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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">s9sc3yPvYBkzMThmxr4K7Cw</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00037</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2021000100037</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20190409</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20190409</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Senesc&#234;ncia de C&#233;lulas Sangu&#237;neas Mononucleares Perif&#233;ricas e na Disfun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial entre Adultos com Alto Risco Cardiovascular</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2006-6253</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Raj</surname>
            <given-names>Vijay</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Charles</surname>
            <given-names>Soniya</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Goenka</surname>
            <given-names>Luxitaa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ramamoorthy</surname>
            <given-names>Thilagavathi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>C</surname>
            <given-names>Marimuthu</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>C</surname>
            <given-names>Emmanuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mala</surname>
            <given-names>Kanchana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kumarasamy</surname>
            <given-names>Subramaniyan</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7101-8513</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>George</surname>
            <given-names>Melvin</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">SRM Medical College Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Research Centre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Kancheepuram</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Tamil Nadu</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IN">&#205;ndia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SRM Medical College Hospital and Research Centre - Medical Research, Kancheepuram, Tamil Nadu - &#205;ndia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">SRM Institute of Science and Technology</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Kattankulathur</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Tamil Nadu</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IN">&#205;ndia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SRM Institute of Science and Technology &#8211; Biotechnology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu - &#205;ndia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">SRM Medical College Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Research Centre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Kancheepuram</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Tamil Nadu</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IN">&#205;ndia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SRM Medical College Hospital and Research Centre - Clinical Pharmacology,Kancheepuram, Tamil Nadu - &#205;ndia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">SRM Institute of Science and Technology</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">School of Public Health</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Kattankulathur</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Tamil Nadu</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IN">&#205;ndia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SRM Institute of Science and Technology - School of Public Health, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu - &#205;ndia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Gleneagles Global Health City Chennai</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Chennai</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Tamil Nadu</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IN">&#205;ndia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Gleneagles Global Health City Chennai, Chennai, Tamil Nadu - &#205;ndia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">SRM Medical College Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Research Centre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Kancheepuram</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Tamil Nadu</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IN">&#205;ndia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SRM Medical College Hospital and Research Centre - General Medicine,Kancheepuram, Tamil Nadu - &#205;ndia</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Melvin George &#8226; Dept of Clinical Pharmacology, SRM Medical College Hospital &amp; Research Centre, SRM Institute of Science &amp; Technology, SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur - 603203, Kanchipuram, Chennai, TN, India E-mail: <email>melvingeorge2003@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos Autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Emmanuel C, Mala K, Kumarasamy S, George M; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Raj V, Charles S, Marimuthu C, Emmanuel C; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Raj V, Charles S, Goenka L, Ramamoorthy T, Marimuthu C, Emmanuel C, Mala K, Kumarasamy S, George M; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Goenka L, Ramamoorthy T, George M; Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Mala K, George M; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Goenka L, Ramamoorthy T, George M; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Raj V, Charles S, Goenka L, Ramamoorthy T, Marimuthu C, Emmanuel C, Mala K, Kumarasamy S, George M.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>03</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>116</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>37</fpage>
      <lpage>47</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> Doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) s&#227;o uma das principais causas de mortalidade e morbidade em todo o mundo. O envelhecimento biol&#243;gico tem sido associado &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de resultados cardiovasculares. Entretanto, o mecanismo subjacente desse processo ainda &#233; desconhecido.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Buscamos avaliar se a senesc&#234;ncia das c&#233;lulas sangu&#237;neas mononucleares perif&#233;ricas (CSMP) e biomarcadores endoteliais poderiam influenciar o risco cardiovascular (CV) e ser marcadores adequados para a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares em adultos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Neste estudo transversal, pacientes livres de DCV foram classificados como baixo (n=32) e alto (n=28) escore de risco intracardaco (IHR) A senesc&#234;ncia das CSMP foi avaliada estimando-se a atividade de telomerase (AT) e detectando-se a presen&#231;a de c&#233;lulas senescentes e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, estimando-se a concentra&#231;&#227;o de nitrito e nitrato e a capacidade antioxidante total (CAT). A an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica foi realizada com o software SPSS, vers&#227;o 16.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). Todos os p-valores &lt;0,05 foram considerados estatisticamente significativos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> A senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP de 0,95 [p-valor = 0,0001; 95% IC (0,874-1,026)] foi um indicador significativo de pacientes com escore de IHR mais alto, com um valor de corte de 21,65, com sensibilidade e especificidade de 92% e 88% respectivamente. Identificou-se que a senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP, nitrito e nitrato, e AT eram independentemente associadas a um escore de IHR alto.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> Os status de nitrito e nitrato e AT, e a senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP s&#227;o medidas adequadas para prever o alto risco cardiovascular em adultos com risco CV. Entretanto devem ser realizados estudos de acompanhamento de longo prazo para confirmar esses achados. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2021; 116(1):37-47)</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Envelhecimento Celula</kwd>
        <kwd>Endot&#233;lio</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarcadores</kwd>
        <kwd>Pontua&#231;&#227;o de Propens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="10"/>
        <table-count count="6"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="33"/>
        <page-count count="11"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV), tais como aterosclerose e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IM) associado, continuam sendo uma das mais conhecidas e principais causas de mortalidade e morbidade em todo o mundo, inclusive na &#205;ndia. Al&#233;m disso, os custos sociais e econ&#244;micos envolvidos no tratamento de DCV s&#227;o altos. Estima-se que mais de 75% das mortes por causas cardiovasculares (CV) ocorrem em pa&#237;ses com renda baixa e m&#233;dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> O envelhecimento cronol&#243;gico &#233; considerado um dos mais fortes indicadores da ocorr&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as CV e cerebrovasculares tais como IM, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, aterosclerose e acidente vascular. Entretanto, o envelhecimento biol&#243;gico pode ser considerado superior ao envelhecimento cronol&#243;gico pela estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> O processo de envelhecimento biol&#243;gico refere-se particularmente ao ac&#250;mulo de danos endoteliais que ocorrem devido a v&#225;rios mecanismos mec&#226;nicos, hemodin&#226;micos e imunol&#243;gicos, e &#233; determinado por fatores sociais e ambientais. Acredita-se que a senesc&#234;ncia vascular (%) (SV), um tipo de envelhecimento biol&#243;gico do sistema vascular tenha a relev&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica e terap&#234;utica na aterosclerose. O envelhecimento biol&#243;gico tem sido associado &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de resultados CV adversos. Entretanto, o mecanismo subjacente desse processo ainda &#233; desconhecido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o envelhecimento arterial &#233; o principal reflexo do envelhecimento biol&#243;gico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A aus&#234;ncia de atividade de telomerase (AT) leva ao encurtamento dos tel&#244;meros, que &#233; um determinante importante do envelhecimento biol&#243;gico, levando a v&#225;rias doen&#231;as vasculares. O termo disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial se refere a v&#225;rias condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas que incluem a altera&#231;&#227;o das propriedades anticoagulantes e anti-inflamat&#243;rias do endot&#233;lio, a desregula&#231;&#227;o da modelagem vascular, e a deteriora&#231;&#227;o da regula&#231;&#227;o do crescimento vascular. A disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial leva a produ&#231;&#227;o ou disponibilidade atenuada de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) e causa a upregulation do stress oxidativo pelo aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas do oxig&#234;nio (ERO).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A senesc&#234;ncia celular demonstrou ser equivalente &#224; senesc&#234;ncia epitelial, e, portanto, &#224; senesc&#234;ncia vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> 0 Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica atual, o risco de DCV &#233; estimado e quantificado com base em fatores de risco convencionais, tais como idade, diabetes, hipertens&#227;o, tabagismo, hipercolesterolemia e hist&#243;rico familiar de DCV. Entretanto, indiv&#237;duos portadores de DCV podem ter apenas um ou nenhum dos fatores de risco tradicionais, e h&#225; a possibilidade de que esses fatores de risco possam n&#227;o explicar totalmente o avan&#231;o da doen&#231;a. Portanto, a avalia&#231;&#227;o de outros fatores de risco n&#227;o tradicionais e incomuns pode ajudar cl&#237;nicos a prever o risco futuro de DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Levantamos a hip&#243;tese de que a senesc&#234;ncia das c&#233;lulas sangu&#237;neas mononucleares perif&#233;ricas (CSMP) e biomarcadores endoteliais poderiam influenciar o risco CV e poderiam ser marcadores adequados para a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares em adultos com alto risco CV.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="materials|methods">
