncia de FA. O tratamento adequado dessa anormalidade do sono reduz a recorr&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica de FA mesmo em pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter. Dessa forma, a adequada investiga&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento, caso necess&#225;rios, s&#227;o uma medida importante no manejo cl&#237;nico desses pacientes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Atividade f&#237;sica e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
        <p>A inatividade f&#237;sica &#233; um problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica associado ao aumento das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, AVC, c&#226;ncer, obesidade, diabetes tipo 2 e hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Sendo assim, propicia diversos fatores de risco para FA; contudo, mais recentemente, a literatura sugere a inatividade f&#237;sica como um fator de risco independente para FA. Cinco estudos populacionais demonstraram uma clara rela&#231;&#227;o entre inatividade f&#237;sica e aumento do risco de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> O estudo <italic>Cardiorespiratory Fitness on Arrhythmia Recurrence in Obese Individuals With Atrial Fibrillation</italic> (CARDIO-FIT) avaliou o impacto do ganho na capacidade cardiorrespirat&#243;ria na ocorr&#234;ncia de FA em pacientes obesos e com sobrepeso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> A cada equivalente metab&#243;lico adquirido durante o acompanhamento associou-se 9% de redu&#231;&#227;o na recorr&#234;ncia da arritmia mesmo ap&#243;s a corre&#231;&#227;o para o peso e fatores de risco. Um estudo com pacientes portadores de FA permanente submetidos a 12 semanas de exerc&#237;cio moderado a intenso foi relacionado a um aumento significativo da qualidade de vida quando comparado aos controles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Esses achados foram reprodut&#237;veis por outros estudos randomizados e controlados, e a metan&#225;lise resultante demonstra que o treinamento f&#237;sico melhora a capacidade ao esfor&#231;o, qualidade de vida e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Por outro lado, a rela&#231;&#227;o entre atividade f&#237;sica e FA parece n&#227;o ser linear, e sim uma curva em &#8220;u&#8221;, ou seja, os extremos &#8211; sedentarismo ou a pr&#225;tica extenuante de exerc&#237;cios &#8211; aumentam o risco de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Vale lembrar que se trata da pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cios com doses muito altas que excedem a recomenda&#231;&#227;o e correspondem a uma porcentagem muito pequena da popula&#231;&#227;o. De forma interessante, o efeito do exerc&#237;cio intenso parece ser influenciado pelo sexo. Uma metan&#225;lise sobre o assunto demostrou que a atividade f&#237;sica vigorosa foi associada a um aumento significativo no risco em homens (OR: 3,30; 95% CI: 1,97 a 4,63; p=0,0002); entretanto, a atividade intensa foi relacionada a uma redu&#231;&#227;o ainda mais significativa no risco de FA em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Os mecanismos envolvidos nessa diferen&#231;a de comportamento ainda n&#227;o est&#227;o totalmente esclarecidos, mas o fato &#233; que a pr&#225;tica de atividade f&#237;sica moderada deve ser encorajada como preven&#231;&#227;o, tratamento e melhora da qualidade de vida em todos os pacientes portadores de FA.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Outros potenciais fatores de risco modific&#225;veis</title>
        <p>Os efeitos do &#225;lcool no remodelamento atrial e no sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo podem, em parte, justificar a maior recorr&#234;ncia de FA nos indiv&#237;duos que utilizam &#225;lcool.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Um estudo populacional com 109.230 participantes saud&#225;veis e com consumo de &#225;lcool quantificado atrav&#233;s de question&#225;rios demonstrou que, entre homens, o risco de FA aumentou de acordo com os quartis de uso semanal de &#225;lcool, sugerindo uma associa&#231;&#227;o dose-resposta. O mesmo n&#227;o foi verificado entre as mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Mais interessante &#233; a recente documenta&#231;&#227;o de que a abstin&#234;ncia ao &#225;lcool se relaciona com a redu&#231;&#227;o da recorr&#234;ncia de arritmia em pacientes com FA. Em um estudo multic&#234;ntrico, prospectivo e randomizado, realizado nos hospitais da Austr&#225;lia, foram selecionados pacientes com consumo superior a 10 doses semanais e portadores de FA parox&#237;stica ou permanente, e que estavam em ritmo sinusal na avalia&#231;&#227;o basal. O grupo foi selecionado 1:1 para continuar com o uso habitual e a abstin&#234;ncia ao &#225;lcool. No total, 140 pacientes foram inclusos. A recorr&#234;ncia de FA ocorreu em 53% dos pacientes do grupo de abstin&#234;ncia e 73% no grupo controle. O tempo para a primeira recorr&#234;ncia foi maior no grupo de abstin&#234;ncia, e o numero total de eventos ap&#243;s 6 meses de acompanhamento foi significativamente menor nos que pararam com o uso em compara&#231;&#227;o aos controles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os estudos que avaliaram a rela&#231;&#227;o entre tabagismo e FA apresentaram resultados, inicialmente, discordantes; entretanto, uma metan&#225;lise incluindo 16 estudos prospectivos e 286.217 participantes demonstrou maior preval&#234;ncia de FA entre os tabagistas, e a cessa&#231;&#227;o do h&#225;bito foi associada &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> O tabagismo tamb&#233;m influ&#234;ncia negativamente os resultados do tratamento intervencionista da FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Vale lembrar que o uso de altas doses de corticosteroides tamb&#233;m foi relacionado ao aumento no risco de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> At&#233; o momento, n&#227;o existem dados convincentes relacionando o uso de cafe&#237;na e o aumento do risco de FA; alguns estudos sugerem um modesto efeito protetor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> O mesmo ocorre com transtornos de ansiedade. Em um recente estudo populacional com 37.402 adultos, n&#227;o houve rela&#231;&#227;o entre os sintomas de ansiedade ou depress&#227;o severa e FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3</xref> resume os principais fatores de risco modific&#225;veis relacionados &#224; qualidade de vida.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fatores de risco para fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial relacionados &#224; qualidade de vida e suas respectivas orienta&#231;&#245;es.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>*Presen&#231;a de ronco, sonol&#234;ncia excessiva diurna, fadiga, sono n&#227;o reparador, altera&#231;&#227;o de mem&#243;ria</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0129-00485-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Bases terap&#234;uticas para fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
        <p>A abordagem terap&#234;utica da FA envolve um amplo conhecimento do estado de sa&#250;de e h&#225;bitos do paciente e compreende quatro pilares principais: mudan&#231;a de h&#225;bitos de vida e tratamento rigoroso de fatores de risco; preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos; controle da frequ&#234;ncia; e controle do ritmo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref> ). Ser&#227;o mencionadas as bases terap&#234;uticas relacionadas ao tratamento a longo prazo.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Pilares na abordagem terap&#234;utica do paciente portador de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0129-00485-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Mudan&#231;a na qualidade de vida e controle rigoroso de fatores de risco</title>
        <p>Visa reduzir os fatores de risco modific&#225;veis associados &#224; qualidade de vida e ao tratamento rigoroso das comorbidades cardiovasculares. Dessa forma, al&#233;m do controle do peso, tratamento do tabagismo, combate ao sedentarismo, uso comedido de &#225;lcool e otimiza&#231;&#227;o do padr&#227;o do sono, deve-se implementar o controle rigoroso de hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes e dislipidemia.</p>
