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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">SNVdgFzJhsqLWPtpHsBJ9Gc</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020001300927</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20190802</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20190802</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica &#8211; Revis&#227;o</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0607-8189</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bazan</surname>
            <given-names>Silm&#233;ia Garcia Zanati</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5239-4625</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gilberto Ornellas de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silveira</surname>
            <given-names>Caroline Ferreira da Silva Mazeto Pupo da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Reis</surname>
            <given-names>Fabr&#237;cio Moreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Malagutte</surname>
            <given-names>Karina Nogueira Dias Secco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tinasi</surname>
            <given-names>Lucas Santos Nielsen</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bazan</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Hueb</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8980-8839</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Katashi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - UNESP, Botucatu, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Silm&#233;ia Garcia Zanati Bazan</bold> &#8226; Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - UNESP - Distrito Rubi&#227;o Jr, s/n. CEP <postal-code>18618-687</postal-code>, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>sgz.bazan@unesp.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Bazan SGZ, Oliveira GO; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Bazan SGZ, Oliveira GO, Silveira CFSMP, Reis FM, Malagutte KNDS, Tinasi LSN, Bazan R, Hueb JC, Okoshi K; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Bazan SGZ.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflitos de interesse pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>115</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>927</fpage>
      <lpage>935</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) &#233; a doen&#231;a card&#237;aca de origem gen&#233;tica mais comum, cuja principal caracter&#237;stica consiste na hipertrofia ventricular esquerda que acontece na aus&#234;ncia de outras patologias que desencadeiam tal altera&#231;&#227;o. A CMH pode se apresentar desde formas assintom&#225;ticas at&#233; manifesta&#231;&#245;es de morte card&#237;aca s&#250;bita e de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca refrat&#225;ria. M&#233;todos de imagem contempor&#226;neos de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o e escores cl&#237;nicos mais acurados v&#234;m sendo utilizados e desenvolvidos no sentido de propiciar uma avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica e funcional mais adequada, bem como possibilitar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o dos casos de maior gravidade. Nesta revis&#227;o, ser&#227;o abordados esses aspectos, entre outros t&#243;picos cl&#225;ssicos inerentes ao estudo dessa doen&#231;a.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica/gen&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Morte S&#250;bita</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Ecocardiografia/m&#233;todos</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertrofia Ventricular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="12"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="64"/>
        <page-count count="9"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) &#233; uma doen&#231;a de causa geneticamente determinada que acarreta altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais na conforma&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). A principal caracter&#237;stica anat&#244;mica dessa doen&#231;a &#233; a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) com v&#225;rias morfologias na aus&#234;ncia de outras condi&#231;&#245;es que justifiquem esse achado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> </p>
      <fig id="f1">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Esquemas de um cora&#231;&#227;o normal (painel esquerdo) e um cora&#231;&#227;o com CMH (painel direito).</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia de CMH &#233; relativamente frequente, estimada em 0,2% da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> As suas manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas s&#227;o extremamente variadas, desde formas assintom&#225;ticas at&#233; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) avan&#231;ada, dentre outras apresenta&#231;&#245;es que culminam em morte s&#250;bita.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> </p>
      <p>Por outro lado, avan&#231;os no tratamento da CMH resultaram em uma taxa de mortalidade anual que atualmente &#233; inferior a 1%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> </p>
      <p>Desse modo, &#233; um assunto de grande interesse devido a sua preval&#234;ncia significativa e &#224; import&#226;ncia da identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce dos grupos em risco, como os atletas.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Bases gen&#233;ticas</title>