      <title>Materiais e M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Desenho e Configura&#231;&#227;o do Estudo</title>
        <p>O protocolo do estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica Institucional (973/IEC/2016). Todos os procedimentos do estudo foram seguidos de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki. Todos os participantes deste estudo transversal passaram por triagem e foram recrutados no per&#237;odo entre janeiro de 2017 e dezembro de 2017, do departamento de pacientes externos (DPE) em Medicina Geral e das cl&#237;nicas. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> apresenta o delineamento do estudo de pesquisa.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Pacientes com escore de risco intracard&#237;aco mais alto.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0037-90409-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sujeitos do Estudo</title>
        <p>Inclu&#237;mos todos os adultos acima de 18 anos de idade, de ambos os sexos, que compareceram ao DPE de Medicina Geral e cl&#237;nicas sem quaisquer doen&#231;as card&#237;acas. Os pacientes com risco cardiovascular mais alto e mais baixo foram inclu&#237;dos. Os pacientes foram classificados com base em seu escore de risco intracard&#237;aco (IHR). O escore IHR foi calculado com base na presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de fatores de risco CV conhecidos. Exclu&#237;mos pacientes com quaisquer doen&#231;as card&#237;acas ou doen&#231;as imunes ativas e doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas do f&#237;gado e do rim.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Escore de Risco Intracard&#237;aco</title>
        <p>Depois de obter o consentimento informado, os participantes do estudo passaram por triagem de acordo com os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o/exclus&#227;o e o escore de IHR foi medido. O escore de IHR foi calculado utilizando-se a vers&#227;o que n&#227;o inclu&#237;a dados sobre n&#237;veis de colesterol. O escore de IHR, composto de informa&#231;&#227;o sobre hist&#243;rico m&#233;dico e dados sobre idade, sexo, status em rela&#231;&#227;o a diabetes, hipertens&#227;o, tabagismo, hist&#243;rico familiar de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca, raz&#227;o cintura-quadril, fatores psicossociais, dieta e atividade f&#237;sica. Os escores de IHR variaram entre 0 e 48, em que escores mais altos ou mais baixos indicam escores de IHR mais altos e mais baixos, respectivamente. Um escore de IHR alto foi definido em &gt; 16 unidades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Coleta de Amostras</title>
        <p>Foram retirados 3 ml de sangue da veia antecubital no antebra&#231;o em tubos vacutainers com heparina e &#225;cido etilenodiamino tetra-ac&#233;tico (EDTA) separadamente. A amostra de sangue obtida nos tubos vacutainers com EDTA foi submetida e centrifuga&#231;&#227;o a 2500 revolu&#231;&#245;es por minuto (rpm) por 10 minutos e o plasma isolado foi armazenado a -80&#176;C. A amostra de sangue coletada nos tubos vacutainers com heparina foram processadas para separar a senesc&#234;ncia de c&#233;lulas sangu&#237;neas mononucleares perif&#233;ricas (CSMP), utilizando o reagente Ficoll-Histopaque. As CSMP isoladas foram fixadas com &#225;lcool 70% e foram armazenadas a 4&#176;C para an&#225;lises posteriores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial foi avaliada estimando-se a concentra&#231;&#227;o de nitrito e nitrato e o status antioxidante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Quantifica&#231;&#227;o de Nitrito e Nitrato Totais</title>
        <p>A estimativa de nitrito e nitrato totais foi realizada de acordo com kit de teste de rea&#231;&#227;o de Griess, utilizando o kit de ensaio Nitrito/Nitrato (Sigma-Aldrich-N&#250;mero no cat&#225;logo 23479, St. Louis, EUA), de forma a avaliar indiretamente a biodisponibilidade de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO). Filtros centr&#237;fugos com peso molecular de corte de 3.000 KDa foram utilizados para filtrar as amostras de plasma (300&#956;l cada). A an&#225;lise das amostras de plasma passante foi realizada utilizando-se microplacas para titula&#231;&#227;o de 96 po&#231;os, e a absor&#231;&#227;o foi medida a 540 nm em rela&#231;&#227;o a padr&#245;es de refer&#234;ncia.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Estimativa da Atividade de Telomerase</title>
        <p>A AT do plasma foi estimada usando-se a rea&#231;&#227;o o TeloTAGGG Telomerase PCR ELISA (Ensaio imunoenzim&#225;tico fotom&#233;trico para detec&#231;&#227;o da atividade de telomerase, utilizando o Protocolo de amplifica&#231;&#227;o da repeti&#231;&#227;o de telomerase (TRAP, do ingl&#234;s <italic>Telomerase Repeat Amplification Protocol</italic>), Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Roche Applied Science-N&#250;mero do cat&#225;logo 11854666910, Mannheim, Alemanha]. O ensaio foi realizado de acordo com as instru&#231;&#245;es do fabricante.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Estimativa da Capacidade Antioxidante Total (CAT)</title>
        <p>O CAT do plasma foi estimado utilizando-se o teste de capacidade antioxidante equivalente ao Trolox (TEAC, do ingl&#234;s <italic>Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity</italic>). A an&#225;lise foi realizada de acordo com as instru&#231;&#245;es do fabricante fornecidas no kit de ensaio antioxidante dispon&#237;vel comercialmente (Sigma-Aldrich-N&#250;mero do cat&#225;logo CS0790, St. Louis, EUA). Esse ensaio foi baseado na capacidade de determinar a presen&#231;a de antioxidantes de peso molecular baixo no plasma inibe a produ&#231;&#227;o de ABTS+ produzido pela oxida&#231;&#227;o de ABTS [2,2&#8217;- azino-bis(3-etilbenzotiazolina-6-&#225;cido sulf&#244;nico)]. O CAT foi expresso na forma de equivalentes do Trolox (mM).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Citometria de Fluxo (FACS)</title>
        <p>As CSMP foram isoladas do sangue total utilizando o reagente Ficoll-Histopaque. Depois de isoladas, as CSMP foram fixadas com &#225;lcool 70% e foram armazenadas a 4&#176;C durante a noite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> As c&#233;lulas isoladas foram, ent&#227;o, incubadas por 10 minutos com Rnase A (1mg/ml) por 10 minutos em temperatura ambiente. A senesc&#234;ncia das CSMP (%) foram detectadas usando o reagente corante iodeto de prop&#237;dio por citometria de fluxo (FC 500 Beckmann Coulter).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise Estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>A an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica do estudo foi realizada utilizando-se o software SPSS 16.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, EUA), e p&lt;0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo. A normalidade dos dados para vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foi verificada, utilizando-se gr&#225;ficos Q-Q. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram resumidas como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP) e os dados categ&#243;ricos foram expressos em frequ&#234;ncia (porcentagens). Diferen&#231;as nas vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas entre os grupos foram avaliadas com o teste qui-quadrado. Testes param&#233;tricos foram usados com base na distribui&#231;&#227;o de dados. As diferen&#231;as em vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas entre os grupos foram analisadas utilizando o teste t de amostras independentes. A correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson foi realizada para identificar quaisquer associa&#231;&#245;es entre as diferentes vari&#225;veis. Tra&#231;amos a curva de caracter&#237;stica de opera&#231;&#227;o do receptor (ROC) para identificar o corte para todos os ensaios de laborat&#243;rio para prever o escore de IHR alto. Um escore de IHR alto foi definido em &gt; 16 unidades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Todas as premissas necess&#225;rias pra realizar a an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear foram cumpridas. Modelos de regress&#227;o m&#250;ltipla foram plotados para determinar se as vari&#225;veis independentes senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP, nitrito e nitrato, CAT e AT poderiam prever o escore de IHR.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Caracter&#237;sticas de Linha de Base dos Pacientes do Estudo</title>
        <p>As caracter&#237;sticas de linha de base dos pacientes do estudo foram ilustradas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>). Os pacientes do estudo (n=60) foram classificados em dois grupos de pacientes com escore de IHR mais baixo (n=32) e mais alto (n=28). Os pacientes com escore de IHR &#8805;16 foram classificados como pacientes com escore de IHR mais alto, e os com IHR &lt; 16 foram classificados como de escore de IHR mais baixo. A m&#233;dia de idade dos pacientes do estudo com escores de IHR mais baixo e mais alto foi de 38,09&#177;15,82 e 43,57&#177;11,55 anos, respectivamente. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa quanto ao g&#234;nero dos grupos do estudo. Os escores m&#233;dios de IHR entre os pacientes com escores de IHR mais baixo e mais alto foram 8,5&#177;4,27 unidades e 20,46&#177;2,19 unidades, respectivamente. Como esperado, a presen&#231;a de fatores de risco de CV tais como diabetes e hipertens&#227;o foi maior entre pacientes com escore de IHR mais alto do que entre os com escore de IHR mais baixo.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Dados demogr&#225;ficos e fatores de risco dos participantes do estudo</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">No. Sl</th>
                  <th>Caracter&#237;sticas</th>
                  <th>Sujeitos com IHR mais baixo (n=32)</th>
                  <th>Sujeitos com IHR mais alto (n=28)</th>
                  <th>p valor</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>1.</td>
                  <td align="center">Idade, anos</td>
                  <td align="center">38,09&#177;15,82</td>
                  <td align="center">43,57&#177;11,55</td>
                  <td align="center">0,13</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2.</td>
                  <td align="center">Sexo masculino, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">20 (62,5%)</td>
                  <td align="center">14 (50%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,33</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>3.</td>
                  <td align="center">Escore de risco intracard&#237;aco (IHR)</td>
                  <td align="center">8,5&#177;4,27</td>
                  <td align="center">20,46&#177;2,19</td>
                  <td align="center">0,0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>4.</td>
                  <td align="center">Tabagismo, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (6,2%)</td>