        <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial &#233; delet&#233;ria para o paciente com FA; al&#233;m de constituir um fator de risco para eventos tromboemb&#243;licos, est&#225; associada a maior probabilidade de sangramento e recorr&#234;ncia dessa arritmia. Uma metan&#225;lise para preven&#231;&#227;o de FA com o uso dos inibidores do sistema-renina angiotensina-aldosterona incluindo 87.048 pacientes provenientes de 23 estudos controlados e randomizados demonstrou que o uso desses medicamentos reduziu a probabilidade de ocorr&#234;ncia da arritmia em 33%, aproximadamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma suban&#225;lise do estudo <italic>Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial</italic> (SPRINT) avaliou as estrat&#233;gias de controle intensivo da press&#227;o arterial (PAS &lt;120 mmHg) e controle convencional (PAS &lt;140 mmHg) na ocorr&#234;ncia de FA. Ap&#243;s 5,2 anos de acompanhamento, foi observada uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 26% no risco de FA no grupo de controle intensivo quando comparado com o controle convencional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudos demonstrando o benef&#237;cio do controle da press&#227;o arterial na redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de FA foram reprodut&#237;veis na literatura, incluindo pacientes com redu&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> mas alguns dados contradit&#243;rios tamb&#233;m est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> Possivelmente, outros fatores devem influenciar a preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria de FA no paciente hipertenso, e estudos ainda s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para o melhor esclarecimento dessa rela&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Em uma metan&#225;lise envolvendo 7 estudos de coorte prospectivos e 4 estudos caso-controle, incluindo 108.703 casos de FA, demonstrou-se que a presen&#231;a de diabetes est&#225; associada ao aumento no risco de desenvolver essa arritmia em 34%, mesmo ap&#243;s ajuste para fatores de confus&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> Os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos dessa rela&#231;&#227;o ainda est&#227;o em investiga&#231;&#227;o, mas possivelmente s&#227;o m&#250;ltiplos, incluindo os impactos do diabetes no sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo como na neuropatia diab&#233;tica. Al&#233;m disso, a hiperglicemia, isoladamente, &#233; capaz de aumentar o t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico e diminuir o t&#244;nus parassimp&#225;tico, o que pode facilitar a ocorr&#234;ncia da arritmia. O remodelamento el&#233;trico e estrutural atrial associado ao estresse oxidativo tamb&#233;m corrobora a FA. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref> Entretanto, a rela&#231;&#227;o entre diabetes e FA torna-se mais importante ap&#243;s a documenta&#231;&#227;o de que o controle rigoroso da glicemia est&#225; associado a um melhor controle da FA. Em uma an&#225;lise com 12.605 pacientes, o tratamento do diabetes por 5 anos foi associado a uma redu&#231;&#227;o de aproximadamente 30% nos casos de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O diabetes tamb&#233;m pode prejudicar a evolu&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com FA submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter. Em um recente estudo multic&#234;ntrico incluindo 7 centros de alto volume na Europa, foi demonstrada uma maior recorr&#234;ncia de FA em 1 ano no grupo diab&#233;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> O controle da glicemia tamb&#233;m parece influenciar favoravelmente a evolu&#231;&#227;o de pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o. Uma an&#225;lise observacional de pacientes ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o demonstrou que o uso da pioglitazona foi associado a menor necessidade de um segundo procedimento ablativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre dislipidemia e FA ainda est&#225; em investiga&#231;&#227;o. Uma an&#225;lise observacional incluindo dois grandes bancos de dados (MESA e Framingham) demonstrou que altos n&#237;veis de HDL estavam associados ao menor risco de FA, ao passo que altos n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides estavam associados ao seu maior risco. Nenhuma rela&#231;&#227;o foi encontrada com o LDL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> Por outro lado, em um estudo prospectivo populacional, n&#227;o houve associa&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de HDL, triglic&#233;rides e FA, e baixos n&#237;veis de LDL foram associados ao maior risco de FA. Al&#233;m disso, o uso de f&#225;rmacos hipolipemiantes n&#227;o influenciou a ocorr&#234;ncia de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na verdade, essas an&#225;lises pontuais voltadas a um &#250;nico fator de risco falham em demonstrar a&#231;&#245;es combinadas que, normalmente, s&#227;o aplicadas na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Para avaliar esse efeito, foram selecionados 281 pacientes consecutivos submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter com m&#250;ltiplos fatores de risco, e foi oferecido um programa de controle agressivo desses fatores. Os pacientes submetidos ao programa apresentaram significativamente maior redu&#231;&#227;o de peso e melhor controle da press&#227;o arterial, glicemia e dislipidemia. Como consequ&#234;ncia, apresentaram uma maior redu&#231;&#227;o na frequ&#234;ncia, dura&#231;&#227;o e sintomas de FA quando comparado com o grupo controle (p &lt;0,001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos</p>
        <p>A FA &#233; uma arritmia em que a avalia&#231;&#227;o de elegibilidade para preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos &#233; mandat&#243;ria. O uso do anticoagulante pode prevenir a maioria desses eventos e prolongar a sobrevida. O anticoagulante &#233; superior ao tratamento com &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico isolado ou associado ao clopidogrel. Deve ser institu&#237;do a todos os pacientes portadores de FA, exceto quando classificados com muito baixo risco ou na vig&#234;ncia de alguma contraindica&#231;&#227;o ao uso dessa classe de medicamentos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> A oclus&#227;o do ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo constitui uma segunda alternativa para preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos no paciente com limita&#231;&#245;es ao uso dos anticoagulantes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
        <p>O controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) &#233; parte integrante do tratamento do paciente com FA e, normalmente, &#233; suficiente para reduzir os sintomas. O alvo terap&#234;utico da FC ainda n&#227;o est&#225; estabelecido na literatura. O estudo <italic>Rate Control Efficacy in Permanent Atrial Fibrillation (</italic> RACE) selecionou 614 paciente com FA permanente eleg&#237;veis ao controle da frequ&#234;ncia randomizados para estrat&#233;gia leniente (FC repouso &lt;110 bpm) ou estrat&#233;gia rigorosa (FC de repouso &lt;80 bpm e inferior a 110 bpm no exerc&#237;cio moderado). O objetivo foi avaliar as duas estrat&#233;gias em rela&#231;&#227;o ao desfecho combinado de morte cardiovascular, hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, AVC, embolia sist&#234;mica, sangramento e arritmias graves. Ap&#243;s um seguimento de 2 anos, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as significativas entre ambas as abordagens, e a frequ&#234;ncia de sintomas e eventos adversos foi semelhante entre os dois grupos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> Em an&#225;lise subsequente, a estrat&#233;gia leniente tamb&#233;m n&#227;o foi associada a remodelamento card&#237;aco adverso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os f&#225;rmacos utilizados para essa finalidade incluem: betabloqueadores, bloqueadores de canais de c&#225;lcio (diltiazen, verapamil), digoxina ou combina&#231;&#227;o dessas subst&#226;ncias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> Vale lembrar que a amiodarona pode ser utilizada em casos selecionados.</p>
        <p>Os betabloqueadores s&#227;o considerados os f&#225;rmacos de primeira linha para o controle da FC no paciente com FA pela sua boa tolerabilidade, redu&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas e melhora funcional. As op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas, as doses e os efeitos colaterais mais comuns est&#227;o demonstrados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> . Vale lembrar que, no insucesso terap&#234;utico, a combina&#231;&#227;o de medicamentos pode ser tentada. No paciente com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, o betabloqueador permanece como f&#225;rmaco de primeira escolha pelos seus conhecidos benef&#237;cios nessa popula&#231;&#227;o, e a associa&#231;&#227;o com digoxina pode ser tentada, quando necess&#225;rio. Os bloqueadores de canais de c&#225;lcio n&#227;o devem ser usados no paciente com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida pelo seu efeito inotr&#243;pico negativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> Por fim, a abla&#231;&#227;o do n&#243; atrioventricular seguida de estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial constitui uma op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica nos casos de fal&#234;ncia da estrat&#233;gica medicamentosa.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Medicamentos utilizados para o controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em pacientes portadores de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. Adaptada de ESC Scientific Document Group.84 2016 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS. Eur Heart J. 2016;37(38):2893-2962</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="4">Drogas mais utilizadas para o controle da Frequ&#234;ncia cardiaca em pacientes com FA</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
									</th>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
									</th>
                  <th>Dose</th>
                  <th>Efeitos colaterais</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="4">Betabloqueadores</td>
                  <td align="center">Metoprolol</td>
                  <td align="center">100 a 200mg/dia</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="4">letargia, dor de cabe&#231;a, edema, sistomas respirat&#243;rios, altera&#231;&#245;es gastrointestinais, tontura, bradicardia, bloqueio atrioventricular, hipotens&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Nebivolol</td>