        <p>As an&#225;lises gen&#233;ticas da CMH identificaram uma s&#233;rie de muta&#231;&#245;es em mais de 11 genes que codificam prote&#237;nas sarcom&#233;ricas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> A CMH pode ocorrer em um padr&#227;o de heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mica dominante com expressividade e penetr&#226;ncia vari&#225;veis relacionadas &#224; idade ou como uma nova muta&#231;&#227;o em casos sem rela&#231;&#227;o com a fam&#237;lia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> A muta&#231;&#227;o predominante &#233; a muta&#231;&#227;o missense, na qual um &#225;cido nucleico &#233; substitu&#237;do por outro, com altera&#231;&#227;o posterior do amino&#225;cido traduzido e da propriedade funcional da prote&#237;na resultante. Inser&#231;&#245;es e supress&#245;es tamb&#233;m s&#227;o muta&#231;&#245;es comuns envolvidas na patog&#234;nese da CMH, as quais desencadeiam a produ&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas anormais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>Os pacientes com CMH apresentam algum tipo de altera&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica em aproximadamente metade dos casos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>A maioria das muta&#231;&#245;es afeta os genes que codificam prote&#237;nas contr&#225;teis do sarc&#244;mero card&#237;aco: troponina T e cadeia leve de miosina I, cadeia pesada de miosina alfa e beta, prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina, &#945;-actina, &#945;-tropomiosina e titina. Entretanto, muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes codificadores de prote&#237;nas n&#227;o sarcom&#233;ricas tamb&#233;m j&#225; foram identificadas em pacientes com CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> Os genes mais comumente relacionados ao desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as s&#227;o a cadeia pesada da &#946;-miosina (MYH7), a prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina (MYBPC3), e a troponina T (TNNT2)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Distribui&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#227;o dos genes na CMH (Adaptado de Maron BJ et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref>)</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        <p>A patogenicidade de uma muta&#231;&#227;o &#233; avaliada probabilisticamente utilizando-se uma s&#233;rie de crit&#233;rios que determinar&#227;o o risco de desenvolvimento da CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>Tamb&#233;m &#233; importante destacar o conceito de fenoc&#243;pias no contexto da CMH. Esses pacientes t&#234;m o fen&#243;tipo da CMH sem as muta&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas da CMH, mas em vez disso apresentam outra doen&#231;a que resulta em algum problema card&#237;aco similar, tais como Doen&#231;a de Fabry, cardiomiopatia LAMP2, PRKAG2 e/ou amiloidose.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Achados patol&#243;gicos</title>
        <p>Na CMH, o exame histopatol&#243;gico mostra fibras mioc&#225;rdicas hipertrofiadas distribu&#237;das de forma desorganizada e interpostas em uma quantidade vari&#225;vel de fibrose intersticial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Desarranjo de mi&#243;citos do tecido mioc&#225;rdico de um paciente com CMH.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, as arter&#237;olas coron&#225;rias intramurais s&#227;o estruturalmente anormais e apresentam diminui&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea intraluminal com deteriora&#231;&#227;o da capacidade vasodilatadora, o que ocasiona um fluxo sangu&#237;neo ineficiente ao estresse.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Com o passar do tempo, repetidos epis&#243;dios de isquemia levam &#224; morte celular, e a corre&#231;&#227;o &#233; mediada pela substitui&#231;&#227;o por tecido fibr&#243;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>Diferentes tipos de apresenta&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas da CMH j&#225; foram relatados. O tipo mais comum &#233; a hipertrofia septal assim&#233;trica (presente em &gt;75% dos casos), seguida das apresenta&#231;&#245;es apical, conc&#234;ntrica, medioventricular e lateral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fisiopatologia</title>
        <p>Os sintomas da CMH est&#227;o relacionados &#224; combina&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VSVE), regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e arritmias. O fator mais comum que contribui para o desenvolvimento da obstru&#231;&#227;o da VSVE &#233; o movimento anterior sist&#243;lico da valva mitral (MAS) contra o septo interventricular (SIV). O MAS ocorre devido &#224; alta velocidade do fluxo sangu&#237;neo atrav&#233;s da VSVE que arrasta a c&#250;spide anterior da v&#225;lvula mitral para o septo interventricular, resultando em um obst&#225;culo direto &#224; passagem do fluxo sangu&#237;neo atrav&#233;s da via de sa&#237;da.