                  <td align="center">5 (17,9%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,16</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>5.</td>
                  <td align="center">Diabetes, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (3,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (78,6%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>6.</td>
                  <td align="center">Hipertens&#227;o, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">32 (100%)</td>
                  <td align="center">7 (25%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,003</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>7.</td>
                  <td align="center">Hist&#243;rico familiar de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (6,2%)</td>
                  <td align="center">4 (14,3%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,30</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>8.</td>
                  <td align="center">Sedentarismo, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">8 (25%)</td>
                  <td align="center">9 (32,1%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,54</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>
                  <italic>Os dados foram expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o e frequ&#234;ncia (porcentagem). Os dados estat&#237;sticos usados para a compara&#231;&#227;o de vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram t teste com amostras independentes, e, para as vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas, o teste qui-quadrado. Um p-valor menor que 0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Senesc&#234;ncia de C&#233;lulas Sangu&#237;neas Mononucleares Perif&#233;ricas</title>
        <p>A senesc&#234;ncia das CSMP foi avaliada nos pacientes do estudo estimando-se a AT e detectando-se a presen&#231;a de c&#233;lulas senescentes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref>). A senesc&#234;ncia m&#233;dia de CSMP (%), a porcentagem de c&#233;lulas senescentes foi significativamente mais baixa entre os pacientes com escore de IHR mais baixo (12,41 &#177; 7,40) do que em pacientes do escore de IHR mais alto (35,26 &#177; 10,02) [p=0,0001] ((<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3a</xref>). A m&#233;dia de AT (unidades/3000 c&#233;lulas) foi significativamente mais alta entre pacientes com escore de IHR mais baixo do que com mais alto [(1,80&#177;0,53 unidades/3000 c&#233;lulas) versus (0,94&#177;0,23 unidades/3000 c&#233;lulas) [p=0,0001] (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3b</xref>). A presen&#231;a de fatores de risco card&#237;aco, tais como diabetes, hipertens&#227;o e tabagismo, influenciou os n&#237;veis de senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP e AT (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Identifica&#231;&#227;o e quantifica&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas senescentes utilizando iodeto de prop&#237;dio.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0037-90409-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Compara&#231;&#227;o da senesc&#234;ncia de c&#233;lulas mononucleares do sangue perif&#233;rico, atividade telomerase, nitrito / nitrato e capacidade antioxidante total entre pacientes com escores de risco intermedi&#225;rio baixo e alto. O teste estat&#237;stico utilizado para comparar vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foi o teste T com amostras independentes; um p-valor menor que 0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0037-90409-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Quantifica&#231;&#227;o da senesc&#234;ncia de c&#233;lulas sangu&#237;neas mononucleares perif&#233;ricas e na disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial baseada na presen&#231;a e aus&#234;ncia de fatore de risco</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
									</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Nitrito e nitrato</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Atividade de telomerase</th>
                  <th colspan="2">CAT</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Fatores de risco</th>
                  <th>Presen&#231;a</th>
                  <th>Aus&#234;ncia</th>
                  <th>Presen&#231;a</th>
                  <th>Aus&#234;ncia</th>
                  <th>Presen&#231;a</th>
                  <th>Aus&#234;ncia</th>
                  <th>Presen&#231;a </th>
                  <th>Aus&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Diabetes</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">34,99&#177;9,99*</td>
                  <td align="center">15,67&#177;11,44</td>
                  <td align="center">204,22&#177;42,39*</td>
                  <td align="center">145,41&#177;55,19</td>
                  <td align="center">0,96&#177;0,23*</td>
                  <td align="center">1,67&#177;0,60</td>
                  <td align="center">0,52&#177;0,08*</td>
                  <td align="center">0,66&#177;0,14</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Hipertens&#227;o</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">40,37&#177;10,68*</td>
                  <td align="center">20,79&#177;13,26</td>
                  <td align="center">224,71&#177;28,01*</td>
                  <td align="center">160,45&#177;56,84</td>
                  <td align="center">0,81&#177;0,18*</td>
                  <td align="center">1,47&#177;0,59</td>
                  <td align="center">0,40&#177;0,09*</td>
                  <td align="center">0,64&#177;0,12</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Tabagismo</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">36,05+12,38*</td>
                  <td align="center">21,36+13,83</td>
                  <td align="center">204,14&#177;56,40</td>
                  <td align="center">163,17&#177;56,97</td>
                  <td align="center">0,88&#177;0,23*</td>
                  <td align="center">1,46&#177;0,60</td>
                  <td align="center">0,51&#177;0,12*</td>
                  <td align="center">0,65&#177;0,13</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Doen&#231;a card&#237;aca F/H/O</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">31,40&#177;16,81</td>
                  <td align="center">22,15&#177;13,96</td>
                  <td align="center">191,17&#177;36,08</td>
                  <td align="center">165,37&#177;59,58</td>
                  <td align="center">1,04&#177;0,43</td>
                  <td align="center">1,44&#177;0,60</td>
                  <td align="center">0,48&#177;0,15</td>
                  <td align="center">0,63&#177;0,13</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Sedentarismo</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">28,86&#177;15,33</td>
                  <td align="center">20,79&#177;13,50</td>
                  <td align="center">172,47&#177;53,74</td>
                  <td align="center">166,16&#177;60,06</td>
                  <td align="center">1,24&#177;0,52</td>
                  <td align="center">1,45&#177;0,62</td>
                  <td align="center">0,57&#177;0,14</td>
                  <td align="center">0,63&#177;0,13</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>
                  <italic>*p&lt;0.05; CSMP: C&#233;lulas sangu&#237;neas mononucleares perif&#233;ricas; CAT: Capacidade antioxidante total. Os dados foram expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o. Os dados estat&#237;sticos usados para a compara&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis foram t teste com amostras independentes. Um p-valor menor que 0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Disfun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial</title>
        <p>A concentra&#231;&#227;o de nitrito e nitrato foi ligeiramente mais alta entre pacientes com escore de IHR mais alto em compara&#231;&#227;o com pacientes com escore de IHR mais baixo [205,14&#177;43,60 &#181;mole/l versus 135,41&#177;48,95 &#181;mole/l (p=0,0001)] (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3c</xref>). A CAT foi significativamente mais alta entre pacientes com escore de IHR mais baixo do que com mais alto [(0,71&#177;0,08 mM/L) versus (0,50&#177;0,09 mM/L) (p=0,0001] (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3d</xref>). Entretanto a CAT foi estimada para apenas 30 sujeitos. Uma tend&#234;ncia semelhante foi observada entre pacientes fumantes, diab&#233;ticos e hipertensos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre Senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP e Disfun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial</title>
        <p>Observamos uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre idade e senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP (r=0,36, p=0,005), mas uma correla&#231;&#227;o negativa significativa foi observada entre idade e CAT (r=-0,60, p=0,0001). O escore de IHR demonstrou correla&#231;&#245;es positivas significativas com senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP (r=0,75, p=0,0001) e nitrito e nitrato (r=0,56, p=0,0001), enquanto correla&#231;&#245;es negativas significativas foram observadas com AT (r=-0,83, p=0,0001) e CAT (r=-0,92, p=0,0001). Al&#233;m disso, a senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP tamb&#233;m demonstrou correla&#231;&#245;es significativas com vari&#225;veis nitrito e nitrato, CAT e atividade de telomerase (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Correla&#231;&#227;o da senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP com idade, nitrito / nitrato, atividade telomerase e capacidade antioxidante total.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0037-90409-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise de Curva ROC para Senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP e Disfun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial:</title>
        <p>A curva ROC foi tra&#231;ada para verificar se senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP, nitrito e nitrato, status de antioxidante e AT poderiam prever um escore de IHR alto entre os pacientes do estudo. A an&#225;lise demonstrou que a senesc&#234;ncia 0,95 [p-valor = 0,0001; 95% CI (0,874-1,026)] foi um indicador significativo de pacientes com escore de IHR mais alto, com um valor de corte de 21,65, com uma sensibilidade e especificidade de 92% e 88% respectivamente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Curvas de caracter&#237;sticas operacionais do receptor para a previs&#227;o do High Interheart Risk Score.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0037-90409-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Modelos de Regress&#227;o M&#250;ltipla para Senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP e Disfun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial</title>
        <p>Modelos de regress&#227;o m&#250;ltipla foram plotados para analisar os efeitos das vari&#225;veis independentes senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP, nitrito e nitrato, e AT nas vari&#225;veis dependentes do escore de IHR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>). Observou-se que a senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP, nitrito e nitrato, e AT eram independentemente associadas a um escore de IHR alto (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Modelos de regress&#227;o m&#250;ltiplos para prever o escore de risco intracard&#237;aco</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal">
									</th>
                  <th colspan="7">Coeficientes</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="2">Modelo</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Coeficientes n&#227;o padronizados</th>