                  <td align="center">2,5 a 10mg/dia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Bisoprolol</td>
                  <td align="center">1,25 a 20mg/dia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Carvedilol</td>
                  <td align="center">3,125 a 50mg/ duas vezes ao dia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">Bloqueador canais de c&#225;cio</td>
                  <td align="center">Diltiazen</td>
                  <td align="center">60mg/ tr&#234;s vezes ao dia (m&#225;ximo 360mg/dia)</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">tontura, mal-estar, letargia, dor de cabe&#231;a, edema, altera&#231;&#245;es gastrointestinais, bloqueio atrioventricular, hipotens&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Verapamil</td>
                  <td align="center">40 a 120mg/ tr&#234;s vezes ao dia (m&#225;ximo 480mg/dia)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Digoxina</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">0,0625 a0,25mg/dia</td>
                  <td align="center">Altera&#231;&#227;o gstrointestinal, tontura, emba&#231;amento visual, dor de cabe&#231;a, efeitos pro-arritmicos em doses t&#243;xicas</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Controle do ritmo no paciente com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
        <p>A revers&#227;o aguda ao ritmo sinusal e a terapia de manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal s&#227;o importantes estrat&#233;gias no manejo do paciente com FA. Apesar da manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal parecer, intuitivamente, superior quando comparada &#224; estrat&#233;gia de controle da frequ&#234;ncia, n&#227;o h&#225; forte documenta&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica dessa afirma&#231;&#227;o. O estudo multic&#234;ntrico AFFIRM randomizou para essas duas estrat&#233;gias de tratamento pacientes portadores de FA. Foram 4.060 pacientes com idade m&#233;dia de 69,7 anos, em que 70,8% apresentavam hipertens&#227;o arterial e 38,2%, doen&#231;a da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria. Foram documentadas 310 mortes entre os pacientes alocados na estrat&#233;gia de controle de frequ&#234;ncia, e 356 nos pacientes com controle do ritmo ap&#243;s um seguimento m&#233;dio de 3,5 anos com m&#225;ximo de 6 anos (p=0,08). Al&#233;m disso, o grupo submetido ao controle do ritmo apresentou mais efeitos adversos a medica&#231;&#245;es e um maior n&#250;mero de hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup> Resultado semelhante foi observado no estudo RACE, em que o desfecho prim&#225;rio (morte e morbidade cardiovascular) ocorreu em 17,2% dos pacientes na estrat&#233;gia controle da frequ&#234;ncia e em 22,6% no controle do ritmo, ap&#243;s seguimento de 2,3 anos (p=0,11).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar de esses estudos n&#227;o demonstrarem vantagem do controle do ritmo na sobrevida, alguns pontos devem ser mencionados. Uma suban&#225;lise do estudo AFFIRM utilizando modelos para determinar as rela&#231;&#245;es entre sobrevida, vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas basais e vari&#225;veis dependentes de tempo, demonstrou que a presen&#231;a do ritmo sinusal e o uso de anticoagulante foram associados ao menor risco de morte. Por outro lado, o uso de f&#225;rmacos antiarr&#237;tmicos foi associado ao aumento da mortalidade ap&#243;s ajuste para ritmo sinusal. Esses dados sugerem que o benef&#237;cio do ritmo sinusal pode ter sido minimizado, e m&#233;todos alternativos para manuten&#231;&#227;o de ritmo sinusal com menores efeitos adversos podem ser promissores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup> Outra cr&#237;tica a esses resultados &#233; o tempo curto de seguimento. De fato, em uma an&#225;lise populacional com seguimento superior a 5 anos, a mortalidade foi de 41,7% no grupo submetido &#224; estrat&#233;gia de controle do ritmo, e 46,3% no controle da frequ&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> Sendo assim, deve-se ter em mente que a escolha entre o controle do ritmo ou da frequ&#234;ncia deve ser individualizada e, muitas vezes, &#233; um processo din&#226;mico. Em um determinado momento, a estrat&#233;gia de controle do ritmo pode ser atrativa, mas, em pacientes mais velhos com sintomas pouco expressivos, o controle da frequ&#234;ncia pode constituir uma alternativa.</p>
        <p>A revers&#227;o aguda ao ritmo sinusal &#233; realizada por meio de cardiovers&#227;o qu&#237;mica ou el&#233;trica, segundo os protocolos vigentes. Para a manuten&#231;&#227;o subsequente do ritmo sinusal, o uso de f&#225;rmacos antiarr&#237;tmicos a longo prazo, a abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter ou a associa&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias s&#227;o possibilidades que devem ser discutidas com o paciente. O uso de f&#225;rmacos antiarr&#237;tmicos para manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo &#233; comum no manejo cl&#237;nico do paciente. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> demonstra os medicamentos utilizados para essa finalidade dispon&#237;veis no Brasil, com suas respectivas dosagens e efeitos colaterais. &#201; importante mencionar que os efeitos colaterais dos f&#225;rmacos antiarr&#237;tmicos usados a longo prazo s&#227;o in&#250;meros, e foram expostos os mais comuns ou de maior gravidade. De fato, a escolha de tais medicamentos &#233; estabelecida mais pelo seu perfil de seguran&#231;a do que pela sua efic&#225;cia. O exemplo cl&#225;ssico &#233; a amiodarona, que, apesar de apresentar superioridade frente a outros f&#225;rmacos antiarr&#237;tmicos na manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal, tem seu uso restrito a pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca devido a seus efeitos t&#243;xicos importantes com o uso prolongado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> A propafenona e sotalol t&#234;m seu uso predominante no paciente sem doen&#231;a card&#237;aca estrutural, lembrando que o sotalol pode prolongar o intervalo QT, e o monitoramento eletrocardiogr&#225;fico &#233; recomendado com o uso dessas medica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; F&#225;rmacos antiarr&#237;tmicos utilizados para a manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="3">Drogas utilizados para a manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
									</th>
                  <th>Dose</th>
                  <th>Efeitos Colaterais</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Propafenona</td>
                  <td align="center">150 a 300mg / 3 vezes ao dia</td>
                  <td align="center">Vertigem, palpita&#231;&#245;es disturbios da condu&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, bradicardias, taquicardias, ansiedade, disturbios do sono, cefa&#233;ia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sotalol</td>
                  <td align="center">80 a 160mg / 2 vezes ao dia</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia, dispneia, dor no peito, palpita&#231;&#227;o, sincope, tontura, diarr&#233;ia, nausea, v&#244;mito, fadiga, erup&#231;&#227;o cut&#226;nea, <italic>torsade de pointes</italic></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Amiodarona</td>
                  <td align="center">100 a 200mg ao dia</td>
                  <td align="center">neutropenia, agranulocitose, bradicardia, taquicardia. <italic>torsade de pointes</italic> , hipo e hipertireoidismo, neuropatia &#243;tica, neurite, pancreatite, aumento de transaminases, transtorno hep&#225;tico agudo, estado confusional, penumonite intersticial, brancoespasmo, eczema, urtic&#225;ria, hipotens&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter visando ao isolamento el&#233;trico das veias pulmonares &#233; o tratamento intervencionista largamente utilizado para a preven&#231;&#227;o de recorr&#234;ncia de FA. De modo geral, a abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter &#233; superior aos f&#225;rmacos antiarr&#237;tmicos na manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> e, atualmente, apresenta sua indica&#231;&#227;o em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos com FA parox&#237;stica ou persistente refrat&#225;ria ou intolerante a pelo menos um medicamento antiarr&#237;tmico, ou como primeira linha de tratamento na FA parox&#237;stica, sintom&#225;tica de acordo com as prefer&#234;ncias do paciente. Outras indica&#231;&#245;es individualizadas tamb&#233;m podem ocorrer. O estudo CABANA comparou a abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter com a terapia medicamentosa otimizada em pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica e persistente de acordo com o desfecho combinado de mortalidade total, AVC, sangramento maior e parada card&#237;aca. Ap&#243;s 5 anos de seguimento, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as significativas entre as duas estrat&#233;gias,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup> mas as an&#225;lises relacionadas &#224; qualidade de vida demonstram uma melhora cl&#237;nica significativa, e tamb&#233;m na qualidade de vida dos pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cuidado integrado no cuidado do paciente com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