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, a combina&#231;&#227;o de desarranjo de mi&#243;citos, desordem auton&#244;mica, HVE, isquemia e fibrose mioc&#225;rdica produz um substrato arritmog&#234;nico suficiente para o desenvolvimento das principais arritmias observadas em pacientes com CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>Essas caracter&#237;sticas n&#227;o aparecem simultaneamente, e uma classifica&#231;&#227;o de 4 est&#225;gios foi proposta para auxiliar o diagn&#243;stico e o manejo de pacientes: CMH n&#227;o-hipertr&#243;fica, fen&#243;tipo cl&#225;ssico, remodela&#231;&#227;o adversa e disfun&#231;&#227;o evidente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Conforme o paciente avan&#231;a atrav&#233;s dos est&#225;gios, ele sofre uma perda de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o, um aumento da massa ventricular esquerda, uma piora da disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular e diast&#243;lica, uma intensifica&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas e uma perda de obstru&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via da via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, que geralmente se inicia no est&#225;gio 2.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas</title>
        <p>Os sintomas associados &#224; CMH est&#227;o relacionados com os perfis da doen&#231;a, incluindo a apresenta&#231;&#227;o assintom&#225;tica, morte card&#237;aca s&#250;bita/arritmias ventriculares, obstru&#231;&#227;o, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial/acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida. Embora muitos pacientes com CMH n&#227;o apresentem sintomas ou apenas tenham sintomas menores, outros podem apresentar dispneia ao esfor&#231;o, fadiga, dor no peito, pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope e s&#237;ncope, durante ou logo ap&#243;s o esfor&#231;o, e palpita&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>J&#225; existe uma correla&#231;&#227;o bem estabelecida entre a presen&#231;a ou magnitude da obstru&#231;&#227;o da VSVE e a presen&#231;a de sintomas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>Para a maioria dos pacientes com CMH, a HVE n&#227;o &#233; progressiva e &#233; compat&#237;vel com uma longevidade normal, com uma taxa de mortalidade anual de cerca de 1%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>Por outro lado, um grupo pequeno de pacientes apresenta o risco de desenvolver sintomas relacionados &#224; progress&#227;o de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca sist&#243;lica, morte s&#250;bita, e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial relacionada a fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>A presen&#231;a de um gradiente de press&#227;o na VSVE em repouso ou provocada por exerc&#237;cio ocorre na maioria dos pacientes com CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> A obstru&#231;&#227;o significativa em repouso &#233; um fator independente para um pior progn&#243;stico e progress&#227;o &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>O exame f&#237;sico de pacientes com CMH pode revelar achados normais a presen&#231;a de v&#225;rios sinais, tais como quarta bulha (B4), sopro sist&#243;lico de regurgita&#231;&#227;o na borda esternal esquerda inferior, desdobramento paradoxal da segunda bulha card&#237;aca (B2), impulso apical aumentado, e fr&#234;mito sist&#243;lico. Adicionalmente, os pacientes com obstru&#231;&#227;o da VSVE podem apresentar um sopro sist&#243;lico de eje&#231;&#227;o na borda esternal esquerda que geralmente se irradia para a borda esternal superior direita e que pode aumentar ao se levantarem da posi&#231;&#227;o de c&#243;coras e na manobra de Valsalva.</p>
        <p>Pode ser constatado pulso arterial <italic>bisferiens</italic> e presen&#231;a de pico sist&#243;lico em forma de c&#250;pula, enquanto uma onda &#8220;a&#8221; proeminente &#233; detectada no pulso venoso.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Exames complementares</title>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Eletrocardiograma (ECG): Esse teste deve ser realizado em todos os pacientes com suspeita de CMH. Um ECG normal &#233; at&#237;pico, visto que ele ocorre em menos de 10% dos pacientes com CMH, e &#233; muito sens&#237;vel na identifica&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> Esse grupo de pacientes tende a apresentar um progn&#243;stico melhor em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles que apresentaram altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> O padr&#227;o anormal mais comum &#233; a presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es localizadas ou difusas na repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Outros achados podem incluir sinais de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, invers&#227;o da onda T nas deriva&#231;&#245;es esquerdas, e aumento do &#225;trio esquerdo. Ondas &#8220;Q&#8221; profundas e estreitas podem ocorrer em V5 e V6.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Ecocardiograma: O ecocardiograma &#233; um exame essencial tanto para a confirma&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stio quanto para as avalia&#231;&#245;es evolutiva, funcional e progn&#243;stica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> O ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico pode mostrar a morfologia do cora&#231;&#227;o, estimar a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica, avaliar a presen&#231;a e a gravidade do gradiente na VSVE, bem como determinar o grau de regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral. Os principais achados ecocardiogr&#225;ficos associados &#224; CMH s&#227;o HVE (principalmente se for assim&#233;trica e envolver a parede &#226;ntero-lateral ou o septo), aumento do gradiente na VSVE, e o movimento anterior sist&#243;lico da valva mitral (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Ecorcardiograma transtor&#225;cico revelando hipertrofia assim&#233;trica do septo interventricular. SIV: septo interventricular; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; Ao: raiz a&#243;rtica. (Servi&#231;o de Ecocardiografia do HC - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - UNESP).