                  <th>Coeficientes padronizados</th>
                  <th rowspan="2">t</th>
                  <th rowspan="2">R quadrado ajustado </th>
                  <th rowspan="2">p valor</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>B</th>
                  <th>Padr&#227;o Erro</th>
                  <th>Beta</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">1</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">(Constante)</td>
                  <td align="center">27,449</td>
                  <td align="center">1,295</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">21,197</td>
                  <td align="center">0,679</td>
                  <td align="center">0,0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">AtividadeTelomerase</td>
                  <td align="center">-9,575</td>
                  <td align="center">0,854</td>
                  <td align="center">-0,827</td>
                  <td align="center">-11,216</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">0,000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="3">2</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">(Constante)</td>
                  <td align="center">21,160</td>
                  <td align="center">2,470</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">8,567</td>
                  <td align="center">0,716</td>
                  <td align="center">0,0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">AtividadeTelomerase</td>
                  <td align="center">-8,357</td>
                  <td align="center">0,904</td>
                  <td align="center">-0,722</td>
                  <td align="center">-9,242</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">0,0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">NitritoeNitrato</td>
                  <td align="center">0,027</td>
                  <td align="center">0,009</td>
                  <td align="center">0,229</td>
                  <td align="center">2,927</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">0,005</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="4">3</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">(Constante)</td>
                  <td align="center">17,112</td>
                  <td align="center">2,988</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">5,727</td>
                  <td align="center">0,735</td>
                  <td align="center">0,000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">AtividadeTelomerase</td>
                  <td align="center">-6,608</td>
                  <td align="center">1,169</td>
                  <td align="center">-0,571</td>
                  <td align="center">-5,652</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">0,000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">NitritoeNitrato</td>
                  <td align="center">0,021</td>
                  <td align="center">0,009</td>
                  <td align="center">0,179</td>
                  <td align="center">2,274</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">0,027</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Senesc&#234;ncia</td>
                  <td align="center">0,113</td>
                  <td align="center">0,050</td>
                  <td align="center">0,235</td>
                  <td align="center">2,251</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">0,028</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>
                  <italic>B: Coeficiente de regress&#227;o n&#227;o padronizado; SE&#946;: Erro padr&#227;o de coeficiente; &#946;: Coeficientes padronizados; p&lt;0,05*</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e a ocorr&#234;ncia de DCV foi descrita em estudos anteriores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Entretanto, as informa&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; rela&#231;&#227;o entre senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, e DCV entre sujeitos sem qualquer DCV estabelecida continuam escassas. Este &#233; o primeiro estudo cl&#237;nico realizado na popula&#231;&#227;o do sul da &#205;ndia que estimou a senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP e que determinou sua rela&#231;&#227;o com alto risco de CV usando um escore de IHR. O principal achado de nosso estudo foi de que senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP, nitrito e nitrato, e AT eram independentemente associados a um escore de IHR alto. A gravidade da senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP foi maior entre pacientes com risco de CV mais alto se comparado a pacientes com risco de CV mais baixo. A senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP foi estimada com base em AT e na porcentagem de c&#233;lulas senescentes (%) entre os pacientes do estudo.</p>
      <p>Tel&#244;meros e telomerase t&#234;m um papel significativo no desenvolvimento e na patog&#234;nese de DCV. Sabe-se que, a cada divis&#227;o celular, o comprimento dos tel&#244;meros diminui, enquanto a inflama&#231;&#227;o e o stress oxidativo, que s&#227;o mecanismos importantes envolvidos no desenvolvimento e na patog&#234;nese de DCV aumenta o &#237;ndice de encurtamento levando &#224; senesc&#234;ncia celular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a presen&#231;a de AT mais baixa e comprimento dos tel&#244;meros de leuc&#243;citos (CTL) foi vista em c&#233;lulas endoteliais senescentes, c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares (CMLV), placa ateroscler&#243;tica, e estas tamb&#233;m est&#227;o associadas com a instabilidade da placa que leva a DCV. A aus&#234;ncia de AT que mant&#233;m a integridade do tel&#244;mero e o comprimento do tel&#244;mero torna a c&#233;lula senescente e causa apoptose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Nosso estudo revelou que a AT foi significativamente mais baixa em pacientes com escore de IHR mais alto do que mais baixo. Em contraste com nossos achados, um estudo anterior chamado desenvolvimento de risco da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria em jovens adultos (CARDIA), conduzido entre pacientes jovens com desenvolvimento de risco de art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria com c&#225;lcio da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria (CAC), revelou que a AT desempenha um papel vital no desenvolvimento da aterosclerose. Os achados do estudo demonstraram que n&#237;veis mais altos de telomerase previram a preval&#234;ncia mais alta de CAC entre homens de idade jovem a meia idade. Entretanto, os pacientes com tel&#244;meros mais curtos apresentaram uma associa&#231;&#227;o positiva entre AT e CAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Em um estudo transversal anterior, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre carga de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica de um lado, e CTL m&#233;dio e abund&#226;ncia de tel&#244;meros curtos (% CTL &lt; 3 kb), de outro, foi estudada em 4.066 indiv&#237;duos de meia idade assintom&#225;ticos, sem a presen&#231;a de qualquer DCV. O estudo demonstrou que o CTL m&#233;dio e tel&#244;meros curtos n&#227;o foram indicadores significativos e independentes de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Em um dos maiores estudos de observa&#231;&#227;o e gen&#233;ticos, conduzido em 290.022 indiv&#237;duos de Copenhagen, revelou-se que a presen&#231;a de tel&#244;meros curtos foi associada a risco mais alto de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup>A diferen&#231;a nas constata&#231;&#245;es do estudo pode ser atribu&#237;da &#224; heterogeneidade observada na popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo e do tamanho da amostra do estudo. Al&#233;m disso, uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica recente e meta-an&#225;lise de vinte e quatro estudos revelou uma associa&#231;&#227;o inversa entre comprimento de tel&#244;meros de leuc&#243;citos e o risco de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca coron&#225;ria (DCC), independente de fatores de risco vascular convencionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica incluiu pacientes cardiovasculares, enquanto nosso estudo incluiu pacientes sem DCV. Portanto, pode-se sugerir que a medi&#231;&#227;o de AT e CTL pode ser um marcador &#250;til para prever o risco futuro de DCV. Atualmente, est&#227;o sendo realizadas investiga&#231;&#245;es para medir se estatinas podem ser utilizadas como poss&#237;veis agentes terap&#234;uticos para a ativa&#231;&#227;o da telomerase e como geroprotetores eficientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Recentemente, as c&#233;lulas senescentes despertaram a aten&#231;&#227;o por seu potencial como alvo terap&#234;utico para doen&#231;as relacionadas &#224; idade, como as DCV. Estudos demonstraram que a senesc&#234;ncia celular &#233; equivalente &#224; senesc&#234;ncia epitelial, e, portanto, &#224; senesc&#234;ncia vascular. De a&#237; em diante, o presente estudo mediu a porcentagem de c&#233;lulas senescentes (%) que foi significativamente mais baixa com escore de IHR mais baixo em compara&#231;&#227;o com pacientes com escore de IHR mais alto. A an&#225;lise transcricional de CMLV humanas demonstraram que houve supress&#227;o da prote&#237;na Gla da matriz (PGM), um inibidor de calcifica&#231;&#227;o, nas CMLV senescentes. Al&#233;m disso, houve a upregulation da transcri&#231;&#227;o que codifica a prote&#237;na &#243;ssea morfogen&#233;tica 2 (BMP2), que promove a calcifica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Portanto, pode-se sugerir que as CMLV senescentes podem desempenhar um papel importante no desenvolvimento no endurecimento e no enrijecimento relacionados &#224; idade, ao aumentar a calcifica&#231;&#227;o. O enrijecimento e endurecimento das art&#233;rias levam ao desenvolvimento de press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea alta, que &#233; considerada um dos principais fatores de risco para a ocorr&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, HF, acidente vascular, e IM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Outro estudo que foi realizado para comparar a express&#227;o de PGM em c&#233;lulas intersticiais da v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica (CIVA) normais versus doentes, que demonstrou que a express&#227;o de PGM era significativamente reduzida nas CIVA doentes em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s normais. Esses achados implicam que a aus&#234;ncia de um mecanismo de defesa contra a calcifica&#231;&#227;o pode contribuir para a calcifica&#231;&#227;o a v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup>Portanto, a estimativa da porcentagem de c&#233;lulas senescentes pode ser um marcador novo em potencial para indicar o desenvolvimento e o avan&#231;o de DCV. Estrat&#233;gicas terap&#234;uticas novas que envolvem a preven&#231;&#227;o, a retirada e a substitui&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas senescentes est&#227;o em fase inicial. &#201; necess&#225;rio ter melhor entendimento e realizar mais pesquisas para compreender a biologia para que esse conhecimento possa se traduzir em aplica&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas.</p>