        <p>Oferecer a complexidade de a&#231;&#245;es necess&#225;rias para o atendimento de excel&#234;ncia no paciente com FA &#233; desafiador na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Instituir mudan&#231;as na qualidade de vida, promover o controle rigoroso de fatores de risco, al&#233;m da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o adequada e decis&#245;es relacionadas &#224;s diferentes estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas quando centradas em um &#250;nico profissional, podem ocasionar resultados insatisfat&#243;rios. Nesse sentido, a organiza&#231;&#227;o dos servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de com equipes multiprofissionais para o atendimento do paciente com FA &#233; fundamental para assegurar o melhor atendimento. De fato, um estudo randomizado comparando o cuidado usual com o cuidado multidisciplinar demostrou uma redu&#231;&#227;o no risco relativo de 35% no desfecho combinado de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Outro ponto importante &#233; que a aus&#234;ncia completa de eventos de FA, muitas vezes, &#233; ut&#243;pica, e o objetivo para o tratamento deve consistir em melhora da qualidade de vida, preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular e mitiga&#231;&#227;o das recorr&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>Agradecemos ao Dr. Andre d&#8217;Avila pelos constantes aux&#237;lios durante todo o processo de escrita, al&#233;m da revis&#227;o final do material.</p>
    </ack>
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          <source>JAMA</source>
          <year>2019</year>
          <volume>321</volume>
          <issue>13</issue>
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            </name>
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          <article-title>Nurse-led care vs. usual care for patients with atrial fibrillation: results of a randomized trial of integrated chronic care vs. routine clinical care in ambulatory patients with atrial fibrillation</article-title>
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    </ref-list>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold> .O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Atrial Fibrillation (Part 1): Pathophysiology, Risk Factors, and Therapeutic Basis</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3361-7061</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cintra</surname>
            <given-names>Fatima Dumas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3477-4667</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Figueiredo</surname>
            <given-names>Marcio Jansen de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing Address: Fatima Dumas Cintra &#8226;</bold> Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Medicina - R. Botucatu, 740. Postal Code 04023-062, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: fatimacintra@cardiol.br</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Cintra FD, Figueiredo MJO.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Atrial fibrillation is the most common sustained arrhythmia in clinical practice, with a preference for older age groups. Considering population ageing, the projections for the next decades are alarming. In addition to its epidemiological importance, atrial fibrillation is evidenced by its clinical repercussions, including thromboembolic phenomena, hospitalizations, and a higher mortality rate. Its pathophysiological mechanism is complex and involves an association of hemodynamic, structural, electrophysiological, and autonomic factors. Since the 1990s, the Framingham study of multivariate analyses has demonstrated that hypertension, diabetes, heart failure, and valvular disease are independent predictors of this rhythm abnormality along with age. However, various other risk factors have been recently implicated in an increase of atrial fibrillation cases, such as sedentary behavior, obesity, sleep disorders, tobacco use, and excessive alcohol use. Moreover, changes in quality of life indicate a reduction in atrial fibrillation recurrence, thus representing a new strategy for excellence in the treatment of this cardiac arrhythmia. Therapeutic management involves a broad knowledge of the patient&#8217;s health state and habits, comprehending 4 main pillars: lifestyle changes and rigorous treatment of risk factors; prevention of thromboembolic events; rate control; and rhythm control. Due to the dimension of factors involved in the care of patients with atrial fibrillation, integrated actions performed by interprofessional teams are associated with the best clinical results.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Atrial Fibrillation/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Arrhythmias Cardiac/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesity</kwd>
        <kwd>Sedentarism</kwd>
        <kwd>Combined Modality Therapy</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Atrial fibrillation (AF) is characterized by the complete disorganization of atrial electric activity and consequent loss of atrial systole with a characteristic and easily recognizable electrocardiographic pattern. However, its diagnosis is challenging since many patients are asymptomatic or have fleeting symptoms, thus hindering its record. AF is the most common sustained arrhythmia in clinical practice, affecting 3% of the adult population and preferentially affecting older adults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> With population ageing, the projections for the next decades are alarming. The number of patients with AF aged over 55 years in 2060 is estimated to be more than twice that of 2010, which will demand enormous amounts of public resources.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> In addition to its epidemiological importance, AF is evidenced by its clinical repercussions, including thromboembolic phenomena, increasing the chances of a stroke by 4 times; it is also associated with a higher risk of all-cause mortality and other important conditions such as heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>While the age-adjusted incidence and prevalence of AF is lower in women than in men, the same is not true for morbidity and mortality. AF is associated with a higher relative risk for all-cause mortality, stroke, mortality from cardiovascular causes, cardiac events, and heart failure in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Patients with this rhythm abnormality are also more vulnerable to hospitalizations. A recent meta-analysis including 35 studies and 311 314 patients reported a hospitalization rate of 43.7/100 people per year. Cardiovascular diseases represented the biggest causes of hospitalization, but non-cardiovascular causes such as cancer and lung diseases were also frequent in this group of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>This article aims to review pathophysiological aspects, risk factors, and basis for treatment of AF. Guidelines for preventing thromboembolic events and performing catheter ablation will be addressed in other manuscripts.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Pathophysiological Mechanisms</title>
          <p>Various pathophysiological alterations lead to fibrillation, including hemodynamic, electrophysiological, structural, and autonomic (modulatory) factors, as well as triggering factors represented by extrasystoles and atrial tachycardias ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> ). These vary from genetic polymorphisms to macroscopic changes in atrial structure, interfering with the electrical activity of cells and resulting in disorganized atrial electrical activity.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Pathophysiological factors implicated in the genesis of atrial fibrillation.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0129-00485-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>The electrical properties of the myocardium are controlled by ionic channels present on the cell membrane. Cell activation relies basically on sodium, calcium, and potassium channels. The cells&#8217; refractory period roughly depends on the time between cell activation and the return of the action potential to its initial level. An increase in ionic influx (calcium and sodium) prolongs the refractory period, while an increase in potassium efflux results in a shortening of this period. Another important component of the normal electrophysiology of the heart are connexins: These are proteins present in the junctions between cardiomyocytes which are responsible for the ionic permeability between cells, allowing normal propagation of the electrical impulse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> In AF, there are alterations in these components of normal cell electrophysiology and these are named electrical remodeling. The most common form of electrical remodeling results from an acute entry of calcium into the cells, which depolarize with an increased frequency. This leads to the inactivation of calcium currents and to an increase in potassium currents, resulting in a shortened duration of the action potential and in increased vulnerability to AF, in addition to favoring early recurrence after cardioversion and the progression of paroxysmal forms to more persistent forms of arrhythmia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Genetic factors can be related to defects in ionic channels and a predisposition for AF. Familial forms of arrhythmia, albeit rare and heterogeneous, are well-described in the literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The role of genetics in AF is being studied and represents a promising path in the increasingly modern search for methods of personalized treatment.</p>