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Os pacientes que permanecem sintom&#225;ticos e n&#227;o apresentam obstru&#231;&#227;o em repouso podem ser submetidos &#224; ecocardiografia de esfor&#231;o para induzir um gradiente e, posteriormente, ajustar o manejo e o tratamento de acordo com o resultado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> </p>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>ECG Holter: Esse exame &#233; realizado como parte da estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de desenvolver arritmias ventriculares e morte s&#250;bita, bem como para investigar palpita&#231;&#245;es e em pacientes com suspeita de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Teste de Esfor&#231;o: Esse teste &#233; tipicamente utilizado para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco por meio da resposta da press&#227;o arterial ao exerc&#237;cio e para investigar isquemia e arritmias.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Card&#237;aca (RMC): A RMC fornece imagens de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o para avaliar as estruturas card&#237;acas. Al&#233;m de conseguir identificar a hipertrofia em segmentos que n&#227;o s&#227;o exibidos na ecocardiografia, ela tamb&#233;m mostra &#225;reas de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica, que geralmente s&#227;o detectadas atrav&#233;s do realce tardio de gadol&#237;nio, e s&#227;o um dos fatores de risco para morte s&#250;bita, permitindo uma melhor caracteriza&#231;&#227;o das anomalias estruturais no aparato da v&#225;lvula mitral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <fig id="f5">
          <label>Figura 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>RMC de um paciente com CMH e apresenta&#231;&#227;o septal assim&#233;trica n&#227;o obstrutiva. AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; AD: &#225;trio direito; SIV: septo intraventricular; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito; VSVE: via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (Cortesia do Departamento de Radiologia do HC - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - UNESP).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf05.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento</title>
        <p>O in&#237;cio do tratamento se d&#225; com medidas preventivas, tais como evitar a deple&#231;&#227;o do volume intravascular e restringir a pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico intenso, com a recomenda&#231;&#227;o individualizada do n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica para cada paciente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Outras medidas incluem a manuten&#231;&#227;o de drogas inotr&#243;picas negativas, evitar o uso de vasodilatadores e a ado&#231;&#227;o de um tratamento apropriado para taquiarritmias.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Terapia medicamentosa</title>
          <p>A terapia farmacol&#243;gica &#233; o tratamento de primeira linha para pacientes com sintomas de IC relacionada &#224; obstru&#231;&#227;o da VSVE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>O uso de medicamentos n&#227;o &#233; recomendado antes do desenvolvimento dos sintomas, j&#225; que n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que a terapia farmacol&#243;gica mude a hist&#243;ria natural de pacientes assintom&#225;ticos.</p>
          <p>A primeira linha de tratamento inclui betabloqueadores. Atualmente, experimentos cl&#237;nicos n&#227;o apontam prefer&#234;ncia por um betabloqueador espec&#237;fico, uma vez que eles n&#227;o foram comparados. Entretanto, estudos relataram os benef&#237;cios de propranolol e sotalol, apesar de este &#250;ltimo ser um agente antiarritm&#237;co Classe 3, na redu&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas e na diminui&#231;&#227;o de arritmias.</p>
          <p>Caso os betabloqueadores n&#227;o aliviem os sintomas, a segunda op&#231;&#227;o &#233; a disopiramida, que pode aumentar a toler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o, &#224;s vezes &#224; custa de efeitos colaterais anticolin&#233;rgicos, tais como reten&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria e boca seca.</p>
          <p>Quando os betabloqueadores n&#227;o podem ser utilizados, outra op&#231;&#227;o &#233; verapamil, embora esse tratamento deva ser cuidadosamente monitorado em pacientes com obstru&#231;&#227;o severa, devido ao risco de edema pulmonar.</p>
          <p>O diltiazem continua sendo a &#250;ltima op&#231;&#227;o, quando as terapias pr&#233;vias n&#227;o forem bem sucedidas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>Pacientes que apresentam obstru&#231;&#227;o da VSVE e sintomas persistentes de IC, apesar da monoterapia, podem se beneficiar da combina&#231;&#227;o de disopiramida com o tratamento atual implementado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6</xref>). Os pacientes tratados com disopiramida devem ser submetidos a ECG basal e peri&#243;dico durante o acompanhamento para monitorar o intervalo QTc. O uso de disopiramida deve ser evitado em pacientes com hiperplasia prost&#225;tica devido ao seu efeito anticolin&#233;rgico.</p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figura 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fluxograma para determinar a medica&#231;&#227;o apropriada para os pacientes com CMH.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf06.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Arritmias e preven&#231;&#227;o de morte s&#250;bita</title>