      <p>Neste estudo, a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial foi medida estimando-se a concentra&#231;&#227;o de nitrito e nitrato e a CAT. A CAT foi ligeiramente mais baixa entre pacientes com escore de IHR mais alto em compara&#231;&#227;o com pacientes com escore de IHR mais baixo. V&#225;rios estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos demonstraram que pessoas com maior consumo de vitaminas antioxidantes t&#234;m risco mais baixo de desenvolver IM e acidente vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Entretanto, uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica recente e meta-an&#225;lise de ensaios controlados rand&#244;micos revelaram que a literatura atual n&#227;o apresentava evid&#234;ncias para corroborar a hip&#243;tese do uso de vitaminas e antioxidantes para prevenir DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup>Entretanto, uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica recente de estudos de observa&#231;&#227;o demonstrou uma associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre n&#237;veis mais altos de capacidade de antioxidante total da dieta e fatores de risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Nosso estudo tamb&#233;m demonstrou que as concentra&#231;&#245;es de nitrito e nitrato eram mais altas entre pacientes de alto risco em compara&#231;&#227;o com os de baixo risco. Em contraste, o estudo de Framingham demonstrou que uma concentra&#231;&#227;o mais alta de nitrato no plasma foi associada a mortalidade global, mas n&#227;o demonstrou estar associada &#224; incid&#234;ncia de DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Isso pode se deter ao fato de que nitrito e nitrato presentes na dieta puderam ser metabolizados em NO e dessa forma promover a citoprote&#231;&#227;o e benef&#237;cios cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Os resultados em nosso estudo podem ser contrastantes, devido ao fato de que determinadas dietas, tais como vegetais, frutas e carnes processadas s&#227;o fontes ricas em nitrito e nitrato.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Portanto, h&#225; possibilidade de que pacientes de alto risco em nosso estudo estejam expostos a essas dietas. A resposta dependente do endot&#233;lio &#224; vasodilata&#231;&#227;o &#233; regulada pela libera&#231;&#227;o de NO sintetizado a partir de nitrato, nitrito e do amino&#225;cido L-arginina da dieta, por meio de &#243;xido n&#237;trico-sintase endotelial (eNOS), que leva &#224; produ&#231;&#227;o de PGM c&#237;clica intracelular. Entretanto, a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial leva ao desbalan&#231;o na produ&#231;&#227;o de NO e ERO, levando &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de v&#225;rias doen&#231;as relacionadas &#224; idade, tais como as DCV. O ac&#250;mulo de ERO no plasma e intima arterial leva ao aumento da oxida&#231;&#227;o do lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade (LDL); a capta&#231;&#227;o desse LDL oxidado pelos macr&#243;fagos arteriais &#233; um dos fatores importantes para a forma&#231;&#227;o e avan&#231;o da placa ateroscler&#243;tica. Portanto, a presen&#231;a de antioxidantes no plasma, part&#237;cula de LDL e parede da c&#233;lula n&#227;o podem inibir a oxida&#231;&#227;o do LDL, e podem proteger a vasorreatividade aumentando a libera&#231;&#227;o de NO endotelial e reduzindo a trombogenicidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup>Portanto, a determina&#231;&#227;o da CAT e da concentra&#231;&#227;o de nitrito e nitrato pode acabar sendo um marcador potencial para previs&#227;o precoce de DCV no futuro.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>A principal limita&#231;&#227;o deste estudo est&#225; relacionada ao tamanho limitado da amostra. Outra limita&#231;&#227;o &#233; que este estudo n&#227;o teve um acompanhamento prospectivo de longo prazo com a confirma&#231;&#227;o de eventos cl&#237;nicos. Em vez disso, o risco foi calculado com base no escore de risco intracardaco. Al&#233;m disso, as amostras de sangue foram coletadas em diferentes momentos, o que pode ter afetado os n&#237;veis de testes laboratoriais.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>Este estudo demonstrou que a senesc&#234;ncia de CSMP, AT e nitrito e nitrato s&#227;o medidas adequadas para prever risco cardiovascular alto em adultos com risco CV. Portanto, a medi&#231;&#227;o dos marcadores acima pode ser utilizada como ferramenta adicional de avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco para prever o risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares entre adultos. Entretanto, estudos de acompanhamento prospectivos de longo prazo, com a avalia&#231;&#227;o de eventos cl&#237;nicos, precisam ser realizados para confirmar esses achados.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>.O presente estudo foi financiado pelo Selective Excellence Initiative Scheme of SRMIST, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Assessment of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Senescence and Endothelial Dysfunction among Adults with High Cardiovascular Risk</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2006-6253</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Raj</surname>
            <given-names>Vijay</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Charles</surname>
            <given-names>Soniya</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Goenka</surname>
            <given-names>Luxitaa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ramamoorthy</surname>
            <given-names>Thilagavathi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>C</surname>
            <given-names>Marimuthu</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>C</surname>
            <given-names>Emmanuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mala</surname>
            <given-names>Kanchana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kumarasamy</surname>
            <given-names>Subramaniyan</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7101-8513</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>George</surname>
            <given-names>Melvin</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="IN">India</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SRM Medical College Hospital and Research Centre - Medical Research, Kancheepuram, Tamil Nadu - India</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="IN">India</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SRM Institute of Science and Technology &#8211; Biotechnology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu - India</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="IN">India</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SRM Medical College Hospital and Research Centre - Clinical Pharmacology, Kancheepuram, Tamil Nadu - India</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="IN">India</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SRM Institute of Science and Technology - School of Public Health, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu - India</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="IN">India</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Gleneagles Global Health City Chennai, Chennai, Tamil Nadu - India</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="IN">India</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SRM Medical College Hospital and Research Centre - General Medicine, Kancheepuram, Tamil Nadu - India</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing Address: Melvin George</bold> &#8226; Dept of Clinical Pharmacology, SRM Medical College Hospital &amp; Research Centre, SRM Institute of Science &amp; Technology, SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur - 603203, Kanchipuram, Chennai, TN, India E-mail: melvingeorge2003@gmail.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Emmanuel C, Mala K, Kumarasamy S, George M; Acquisition of data: Raj V, Charles S, Marimuthu C, Emmanuel C; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Raj V, Charles S, Goenka L, Emmanuel C,Ramamoorthy T, Marimuthu C, Mala K, Kumarasamy S, George M; Statistical analysis: Goenka L, Ramamoorthy T, George M; Obtaining financing: Mala K, George M; Writing of the manuscript: Goenka L, Ramamoorthy T, George M; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Raj V, Charles S, Goenka L, Ramamoorthy T, Marimuthu C, Emmanuel C, Mala K, Kumarasamy S, George M.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Biological aging has been associated with the occurrence of adverse cardiovascular outcomes; however, the underlying mechanism of this process remains unknown.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p> This study sought to evaluate if peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) senescence and endothelial biomarkers could influence cardiovascular (CV) risk and be suitable markers for the early detection of cardiovascular diseases in adults.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> In this cross-sectional study patients free of CVD were classified as lower (n=32) and higher Interheart Risk (IHR) scores (n=28). PBMC senescence was assessed by estimating the telomerase activity (TA) and detecting the presence of senescent cells and endothelial dysfunction by estimating the concentration of nitrite and nitrate and of total antioxidant capacity (TAC). Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS version 16.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). All p-values &lt;0.05 were considered statistically significant.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> PBMC senescence 0.95 [p-value = 0.0001; 95% CI (0.874-1.026)] was a significant predictor of patients with higher IHR scores with a cut-off value of 21.65 with a sensitivity and specificity of 92% and 88% respectively. PBMC senescence, nitrite and nitrate and TA were found to be independently associated with high IHR scores.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p> PBMC senescence, TA and nitrite, and nitrate status are suitable measures to predict high cardiovascular risk in adults with CV risk. Nevertheless, long-term follow-up studies are needed to confirm these findings. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2021; 116(1):37-47)</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Cell Aging</kwd>
        <kwd>Endothelium</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarkers</kwd>
        <kwd>Propensity Score</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) such as atherosclerosis and associated myocardial infarction (MI) are still one of the well-known and leading causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide, especially in India. Moreover, the social and economic costs incurred in the treatment of CVD are high. It has been estimated that more than 75% of the cardiovascular (CV) deaths occur in lower and middle-income countries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Chronological aging is considered to be one of the strongest predictors for the occurrence of CV and cerebrovascular diseases, such as MI, heart failure (HF), atherosclerosis, and stroke; however, biological aging can be considered superior to chronological aging in the stratification of the CVD risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The process of biological aging particularly refers to the accumulation of endothelial damage, which occurs due to several mechanical, hemodynamic, and immunological mechanisms, and is determined by both social and environmental factors. Vascular Senescence (%) (VS), a kind of biological aging of the vascular system, is postulated to have prognostic and therapeutic relevance in atherosclerosis. Biological aging has been associated with the occurrence of adverse CV outcomes; however, the underlying mechanism of this process remains unknown.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Moreover, arterial aging is the primary reflection for biological aging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The absence of telomerase activity (TA) leads to the shortening of telomeres, which is an important determinant of biological aging leading to several vascular diseases. The term endothelial dysfunction refers to a number of pathological conditions that include the altered anticoagulant and anti-inflammatory properties of the endothelium, dysregulation of vascular modelling and the impaired regulation of vascular growth. Endothelial dysfunction leads to attenuated production or the availability of nitric oxide (NO) and leads to the up-regulation of oxidative stress through the increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>. Cell senescence has proven to be equivalent to endothelial senescence and thus vascular senescence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> In the current clinical practice, the risk of CVD is estimated and quantified on the basis of conventional risk factors such as age, diabetes, hypertension, smoking, hypercholesterolemia, and family history of CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Nevertheless, individuals with CVD might have only one, or none of the traditional risk factors and there is a possibility that these risk factors might not fully account for the disease progression. Therefore, the evaluation of other non-traditional and uncommon risk factors might aid clinicians in predicting the future risk of CVD. In this light, we hypothesized that peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) senescence and endothelial biomarkers could influence the CV risk and could be suitable markers for the early detection of cardiovascular disease among adults with high CV risk.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="materials|methods">