          <p>Currently, the most widely accepted theories for the initiation and maintenance of arrhythmia are the presence of ectopic foci as triggers and reentry as a maintenance factor. Initial studies already indicated that the topical application of stimulating substances such as aconitine (an alkaloid able to cause bradycardia and hypotension) in the atrium promoted rapid atrial tachycardia, which in turn induced AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> The crucial study for understanding the focal origin of AF was conducted by Ha&#239;ssaguerre et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> the authors mapped atrial electrical activity in patients with AF and observed early ectopic foci that preceded the occurrence of arrhythmia and mainly originated inside the pulmonary veins ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Triggering foci of atrial fibrillation in various points of the atria (dark spots) predominantly originated in the pulmonary veins. Adapted from Ha&#239;ssaguerre M, Ja&#239;s P, Shah DC, et al.12 Spontaneous initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating in the pulmonary veins. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(10):659&#8211;66.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0129-00485-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Whereas focal activity is necessary for the initiation of AF, an atrial substrate favorable for AF maintenance is equally important. Structural, anatomical, and electrophysiological characteristics are essential for the occurrence and maintenance of reentry circuits, which are currently considered fundamental in the maintenance of arrhythmia. Reentry can be anatomical (with obstacles that create slow conduction zones, such as fibrosis) or functional (homogeneous refractoriness resulting from the erratic propagation of the atrial electrical activation wavefront). These conditions increase the probability of multiple simultaneous reentry waves, contributing to the perpetuation of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Autonomic activity also plays an important role in the initiation and maintenance of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Vagal activation can alter acetylcholine-activated potassium currents, with consequent reduction of action potential duration; this may stabilize reentry circuits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Moreover, adrenergic activation can cause intracellular calcium accumulation, which could trigger arrhythmia.</p>
          <p>Changes in the atrial myocardium structure, particularly fibrosis, separate muscle fibers and interfere in the continuity of electrical impulse conduction, resulting in a reduced conduction speed fundamental for reentry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Fibrosis leads to AF progression, potentially representing a therapeutic target<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> and a predictor of treatment response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Although electrophysiological factors, such as electrical remodeling, and morphological factors, such as fibrosis and atrial dilation (structural remodeling), are considered the main factors involved in AF pathophysiology, increasing evidence has reported that infectious or inflammatory processes can permeate and unite these two situations. A case-control study with 56 870 participants evaluated the association between influenza virus infection, vaccination, and risk of AF. The authors demonstrated that infection increased the risk for developing arrhythmia, while vaccination presented a protective effect in different groups of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> The presence of inflammatory infiltrate, cellular necrosis, and interstitial fibrosis was higher in patients with AF with no register of structural cardiac disease when compared to patients without arrhythmia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> These studies have demonstrated a higher concentration of mediators or markers of inflammatory activity such as interleukin-6 or C-reactive protein (high sensitivity) in patients with AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Risk Factors for Atrial Fibrillation</title>
          <p>The high number of AF cases observed in clinical practice is not only justified by the patients&#8217; age; other factors also contribute to this outcome. Since the 1990s, the Framingham study of multivariate analyses has demonstrated that hypertension, diabetes, heart failure, and valvular disease, in addition to age, are independent predictors of this rhythm abnormality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> However, various other risk factors have recently been implicated and changes in quality of life indicate a reduction in AF cases, thus becoming a new pillar for excellence in the treatment of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Obesity and Atrial Fibrillation</title>
          <p>Obesity, defined as a body mass index (BMI) of over 30 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> , shows clear association with the occurrence of AF. An important meta-analysis including 51 studies and 626 603 individuals demonstrated a 29% increase in the risk of AF for each 5-unit increase in BMI. In addition, risks for postoperative and post-ablation AF considering the same weight increment were also 10% and 13% higher, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Progression of the disease from the paroxysmal to the permanent form is also more significant in obese patients, as reported by a longitudinal cohort study with a 21-year follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Genetics also seems to justify this association. A study with over 50 000 individuals demonstrated that genetic variants associated with high BMI were correlated with the incidence of AF, suggesting a causal relationship between the two conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
          <p>From this knowledge, many prospective studies have been conducted for demonstrating the impact of weight reduction in AF recurrence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> The LEGACY study (Long-Term Effect of Goal-Directed Weight Management in an Atrial Fibrillation Cohort) included 355 patients followed up for 4 years and divided into 3 groups according to the weight loss at the end of the study. Researchers observed a 6-fold higher probability of being free of rhythm abnormalities in participants who lost (and maintained) more than 10% of body weight when compared to those who lost less than 3% or gained weight in the same period.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Another prospective and observational study evaluated 149 patients with BMI values over 27 kg/m<sup>2</sup>who were subjected to AF ablation and to an in-person weight reduction program; these patients presented longer arrhythmia-free survival when compared to the control group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Similar results were observed in a prospective study with 4021 obese patients in sinus rhythm and with no previous history of arrhythmia. Groups underwent to bariatric surgery or to conventional treatment. The weight loss observed in the intervention group was associated with a significant reduction in the risk of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>On the other hand, a secondary analysis of the Look AHEAD study (Action for Health in Diabetes), which analyzed patients with diabetes, did not observe a reduction in AF occurrence with the implementation of a weight loss and physical activity program.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Another population-based study demonstrated that low lean body mass was also related to the presence of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Therefore, the real role of body fat distribution in arrhythmogenesis still requires further clarifications; however, obesity should be recognized as a potentially modifiable risk factor, since a 10% minimum reduction in body weight could decrease the risk of AF in obese and overweight patients.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Obstructive Sleep Apnea</title>
          <p>Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) is characterized by the complete or partial recurrent obstruction of the upper airway, resulting in periods of apnea, oxyhemoglobin desaturation, and frequent nocturnal awakenings. The recognition of this sleep disorder by cardiologists has become fundamental after publications showed an increase in mortality from cardiovascular causes in patients with untreated OSA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Many factors contribute to cardiovascular damage in these patients, and numerous mechanisms may possibly be involved. However, 3 main factors deserve attention: intermittent hypoxia, frequent awakenings, and alterations in intrathoracic pressure. These alterations trigger sympathetic nervous system hyperactivity, endothelial dysfunction, and inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> The sympathetic activation observed in these patients is an important factor that partially justifies the high prevalence of cardiac arrhythmias in this population, including AF. Moreover, OSA can damage left atrial function. Studies with three-dimensional echocardiography demonstrated left atrial dysfunction and remodeling, which were reversed after effective treatment with positive pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In an epidemiological study, the occurrence of nocturnal cardiac arrhythmias was more frequent in patients with severe OSA, which was defined as an apnea/hypopnea index (AHI) of over 30 events per hour. Atrial fibrillation occurred in 1.65% of cases with severe OSA and in 0.2% of controls (p = 0.03).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Another analysis of outpatients followed up for chronic AF in a tertiary hospital and subjected to basal polysomnography discovered that 81.6% presented OSA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> OSA and AF are conditions that share risk factors such as age, sex, obesity, hypertension, and heart failure, hence a causal demonstration is challenging in the scientific literature.</p>