          <p>A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) &#233; uma arritmia relativamente comum em pacientes com CMH que potencialmente resulta em desfechos cl&#237;nicos adversos maiores, e sua incid&#234;ncia &#233; aproximadamente cinco vezes maior em pacientes com CMH quando comparada com a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>A FA geralmente &#233; pouco tolerada em pacientes com CMH devido &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo de enchimento diast&#243;lico e &#224; perda de contra&#231;&#227;o atrial, fatores que s&#227;o frequentemente associados &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, e est&#227;o presentes em uma grande propor&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes. O desenvolvimento de FA est&#225; associado a uma piora da classe funcional desses pacientes e aos sintomas da IC.</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m disso, a FA &#233; um marcador de mau progn&#243;stico para pacientes com CMH<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> e sinaliza um risco significativamente maior de eventos cerebrovasculares agudos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>O tratamento da FA em pacientes com CMH se assemelha &#224;s recomenda&#231;&#245;es gerais para tratar a FA em pacientes sem CMH, e tanto o controle do ritmo quanto da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca s&#227;o op&#231;&#245;es poss&#237;veis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> devendo ser escolhida a melhor estrat&#233;gia com base no perfil cl&#237;nico de cada paciente. Uma vez que o risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos &#233; maior nos pacientes que desenvolvem FA, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de tratamento anticoagulante nesse grupo de pacientes &#233; aceit&#225;vel e indicado na maioria dos casos, independentemente da estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco com base no escore de CHADS2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>As arritmias ventriculares s&#227;o comuns em pacientes com CMH, incluindo extrass&#237;stoles ventriculares (ESV), taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada (TVNS), taquicardia ventricular (TV), fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular (FV) e morte card&#237;aca s&#250;bita (MCS). Os primeiros tipos ocorrem com mais frequ&#234;ncia em pacientes com CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>O tratamento da ESV s&#243; &#233; necess&#225;rio em pacientes que apresentem sintomas, j&#225; que a presen&#231;a desta condi&#231;&#227;o por si s&#243; n&#227;o confere aumento no risco de MCS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>A TVNS ocorre mais frequentemente em pacientes com maiores graus de HVE, em pacientes com classes funcionais mais avan&#231;adas (III/IV) e em indiv&#237;duos mais velhos. Entretanto, sua presen&#231;a em indiv&#237;duos mais jovens confere um risco maior de MCS. Os epis&#243;dios de TVNS s&#227;o mais frequentes durante o sono ou durante outros per&#237;odos de hiperatividade vagal. Os pacientes com CMH que apresentam TVNS durante o ECG Holter t&#234;m maior risco de MCS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> e esse risco &#233; ainda maior se os epis&#243;dios de TVNS s&#227;o prolongados, repetitivos, ou associados a sintomas de baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> Quando a terapia farmacol&#243;gica adjuvante &#233; proposta com o objetivo de reduzir os sintomas ou a incid&#234;ncia de arritmias ventriculares, o medicamento mais comumente utilizado como terapia inicial &#233; o betabloqueador, e a amiodarona tem sido usada para tratar casos refrat&#225;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> Nos pacientes com alto risco de desenvolver MCS, nenhuma medica&#231;&#227;o substitui adequadamente a implanta&#231;&#227;o de um cardioversor-desfibrilador implant&#225;vel (CDI).</p>
          <p>J&#225; foi documentado clinicamente que a TV sustentada &#233; geralmente rara e se manifesta principalmente como palpita&#231;&#245;es, pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope ou s&#237;ncope. Na aus&#234;ncia de identifica&#231;&#227;o de um poss&#237;vel fator desencadeante, &#233; considerada um fator de risco importante para MCS. A maioria dos pacientes que desenvolvem esse tipo de arritmia recebe o CDI como preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria.</p>