        <title>Materials &amp; Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study Design and Setting</title>
          <p>The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee (973/IEC/2016). All the study procedures were followed according to the Declaration of Helsinki. All the study participants of this cross-sectional study were screened and recruited between January 2017 and December 2017 from the General Medicine outpatient department (OPD) and hospital wards. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> provides the outline of the study.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Flow chart representations of the research study.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0037-90409-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Study Subjects</title>
          <p>This study included all adults over 18 years of age, of both genders, who received medical care at the General Medicine OPD and hospital wards with no cardiac diseases. Patients with both higher and lower cardiovascular risk were included. Patients were classified on the basis of their Interheart Risk (IHR) score. The IHR score was calculated based on the presence or absence of known CV risk factors. Patients with any cardiac disease, active immune disease, and chronic liver or kidney diseases were excluded from the study.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Interheart Risk Score</title>
          <p>After obtaining the informed consent form, the study participants were screened according to the inclusion/exclusion criteria, and the IHR score was measured. The IHR score was calculated using the version which did not include data on cholesterol levels. The IHR score consisted of information on medical history and data on the domains of age, gender, status with respect to diabetes, hypertension, smoking, family history of heart disease, waist-to-hip ratio, psychosocial factors, diet, and physical activity. The scores of the IHR ranged from 0 to 48, where higher and lower scores indicated higher IHR and lower IHR scores respectively. A high IHR score was defined as value16 units.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sample Collection</title>
          <p>Three ml of blood was obtained from the antecubital vein of the forearm in both heparin and Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) vacutainers separately. The blood sample obtained in the EDTA vacutainers was subjected to centrifugation at 2,500 revolutions per minute (rpm) for 10 minutes and the isolated plasma was stored at -80&#176;C. The blood sample collected in the heparin vacutainers were processed for the separation of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell Senescence (PBMCs), using Ficoll-Histopaque reagent. The isolated PBMCs were those fixed with 70% ethanol and were stored at 4&#176;C until further analysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Endothelial dysfunction was assessed by estimating the concentration of nitrite and of nitrate and antioxidant status.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Quantification of Total Nitrite and Nitrate</title>
          <p>The estimation of total nitrite and nitrate was performed according to the Griess reaction assay kit using the Nitrite/Nitrate Assay Kit (Sigma-Aldrich-Catalogue Number 23479, St. Louis, USA), so as to indirectly assess the bioavailability of nitric oxide (NO). Centrifugal filters, with a molecular weight 3,000 KDa cut-off, was used to filter the plasma samples (300&#956;l each).The analysis of the flow through plasma samples was performed using a 96-well microtiter plate, and the absorbance was read at 540nm against the reference standards.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Estimation of Telomerase Activity</title>
          <p>Plasma TA was estimated using the Telo TAGGG Telomerase Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) ELISA [Photometric enzyme immunoassay for the detection of telomerase activity, utilizing the Telomerase Repeat Amplification Protocol (TRAP), Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Roche Applied Science-Catalog Number 11854666910, Mannheim, Germany]. The assay was performed according to manufacturer&#8217;s instructions.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Estimation of Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC)</title>
          <p>The plasma TAC was estimated using the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay. The analysis was performed according to manufacturer&#8217;s instructions provided in the commercially available Antioxidant Assay Kit (Sigma-Aldrich-Catalog Number CS0790, St. Louis, USA). This assay was based on the ability to determine if the presence of low molecular weight antioxidants in the plasma will inhibit the production of ABTS+ produced by the oxidation of ABTS [2, 2-Azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)]. The TAC was expressed in the form of Trolox equivalents (mM).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fluorescence-activated Cell Sorting (FACS) Analysis</title>
          <p>The PBMCs were isolated from the whole blood using Ficoll-Histopaque reagent. After the isolation of PBMCs, these were fixed with 70% ethanol and stored at 4&#176;C overnight.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The isolated cells were then incubated for 10 minutes with RNase A (1mg/ml) for 10min at room temperature. PBMC senescence (%) was then detected using the staining regent propidium iodide by flow cytometry (FC 500 Beckmann Coulter).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical Analysis</title>
          <p>Statistical analysis for the study was performed using SPSS 16.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA); p&lt;0.05 was considered statistically significant. The normality of data for continuous variables was checked using Q-Q plots. Continuous variables were summarized as the mean &#177; standard deviation (SD), and categorical data were expressed as the frequency (Percentages). Differences in the categorical variables between groups were evaluated with the chi-square test. Parametric tests were used based on the distribution of data. Differences in continuous variables between groups were analyzed using the Independent Samples t-Test. Pearson&#8217;s correlation was performed to identify any association between the different variables. A Receiver operating curve (ROC) was plotted to identify the cut-off for all the laboratory assays so as to predict the high IHR score. A high IHR score was defined as value16 units.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> All the necessary assumptions for performing the linear regression analysis were met. Multiple regression models were plotted to determine if the independent variable PBMC senescence, nitrite and nitrate, TAC, and TA could predict high IHR score.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Baseline Characteristics of Study Patients</title>
          <p>The baseline characteristics of the study patients have been illustrated (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>). The study patients (n=60) were classified into two groups of patients with lower (n=32) and higher IHR (n=28) scores. Patients with an IHR score&#8805;16 were classified as higher IHR score patients and those with an IHR&lt;16 were classified as lower IHR score patients. The mean age of study patients with lower and higher IHR scores was found to be 38.09&#177;15.82 and 43.57&#177;11.55 years, respectively. There was no significant difference in gender among the study groups. The mean IHR scores among patients with lower and higher IHR score patients were 8.5&#177;4.27 units and 20.46&#177;2.19 units, respectively. As expected, the presence of CV risk factors, such as diabetes and hypertension, were greater among patients with higher IHR scores than patients with lower IHR scores.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Demographics and Risk Factors of Study Participants</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Sl No.</th>
                    <th>Characteristics</th>
                    <th>Subjects with lower IHR (n=32)</th>
                    <th>Subjects with higher IHR (n=28)</th>
                    <th>p-value</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>1.</td>
                    <td align="center">Age, years</td>
                    <td align="center">38.09&#177;15.82</td>
                    <td align="center">43.57&#177;11.55</td>
                    <td align="center">0.13</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>2.</td>
                    <td align="center">Male Gender, n (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">20 (62.5%)</td>
                    <td align="center">14 (50%)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.33</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>3.</td>
                    <td align="center">Interheart Risk (IHR) Score</td>
                    <td align="center">8.5&#177;4.27</td>
                    <td align="center">20.46&#177;2.19</td>
                    <td align="center">0.0001</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>4.</td>
                    <td align="center">Smoking, n (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">2 (6.2%)</td>
                    <td align="center">5 (17.9%)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.16</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>5.</td>
                    <td align="center">Diabetes, n (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">1 (3.1)</td>
                    <td align="center">22 (78.6%)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.0001</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>6.</td>
                    <td align="center">Hypertension, n (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">32 (100%)</td>
                    <td align="center">7 (25%)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.003</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>7.</td>
                    <td align="center">Family history of Heart Disease, n (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">2 (6.2%)</td>
                    <td align="center">4 (14.3%)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.30</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>8.</td>
                    <td align="center">Sedentary Lifestyle, n (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">8 (25%)</td>