          <p>In a prospective study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> with patients referred for electrical cardioversion of AF/atrial flutter, 82% of patients with OSA who received no or inadequate treatment presented recurrence, while this number was 42% in patients who received treatment (p = 0.013). In addition, within the group of patients who did not receive treatment, those who presented a higher drop in oxygen saturation during apnea events had even higher recurrence (p = 0.034). Treatment of OSA reduces the risk of AF recurrence not only in patients subjected to electrical cardioversion, but also in those who go through catheter ablation. In a study with 426 patients subjected to pulmonary vein isolation, 62 patients presented OSA confirmed by polysomnography, of which 32 were continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine users and 30 were untreated. CPAP therapy was associated with a higher AF-free survival rate when compared with patients who did not use the machine (71.9% vs 36.7%; p = 0.01). The authors concluded that CPAP therapy in patients with OSA subjected to percutaneous treatment of AF improved arrhythmia recurrence rates, and in cases of OSA without adequate treatment, electrical isolation had low therapeutic potential.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> A meta-analysis was then performed for determining the role of OSA in patients with AF subjected to catheter ablation; the study concluded that OSA is associated with a higher risk of AF recurrence after ablation (risk ratio [RR] 1.25, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.08 to 1.45, p = 0.003).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In conclusion, OSA occurrence is high in patients with AF and current data suggest a dose-response relationship between OSA severity and AF recurrence. Adequate treatment of this sleep abnormality reduces clinical AF recurrence even in patients subjected to catheter ablation. Therefore, adequate investigation and treatment (if necessary) are important measures in the clinical management of these patients.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Physical Activity and Atrial Fibrillation</title>
          <p>Physical inactivity is a public health problem associated with the increase in cardiovascular diseases, heart failure, stroke, cancer, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> It thus promotes various risk factors for AF, whereas the literature has recently suggested physical inactivity as an independent risk factor for AF. Five population-based studies have demonstrated a clear relationship between physical inactivity and increased risk for AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> The CARDIO-FIT study (Cardiorespiratory Fitness on Arrhythmia Recurrence in Obese Individuals With Atrial Fibrillation) evaluated the impact of cardiorespiratory fitness gain in the occurrence of AF in obese and overweight patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Each peak metabolic equivalent gained during follow-up was associated with a 9% reduction in arrhythmia recurrence, even after correction for weight and risk factors. In a study with patients with permanent AF, 12 weeks of moderate to intense exercise were related to a significant increase in quality of life when compared to controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> These findings were reproducible by other randomized controlled studies and the resulting meta-analysis demonstrated that exercise training improves exercise capacity, quality of life, and left ventricular ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
          <p>On the other hand, the relationship between physical activity and AF appears to be not linear, but a U-shaped curve; that is, its extremes (whether it be sedentary behavior of strenuous exercise) increase the risk of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Notably, the strenuous exercise being referred to here relates to exercises performed in extreme doses that exceed recommendations and correspond to a very small percentage of the population. Interestingly, the effect of intense exercise seems to be influenced by sex. A meta-analysis on the subject demonstrated that vigorous physical activity is associated with a significant increase in risk in men (odds ratio [OR]: 3.30; 95% CI 1.97 to 4.63; p = 0.0002); conversely, intense physical activity was even more significant for a decrease in the risk of AF in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> The mechanisms involved in this difference are still not completely elucidated, but the fact is that moderate physical activity should be encouraged as prevention and treatment, and for improving quality of life in patients with AF.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Other potential modifiable risk factors</title>
          <p>The effects of alcohol in atrial remodeling and in the autonomic nervous system can partially justify the higher AF recurrence observed in individuals who use alcohol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> A population-based study with 109 230 healthy participants whose alcohol consumption was quantified through questionnaires demonstrated that, in men, the risk of AF increased along with the quartiles for weekly use of alcohol, suggesting a dose-response association. The same was not verified in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Even more interestingly, alcohol abstinence has recently been reported to be related to a reduction in the recurrence of arrhythmia in patients with AF. A multicenter, prospective, randomized study performed in Australian hospitals selected patients with an alcohol consumption higher than 10 weekly doses who had paroxysmal or permanent AF and who were in sinus rhythm at baseline evaluation. The group was divided 1:1 between continuing usual alcohol consumption and practicing alcohol abstinence. A total of 140 patients were included; AF recurrence occurred in 53% of patients in the abstinence group, while 73% of patients in the control group presented recurrence. Time to first recurrence was longer in the abstinence group, and the total number of events after a 6-month follow-up was significantly smaller in those who interrupted alcohol use in comparison with controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Studies that evaluated the relationship between tobacco use and AF initially presented conflicting results; however, a meta-analysis including 16 prospective studies and 286 217 participants demonstrated a higher prevalence of AF among tobacco users, while habit cessation was associated with risk reduction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Tobacco use also negatively influenced the results of interventional AF treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It is worth noting that the use of high doses of corticosteroids has also been related with an increased risk of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> To the present moment, no convincing data have related the use of caffeine with an increased risk of AF; some studies suggest a modest protective effect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> The same happens with anxiety disorders: In a recent population-based study with 37 402 adults, no relationship was observed between anxiety or depression symptoms and AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
          <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3</xref> summarizes the main modifiable risk factors related to quality of life.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Risk factors for atrial fibrillation related to quality of life and their respective guidelines. BMI: body mass index; OSA: obstructive sleep apnea; CPAP: continuous positive airway pressure.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>*snoring, excessive daytime sleepiness, fatigue, nonrestorative sleep, memory alterations</attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0129-00485-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Therapeutic Basis for Atrial Fibrillation</title>
          <p>Therapeutic management of AF involves a broad knowledge of the patient&#8217;s health state and habits and comprehends 4 main pillars: lifestyle changes and rigorous treatment of risk factors; prevention of thromboembolic events; rate control; and rhythm control<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref> ). We will discuss the therapeutic basis related to long-term treatment.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Pillars of the therapeutic management of a patient with atrial fibrillation.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0129-00485-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Lifestyle Change and Rigorous Control of Risk Factors</title>