          <p>A estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para MCS deve ser realizada em todos os pacientes com CMH. Os dois primeiros fatores de risco principais para essa condi&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o parada card&#237;aca abortada e TV sustentada espont&#226;nea pr&#233;vias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> Os pacientes que sobrevivem a um epis&#243;dio de FV ou VT t&#234;m um risco muito elevado de eventos recorrentes, o que justifica a implanta&#231;&#227;o de um CDI para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria nesses pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>Outros fatores de risco maiores para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria foram identificados, uma vez que a maioria dos pacientes n&#227;o sobrevive ao primeiro epis&#243;dio de arritmia ventricular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> e porque pode ser a primeira manifesta&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a em indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos.</p>
          <p>Oito fatores principais s&#227;o mais comumente considerados na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de MCS:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> </p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Hist&#243;ria familiar (HF) de CMH relacionada &#224; morte card&#237;aca s&#250;bita<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> (especialmente se a MCS precoce est&#225; presente ou se v&#225;rios indiv&#237;duos da mesma fam&#237;lia s&#227;o atingidos);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>S&#237;ncope que n&#227;o &#233; explicada por outra causa;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>TVNS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> (especialmente se estiver associada a sintomas ou se ocorrer em indiv&#237;duos jovens);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Resposta anormal da press&#227;o arterial em pacientes com idade inferior a 40 anos ou em pacientes com hist&#243;ria familiar de MCS precoce;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>HVE grave (&#8805;30 mm),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref> principalmente em pacientes com idade inferior a 30 anos;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>RMC com contraste mostrando realce tardio de gadol&#237;nio &#8211; fibrose identificada, geralmente superior a 15% da massa do VE;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o menor que 50%; e</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Aneurisma apical do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, independentemente do tamanho.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> </p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Fatores de risco poss&#237;veis incluem a idade do paciente no momento do diagn&#243;stico, um gradiente de press&#227;o maior que 30 mmHg na VSVE, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e a presen&#231;a de gen&#243;tipos de alto risco, dentre outros (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Preditores de MCS em pacientes com CMH</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Fatores cl&#225;ssicos</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Fatores poss&#237;veis</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">MCS abortada</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Gradiente elevado (superior a 30 mmHg) na VSVE</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">IC de MCS</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">S&#237;ncope inexplicada</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Isquemia mioc&#225;rdica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">TVNS ao Holter</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Realce card&#237;aco na RMC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">PA anormal ao exerc&#237;cio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Muta&#231;&#227;o de alto risco</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">HVE grave (&gt;30 mm)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Pacientes com dois ou tr&#234;s fatores de risco maiores t&#234;m uma taxa anual de MCS abortada de aproximadamente 5%, o que justifica a implanta&#231;&#227;o de CDI nessa popula&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>Desse modo, a maioria das sociedades e organiza&#231;&#245;es profissionais recomenda que pacientes com CMH que apresentem dois ou mais fatores de risco importantes recebam um CDI para a preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de MCS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref>, embora estudos mostrem que a presen&#231;a de um fator de risco maior justifique a implanta&#231;&#227;o de um CDI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>Recentemente, foi desenvolvido um novo modelo para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco. Esse escore usa uma equa&#231;&#227;o que introduz vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas, tais como idade, fra&#231;&#227;o de encurtamento do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, espessura m&#225;xima do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, gradiente m&#225;ximo VSVE e di&#226;metro do &#225;trio esquerdo, e demonstrou ser promissor na busca por um m&#233;todo mais preciso para determinar o progn&#243;stico de pacientes com CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref> </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Terapia invasiva</title>
        <p>Um gradiente de press&#227;o VSVE ocorre na maioria dos pacientes com CMH,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> e representa um pior fator progn&#243;stico e preditor do surgimento de sintomas de IC quando presente em repouso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> Pacientes com obstru&#231;&#227;o da VSVE e gradiente de press&#227;o no VE/aorta (seja em repouso ou induzida) &gt; 50 mmHg, e que persiste com sintomas limitadores apesar do uso terapia medicamentosa otimizada m&#225;xima s&#227;o candidatos &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o septal invasiva.</p>