                    <td align="center">9 (32.1%)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.54</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>Data was expressed as Mean &#177; Standard Deviation and Frequency (Percentage). The statistical tests used to compare continuous variables were the independent samples t-test, while for the categorical variables, the chi-square test was used; p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell Senescence</title>
          <p>PBMC senescence was assessed among the study patients by estimating the TA and detecting the presence of senescent cells (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref>). For the mean PBMC senescence (%), the percentage of senescent cells was significantly lower among patients with lower IHR scores (12.41 &#177; 7.40) than patients with higher IHR scores (35.26 &#177; 10.02) [p=0.0001] ((<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3a</xref>). The mean TA (Units/3000cells) was significantly greater among patients with lower rather than higher IHR scores, [(1.80&#177;0.53 Units/3000cells) versus (0.94&#177;0.23 Units/3000cells) [p=0.0001] (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3b</xref>). The presence of cardiac risk factors, such as diabetes, hypertension, and smoking, influenced the levels of PBMC senescence and TA (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Identification and Quantification of Senescent Cells using Propidium Iodide.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0037-90409-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Comparision of peripheral blood mononuclear cell senescence, telomerase activity, nitrite/nitrate and total antioxidant capacity among patients with low and high interheart risk score. The statistics tests used to compare continuous variables were independent samples t-test; p-value less than 0.05 were consideres statistically significant.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0037-90409-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Quantification of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell Senescence and Endothelial Dysfunction based on the presence and absence of risk factors</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
										</th>
                    <th colspan="2">PBMC Senescence</th>
                    <th colspan="2">Nitrite &amp; Nitrate</th>
                    <th colspan="2">Telomerase Activity</th>
                    <th colspan="2">TAC</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Risk Factors</th>
                    <th>Presence</th>
                    <th>Absence</th>
                    <th>Presence</th>
                    <th>Absence</th>
                    <th>Presence</th>
                    <th>Absence</th>
                    <th>Presence</th>
                    <th>Absence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Diabetes</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">34.99&#177;9.99*</td>
                    <td align="center">15.67&#177;11.44</td>
                    <td align="center">204.22&#177;42.39*</td>
                    <td align="center">145.41&#177;55.19</td>
                    <td align="center">0.96&#177;0.23*</td>
                    <td align="center">1.67&#177;0.60</td>
                    <td align="center">0.52&#177;0.08*</td>
                    <td align="center">0.66&#177;0.14</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Hypertension</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">40.37&#177;10.68*</td>
                    <td align="center">20.79&#177;13.26</td>
                    <td align="center">224.71&#177;28.01*</td>
                    <td align="center">160.45&#177;56.84</td>
                    <td align="center">0.81&#177;0.18*</td>
                    <td align="center">1.47&#177;0.59</td>
                    <td align="center">0.40&#177;0.09*</td>
                    <td align="center">0.64&#177;0.12</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Smoking</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">36.05+12.38*</td>
                    <td align="center">21.36+13.83</td>
                    <td align="center">204.14&#177;56.40</td>
                    <td align="center">163.17&#177;56.97</td>
                    <td align="center">0.88&#177;0.23*</td>
                    <td align="center">1.46&#177;0.60</td>
                    <td align="center">0.51&#177;0.12*</td>
                    <td align="center">0.65&#177;0.13</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>F/H/O Heart Disease</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">31.40&#177;16.81</td>
                    <td align="center">22.15&#177;13.96</td>
                    <td align="center">191.17&#177;36.08</td>
                    <td align="center">165.37&#177;59.58</td>
                    <td align="center">1.04&#177;0.43</td>
                    <td align="center">1.44&#177;0.60</td>
                    <td align="center">0.48&#177;0.15</td>
                    <td align="center">0.63&#177;0.13</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Sedentary Lifestyle</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">28.86&#177;15.33</td>
                    <td align="center">20.79&#177;13.50</td>
                    <td align="center">172.47&#177;53.74</td>
                    <td align="center">166.16&#177;60.06</td>
                    <td align="center">1.24&#177;0.52</td>
                    <td align="center">1.45&#177;0.62</td>
                    <td align="center">0.57&#177;0.14</td>
                    <td align="center">0.63&#177;0.13</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>*p&lt;0.05; PBMC: Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells; TAC: Total Antioxidant Capacity. Data was expressed as Mean &#177; Standard Deviation. The statistical tests used to compare the variables were independent samples t-tests; p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Endothelial Dysfunction</title>
          <p>The concentration of nitrite and nitrate was slightly higher among patients with higher IHR scores when compared to patients with lower IHR scores [205.14&#177;43.60 &#181;mole/l versus 135.41&#177;48.95 &#181;mole/l (p=0.0001)] (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3c</xref>). The TAC was significantly higher among patients with lower IHR than with higher IHR scores [(0.71&#177;0.08 mM/L) versus (0.50&#177;0.09 mM/L) (p=0.0001] (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3d</xref>). However, the TAC was estimated for only 30 subjects. A similar trend was observed among smokers, diabetics, and hypertensive patients (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref>).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>The Relationship Between PBMC Senescence and Endothelial Dysfunction</title>
          <p>We observed a significant positive correlation between age and PBMC senescence (r=0.36, p=0.005), but a significant negative correlation was observed between age and TAC (r=-0.60, p=0.0001). IHR scores demonstrated significant positive correlations with PBMC senescence (r=0.75, p=0.0001) and nitrite &amp; nitrate (r=0.56, p=0.0001), whereas significant negative correlations were observed with TA (r=-0.83, p=0.0001) and TAC (r=-0.92, p=0.0001). Additionally, PBMC senescence also showed significant correlations with the variables nitrite and nitrate, TAC, and telomerase activity (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Correlation of PBMC senescence with age, nitrite/nitrate, telomerase activity and total antioxidant capacity.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0037-90409-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>ROC Curve Analysis for PBMC Senescence and Endothelial Dysfunction:</p>
          <p>The ROC curve was plotted to check if PBMC senescence, nitrite and nitrate, antioxidant status, and TA could predict high IHR scores among the studied patients. The analysis demonstrated that PBMC senescence of 0.95 [p-value = 0.0001; 95% CI (0.874-1.026)] was a significant predictor of patients with higher IHR scores, with a cut-off value of 21.65, and with a sensitivity and specificity of 92% and 88%, respectively (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05001">
              <label>Figure 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Receiver operating characteristic curves for the prediction of High Interheart Risk Score.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-01-0037-90409-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Multiple Regression Models for PBMC Senescence and Endothelial dysfunction</title>
          <p>Multiple regression models were plotted to analyze the effect of the independent variables of PBMC senescence, nitrite and nitrate, and TA on the dependent variable IHR score (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref>). It was observed that PBMC senescence, nitrate and nitrite, and TA were independently associated with high IHR scores (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3001">
              <label>Table 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Multiple Regression Models to predict Interheart Risk Score</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal">
										</th>
                    <th colspan="7">Coefficients</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="2">Model</th>
                    <th colspan="2">Unstandardized Coefficients</th>
                    <th>Standardized Coefficients</th>
                    <th rowspan="2">t</th>
                    <th rowspan="2">Adjusted R Square</th>
                    <th rowspan="2">p-value</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>B</th>
                    <th>Std. Error</th>
                    <th>Beta</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="2">1</td>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">(Constant)</td>
                    <td align="center">27.449</td>
                    <td align="center">1.295</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">21.197</td>
                    <td align="center">0.679</td>
                    <td align="center">0.0001</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">TelomeraseActivity</td>
                    <td align="center">-9.575</td>
                    <td align="center">.854</td>
                    <td align="center">-0.827</td>
                    <td align="center">-11.216</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">.000</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="3">2</td>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">(Constant)</td>
                    <td align="center">21.160</td>
                    <td align="center">2.470</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">8.567</td>
                    <td align="center">.716</td>
                    <td align="center">0.0001</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">TelomeraseActivity</td>
                    <td align="center">-8.357</td>
                    <td align="center">.904</td>
                    <td align="center">-0.722</td>
                    <td align="center">-9.242</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">0.0001</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">NitriteandNitrate</td>
                    <td align="center">.027</td>
                    <td align="center">.009</td>
                    <td align="center">0.229</td>
                    <td align="center">2.927</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">0.005</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="4">3</td>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">(Constant)</td>
                    <td align="center">17.112</td>