          <p>This pillar aims to reduce the modifiable risk factors associated with quality of life and to rigorously treat cardiovascular comorbidities. Therefore, in addition to controlling body weight, treating tobacco use, tackling sedentary behavior, reducing alcohol use, and optimizing sleep quality, a rigorous control of arterial hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia should also be implemented.</p>
          <p>Arterial hypertension is deleterious for patients with AF; not only it constitutes a risk factor for thromboembolic events, but it is also associated with a higher probability of bleeding and recurrence of this arrhythmia. A meta-analysis of AF prevention through the use of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors included 87 048 patients from 23 randomized controlled trials and demonstrated that the use of these drugs reduces the probability of arrhythmia in approximately 33%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A sub-analysis of the SPRINT study (Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial) evaluated strategies of intensive blood pressure control (systolic blood pressure [SBP] &gt; 120 mmHg) or standard treatment (SBP &lt; 140 mmHg) in AF occurrence. After 5.2 years of follow-up, the risk of AF was 26% lower in the intensive control group when compared to standard control.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Studies demonstrating benefits of arterial pressure control in reducing the risk of AF have been reproducible in the literature, including patients with reduced left ventricle ejection fraction;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> however, some contradictory results have also been published.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> Other factors may possibly influence primary and secondary AF prevention in patients with hypertension and studies are still necessary for better understanding this relationship.</p>
          <p>A meta-analysis involving 7 prospective cohort studies and 4 case-control studies, including 108 703 patients with AF, demonstrated that diabetes is associated with a 34% increase in risk for this type of arrythmia, even after adjusting for confounding factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> The pathophysiological mechanisms of this relationship are still being investigated, but could be multiple, including the impacts of diabetes in the autonomic nervous system observed in diabetic neuropathy. Moreover, hyperglycemia is capable of independently increasing sympathetic tone and reducing parasympathetic tone, which could favor the occurrence of arrhythmia. The atrial electrical and structural remodeling associated with oxidative stress also contributes to AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> However, the relationship between diabetes and AF has become even more important with the report that a rigorous glycemic control was associated with a better control of AF. In an analysis with 12 606 patients, 5-year diabetes treatment was associated with a reduction of approximately 30% in AF cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Diabetes can also hinder the progression of patients with AF subjected to catheter ablation. A recent multicenter study including 7 high-volume centers in Europe demonstrated a higher AF recurrence within 1 year in the group of patients with diabetes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Glycemic control also appears to favorably influence the progression of patients subjected to ablation. An observational analysis of patients after ablation demonstrated that the use of pioglitazone was associated with a lower need for a second ablation procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The relationship between dyslipidemia and AF is still under investigation: An observational analysis including 2 large databases (MESA and Framingham) demonstrated that high HDL levels were associated with lower risk of AF, whereas high triglyceride levels were associated with a higher risk. No relationship with LDL was observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> Conversely, a prospective population-based study did not find an association between HDL and triglyceride levels and AF, while low LDL levels were associated with a higher risk of AF. Moreover, the use of hypolipidemic drugs did not influence the occurrence of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Actually, these specific analyses aimed at a single risk factor fail to demonstrate combined actions that are usually employed in clinical practice. For evaluating this effect, 281 consecutive patients who had undergone catheter ablation were selected; they had multiple risk factors and were offered an aggressive program for addressing them. Patients who participated in the program presented significantly higher weight reduction and control of arterial pressure, glycemia, and dyslipidemia. As a consequence, these participants presented higher reductions in AF frequency, duration, and symptoms when compared to the control group (p &lt; 0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prevention of Thromboembolic Events</title>
          <p>AF is a form of arrhythmia where evaluating eligibility for the prevention of thromboembolic events is mandatory. The use of anticoagulants is superior to treatment with aspirin alone or associated with clopidogrel. It should be indicated for all patients with AF, except when these are classified as very low risk or during the validity of contraindications to the use of this drug class.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> Left atrial appendage occlusion represents a second alternative for preventing thromboembolic events in patients with restrictions to anticoagulant use.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Heart Rate Control in Arterial Fibrillation</title>
          <p>Heart rate (HR) control is an integral part of the treatment of patients with AF and is normally sufficient for reducing symptoms. The therapeutic target of HR has not yet been established in the literature. The RACE study (Rate Control Efficacy in Permanent Atrial Fibrillation) selected 614 patients with permanent AF who were eligible for rate control; patients were randomized into a lenient strategy (resting HR &lt; 110 bpm) or strict strategy (resting HR &lt; 80 bpm and &lt; 110 bpm during moderate exercise). The objective was to evaluate both strategies regarding a composite outcome including death from cardiovascular causes, hospitalization due to heart failure, stroke, systemic embolism, bleeding, and severe arrhythmias. After a 2-year follow-up, no significant changes were observed between the two approaches, and the frequency of symptoms and adverse events was similar between groups.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> In a subsequent analysis, the lenient strategy was also not associated with adverse cardiac remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Drugs used for this purpose include beta blockers, calcium channel blockers (diltiazem, verapamil), digoxin, or a combination thereof.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> It is worth mentioning that amiodarone can be used in selected cases.</p>
          <p>Beta blockers are considered first-line drugs for heart rate control in patients with AF owing to their good tolerability, symptom reduction, and functional improvement. Their therapeutic options, doses, and most common adverse effects are demonstrated in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> . It is worth noting that, in case of therapeutic failure, a combination of drugs can be used. In patients with ventricular dysfunction, beta blockers remain the first-choice drug class due to their benefits in this population, and an association with digoxin can be used when necessary. Calcium channel blockers should not be used in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction due to their negative inotropic effect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> Finally, atrioventricular node ablation followed by artificial cardiac stimulation represents a therapeutic option in case of failure of the medication-based approach.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Drugs used for heart rate control in patients with atrial fibrillation. Adapted from ESC Scientific Document Group.84 2016 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS. Eur Heart J. 2016;37(38):2893-2962</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th colspan="4">Drugs most frequently used for heart rate control in patients with atrial fibrillation</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
										</th>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
										</th>
                    <th>Dose</th>
                    <th>Adverse effects</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="4">Beta blockers</td>
                    <td align="center">Metoprolol</td>
                    <td align="center">100 to 200 mg/day</td>
                    <td align="center" rowspan="4">Lethargy, headache, edema, respiratory symptoms, gastrointestinal alterations, dizziness, atrioventricular block, hypotension</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Nebivolol</td>
                    <td align="center">2.5 to 10 mg/day</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Bisoprolol</td>
                    <td align="center">1.25 to 20 mg/day</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Carvedilol</td>
                    <td align="center">3.125 to 50 mg, twice a day</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="2">Calcium channel blockers</td>
                    <td align="center">Diltiazem</td>
                    <td align="center">60 mg, three times a day (maximum dose 360 mg/day)</td>
                    <td align="center" rowspan="2">Dizziness, malaise, lethargy, headache, edema, gastrointestinal alterations, atrioventricular block, hypotension</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Verapamil</td>
                    <td align="center">40 to 120 mg, three times a day (maximum dose 480 mg/day)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Digoxin</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">0.0625 to 0.25 mg/day</td>
                    <td align="center">Gastrointestinal alterations, dizziness, blurred vision, headache, proarrhythmic effects in toxic doses</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Rhythm Control in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation</title>
          <p>Acute restoration of sinus rhythm and therapy for maintenance of sinus rhythm are important strategies in the management of patients with AF. Although the maintenance of sinus rhythm appears to be intuitively superior when compared to the rate control strategy , there is no strong scientific literature supporting this claim. The multicenter AFFIRM study randomized patients with AF to these two treatment strategies; they evaluated 4060 patients with a mean age of 69.7 years, 70.8% of which presented arterial hypertension and 38.2%, coronary artery disease. The study reported 310 deaths among patients in the rate control group and 356 among those performing rhythm control after a mean follow-up of 3.5 years (maximum 10 years) (p = 0.08). Moreover, the group subjected to rhythm control presented more adverse effects to medications and a higher number of hospitalizations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup> A similar result was observed in the RACE study, where the primary outcome (death and cardiovascular morbidity) occurred in 17.2% of patients following the rate control strategy and in 22.6% of those performing rhythm control after a 2.3-year follow-up (p = 0.11).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Although these studies did not present advantages of rhythm control for survival, some aspects are worth mentioning. A sub-analysis of the AFFIRM study using models for determining relationships between survival, baseline clinical variables, and time-dependent variables demonstrated that the presence of sinus rhythm and anticoagulant use were associated with a lower risk of death. On the other hand, the use of antiarrhythmic drugs was associated with higher mortality after adjusting for sinus rhythm. These data suggest that the benefit of sinus rhythm may have been overlooked and alternative methods for maintaining sinus rhythm with less adverse effects could be promising.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup> Another criticism of these results refers to the short follow-up period. In fact, in a population-based analysis with a follow-up period of more than 5 years, mortality was 41.7% in the group subjected to a rhythm control strategy and 46.3% in the rate control group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> Therefore, one should consider that the choice between controlling rhythm or rate should be individualized and this is frequently a dynamic process. In a certain moment, the rhythm control strategy may be attractive, but in older patients with less pronounced symptoms, rate control may constitute an alternative.</p>
          <p>Acute restoration of sinus rhythm is performed through chemical or electrical cardioversion according to the current protocols. For the subsequent maintenance of sinus rhythm, long-term use of antiarrhythmic drugs, catheter ablation, or the association of strategies are possibilities that should be discussed with the patient. The use of antiarrhythmic drugs for maintaining sinus rhythm is common in the clinical management of patients. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> shows the available drugs used with this objective in Brazil, with their respective doses and adverse effects. It is important to mention that the adverse effects of antiarrhythmic drugs used in the long term are countless, and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> displays the most common or severe ones. In fact, the choice of antiarrhythmic drugs is established more for their safety profiles than for their efficacy. A classic example is amiodarone: Despite presenting a superior rhythm control effect in comparison with other antiarrhythmic drugs, its use is restricted to patients with heart failure due to important toxic effects of its long-term use.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> Propafenone and sotalol are predominantly used in patients with no structural heart disease; notably, sotalol can cause QT interval prolongation and electrocardiographic monitoring is recommended when employing these medications.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Antiarrhythmic drugs used for the maintenance of sinus rhythm</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th colspan="3">Drugs used for the maintenance of sinus rhythm</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
										</th>
                    <th>Dose</th>
                    <th>Adverse effects</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Propafenone</td>
                    <td align="center">150 to 300 mg, three times a day</td>
                    <td align="center">Vertigo, heart palpitations, cardiac conduction disorders, bradycardia, tachycardia, anxiety, sleep disorders, headache</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sotalol</td>
                    <td align="center">80 to 160 mg, twice a day</td>
                    <td align="center">Bradycardia, dyspnea, chest pain, heart palpitations, syncope, dizziness, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, rash, torsade de pointes</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Amiodarone</td>
                    <td align="center">100 to 200 mg/day</td>
                    <td align="center">Neutropenia, agranulocytosis, bradycardia, tachycardia, torsade de pointes, hypo and hyperthyroidism, optic neuropathy, neuritis, pancreatitis, elevated transaminase levels, acute liver injury, confusional state, interstitial pneumonitis, bronchospasm, eczema, urticaria, hypotension</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Catheter ablation aiming at the electrical isolation of pulmonary veins is an interventional procedure widely used for the prevention of AF recurrence. Overall, catheter ablation is superior to antiarrhythmic drugs for maintaining sinus rhythm;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> it is currently indicated in symptomatic patients with paroxysmal or persistent AF refractory or intolerant to at least one antiarrhythmic drug, or as first-line treatment of symptomatic paroxysmal AF according to patient preferences. Other individualized indications may also occur. The CABANA study compared catheter ablation and optimized drug therapy in patients with paroxysmal and persistent AF according to the composite outcome of total mortality, stroke, major bleeding, and cardiac arrest. After a follow-up of 5 years, no significant differences were observed between both strategies,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup> but quality of life analyses demonstrated significant clinical improvement and a superior quality of life in patients subjected to ablation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Integrated Care of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation</title>
          <p>Offering the complex necessary actions for achieving excellence in the care of patients with AF is challenging in clinical practice. The institution of lifestyle changes, rigorous control of risk factors, and promotion of adequate anticoagulation, on top of decisions related to different therapeutic strategies, when centered around a single professional, could produce unsatisfactory results. In this sense, organizing health care services with interprofessional teams when treating patients with AF is fundamental for ensuring the best care. In fact, a randomized study comparing usual care with multidisciplinary care demonstrated a reduction of 35% in relative risk for the composite outcome of hospitalization and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Another important aspect lies on the fact that the complete absence of AF events is often utopic, and treatment should aim to provide improvements in quality of life, promote cardiovascular prevention, and mitigate clinical recurrences.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgments</title>
        <p>We would like to thank Dr. Andre d&#8217;Avila for the constant help throughout the whole writing process, in addition to the final review of the manuscript.</p>
      </ack>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> .There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