                    <td align="center">2.988</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">5.727</td>
                    <td align="center">.735</td>
                    <td align="center">0.000</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">TelomeraseActivity</td>
                    <td align="center">-6.608</td>
                    <td align="center">1.169</td>
                    <td align="center">-0.571</td>
                    <td align="center">-5.652</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">0.000</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">Nitrite and Nitrate</td>
                    <td align="center">.021</td>
                    <td align="center">.009</td>
                    <td align="center">0.179</td>
                    <td align="center">2.274</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">0.027</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">Senescence</td>
                    <td align="center">.113</td>
                    <td align="center">.050</td>
                    <td align="center">0.235</td>
                    <td align="center">2.251</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">0.028</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN3001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>B: Unstandardized Regression Coefficient; SE&#946;: Standard Error of Coefficient; &#946;: Standardized Coefficient; p&lt;0.05*</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>The relationship between PBMC senescence and endothelial dysfunction, and the occurrence of CVD has been described in previous studies;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> however, the information regarding the relationship between PBMC senescence, endothelial dysfunction, and CVD among subjects with no established CVD remains sparse. To the best of our understanding, this is the first clinical study conducted in the South Indian population that estimated PBMC senescence and determined its relationship with high CV risk using the IHR score. The main finding of our study was that PBMC senescence, nitrite and nitrate, and TA were independently associated with high IHR scores. The severity of PBMC senescence was greater among patients with higher CV risk when compared to patients with lower CV risk. PBMC senescence was estimated on the basis of TA and the percentage of senescent cells (%) among the studied patients.</p>
        <p>Telomeres and telomerase play a significant role in the development and pathogenesis of CVD. It is well-known that, with each cell division, the length of telomeres shortens, whereas inflammation and oxidative stress, which are major mechanisms involved in the development and pathogenesis of CVD, are known to increase the rate of telomere shortening, leading to cell senescence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Moreover, the presence of lower TA and shorter leukocyte telomere length (LTL) has been seen in the senescent endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), and atherosclerotic plaque, and these are also associated with plaque instability leading to CVD. The absence of TA, which maintains the telomere integrity and telomere length, makes the cell senescent and causes apoptosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Our study revealed that TA was significantly lower among patients with higher than lower IHR scores. In contrast to our findings, an earlier study, named coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA), conducted among young patients with coronary artery risk development with prevalent coronary artery calcium (CAC), revealed that TA plays a vital role in the development of atherosclerosis. The findings of the study demonstrated that higher levels of telomerase predicted a higher prevalence of CAC among young to middle-aged men. However, patients with shorter telomere length presented a positive association between TA and CAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> In an earlier cross-sectional study, the association between subclinical atherosclerosis burden and both average LTL and the abundance of short telomeres (%LTL&lt;3 kb) was studied among 4,066 asymptomatic middle-aged subjects without the presence of any CVD. The study showed that the average LTL and short telomeres were not significant and independent predictors of subclinical atherosclerosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> In one of the largest observational and genetic studies, conducted in 290,022 individuals from Copenhagen, it was revealed that the presence of short telomeres was associated with a higher risk of ischemic heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup>The differences in the study findings might be attributable to the heterogeneity observed in the study population and the sample size of the study. Moreover, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of twenty-four studies revealed an inverse association between leukocyte telomere length and the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD), regardless of conventional vascular risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The systematic review included cardiovascular patients, whereas our study included patients free of CVD. Therefore, it can be suggested that measuring TA and LTL might be a useful marker for predicting the future risk of CVD. Presently, investigations are being carried out to gauge if statins could be used as potential therapeutic agents for telomerase activation and as effective geroprotectors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Lately, senescent cells have gained attention as a therapeutic target for several age-related diseases, such as CVD. Studies have shown that cell senescence has been equivalent to endothelial senescence, and thus vascular senescence as well. The present study then measured the percentage of senescent cells (%), which was significantly lower among patients with lower IHR scores, when compared to those with higher IHR scores. The transcriptional analysis of human VSMCs demonstrated that there was a suppression of the matrix Gla protein (MGP), an inhibitor of calcification, in the senescent VSMCs. Furthermore, there was also an up-regulation of transcript encoding bone morphogenic protein 2 (BMP2), which is a promoter of calcification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Therefore, it can be suggested that the senescent VSMCs might play a prominent role in the development of age-related hardening and stiffening through increased calcification. The stiffening and hardening of arteries lead to the development of high blood pressure, which is considered to be one of the major risk factors for the occurrence of coronary artery disease, HF, stroke, and MI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Another study conducted to compare MGP expression in normal versus diseased aortic valve interstitial cells (AVICs) showed that the MGP expression was significantly decreased in the diseased AVICs relative to normal AVICs. These findings imply that the absence of an anti-calcification defense mechanism might contribute to the calcification of the aortic valve.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup>Therefore, estimating the percentage of senescent cells might be a potential and novel marker for predicting the development and progression of CVD. Novel therapeutic strategies that involve the prevention, removal, and replacement of the senescent cells are at their inception. Further understanding and more research are required to understand this biology so as to translate this knowledge into therapeutic applications.</p>
        <p>The present study measured endothelial dysfunction by estimating the concentration of nitrite and nitrate and the TAC. TAC was found to be significantly lower among patients with higher IHR scores when compared to patients with lower IHR scores. Several epidemiological studies have demonstrated that people with a higher intake of antioxidant vitamins have a lower risk of developing MI and stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> However, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials revealed that the current literature provided no evidence to support the use of vitamins and antioxidants for the prevention of CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> However, a recent systematic review of observational studies demonstrated a substantial association between higher levels of dietary total antioxidant capacity and risk factors of cardiovascular diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Our study also showed that the nitrite and nitrate concentrations were higher among high-risk patients when compared to low-risk patients. In contrast, the Framingham offspring study demonstrated that a higher plasma nitrate concentration was associated with all-cause mortality but was not found to be associated with the incidence of CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> This might be due to the fact that the nitrite and nitrate concentrations present in the diet could be metabolized into NO, thereby promoting cytoprotection and cardiovascular benefits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup>The results in our study might be contrasting due to the fact that certain diets, such as vegetables, fruits, and processed meats, are rich sources of nitrites and nitrates.<sup>32</sup> Hence, there are possibilities that high risk patients in our study had been exposed to such diets. The endothelial-dependent response to vasodilation is regulated by the release of NO synthesized from the dietary nitrate, nitrite and amino acid L-arginine, via the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) ,which leads to the production of intracellular cyclic GMP. However, endothelial dysfunction leads to the imbalance in the production of NO and ROS, in turn leading to the occurrence of several age-related diseases, such as CVD. The accumulation of ROS in the arterial plasma and intima leads to an increase in the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation; the uptake of this oxidized LDL by the arterial macrophages is one of the prominent factors for the formation and progression of atherosclerotic plaque. Therefore, the presence of antioxidants in the plasma, LDL particle, and cell wall can inhibit the LDL oxidation and can safeguard the vasoreactivity by increasing the release of endothelial NO and by reducing thrombogenicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,33</sup> Therefore, determining the TAC and the concentration of nitrite and nitrate can turn out to be a potential marker for the early prediction of CVD in the future.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limitations</title>
          <p>The main limitation of our study is with respect to the limited sample size. Another limitation is that our study did not have a prospective long-term follow-up with the confirmation of clinical events; instead, we calculated the risk based on the interheart risk score. Additionally, the blood samples were collected at different time points, which could have had an effect on the levels of laboratory assays.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>Our study demonstrated that PBMC senescence, TA, and nitrite and nitrate are suitable measures to predict high cardiovascular risk in adults with CV risk. Therefore, measurements of the above markers might be used as an additional risk assessment tool to predict the risk of cardiovascular diseases among adults. Nevertheless, long-term prospective follow-up studies with the adjudication of clinical events are required to confirm these findings.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of Funding. The study was funded by Selective Excellence Initiative Scheme of SRMIST, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