        <p>A miectomia septal &#233; uma boa op&#231;&#227;o quando a v&#225;lvula mitral ou anormalidades do m&#250;sculo papilar devem ser corrigidas ou a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; necess&#225;ria, al&#233;m de remover diretamente o m&#250;sculo septal e expandir a VSVE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> A miectomia geralmente resulta na resolu&#231;&#227;o do gradiente VSVE e melhora os sintomas dos pacientes,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref> al&#233;m de estar associada com excelente sobrevida a longo prazo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o septal percut&#226;nea com &#225;lcool &#233; tamb&#233;m uma boa alternativa, j&#225; que nenhuma meta-an&#225;lise favoreceu um m&#233;todo at&#233; o momento. &#201; particularmente indicada quando a miectomia n&#227;o deve ser realizada devido ao alto risco cir&#250;rgico ou ao desejo do paciente. Esse procedimento reduz a obstru&#231;&#227;o da VSVE, promove melhora na classe funcional, e aumenta a capacidade de exerc&#237;cio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref> Pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o com &#225;lcool apresentam uma taxa de sobrevida de cinco anos, o que &#233; compar&#225;vel aos pacientes submetidos &#224; miectomia septal e &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o em geral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>A principal vantagem da miectomia septal em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o com &#225;lcool &#233; a taxa reduzida de necessidade de implanta&#231;&#227;o de um marcapasso (MP) definitivo devido a um bloqueio atrioventricular avan&#231;ado, uma necessidade reduzida de reinterven&#231;&#227;o por causa da recorr&#234;ncia da obstru&#231;&#227;o VSVE, e uma redu&#231;&#227;o no gradiente VE/aorta ap&#243;s o procedimento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> Al&#233;m disso, ao contr&#225;rio da abla&#231;&#227;o septal, a miectomia septal mostrou reduzir os riscos de MCS e choques inapropriadas do CDI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>A implanta&#231;&#227;o de um MP bicameral programado no modo DDD &#233; uma op&#231;&#227;o razo&#225;vel durante a miectomia para reduzir o gradiente VSVE e melhorar os sintomas relacionados a essa condi&#231;&#227;o. Entretanto, essa indica&#231;&#227;o se restringe a pacientes que j&#225; tiveram um dispositivo bicameral por outras indica&#231;&#245;es, j&#225; que n&#227;o h&#225; dados sobre os efeitos a longo prazo da estimula&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito sobre o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo com CMH, e o benef&#237;cio se restringe apenas a um pequeno subconjunto de pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref> </p>
        <sec>
          <title>Rastreio familiar</title>
          <p>Levando-se em conta a causa gen&#233;tica da CMH, os parentes pr&#243;ximos dos indiv&#237;duos afetados devem ser avaliados periodicamente devido &#224; possibilidade de herdar a doen&#231;a. A avalia&#231;&#227;o consiste de anamnese, exame f&#237;sico, ECG, e ecocardiograma como estrat&#233;gia para detec&#231;&#227;o precoce da CMH<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref> S&#227;o recomendadas avalia&#231;&#245;es a cada 12-18 meses, a partir dos 12 anos de idade, e a cada 5 anos, a partir dos 18 anos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref> O ecocardiograma com Doppler tecidual permite detectar altera&#231;&#245;es na contra&#231;&#227;o e relaxamento ventricular que podem prever o surgimento de disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica nesses pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref> No entanto, a presen&#231;a dessas anomalias n&#227;o &#233; levada em conta no diagn&#243;stico de CMH.</p>
          <p>Os testes gen&#233;ticos n&#227;o s&#227;o realizados rotineiramente no rastreio familiar, exceto em situa&#231;&#245;es nas quais a muta&#231;&#227;o que causa a CMH tenha sido identificada no caso &#237;ndice. Nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, a condi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica dos membros da fam&#237;lia deve ser determinada. Contudo, a muta&#231;&#227;o geralmente s&#243; &#233; detectada em aproximadamente 35% de todos os pacientes. Por outro lado, se o caso &#237;ndice tem a muta&#231;&#227;o e o membro da fam&#237;lia n&#227;o tem, a probabilidade de aparecimento da doen&#231;a &#233; muito baixa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Profilaxia de endocardite</title>
          <p>Os pacientes com CMH apresentam maior risco de desenvolver endocardite infecciosa (EI) quando comparados com pacientes sem CMH, de acordo com um estudo que mostrou um aumento da incid&#234;ncia de EI da valva mitral em pacientes com CMH obstrutiva e com aumento do &#225;trio esquerdo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><sup>64</sup></xref> Entretanto, revis&#245;es recentes das diretrizes internacionais n&#227;o recomendam a administra&#231;&#227;o rotineira de profilaxia para pacientes com CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Por outro lado, as opini&#245;es dos especialistas continuam favor&#225;veis &#224; manuten&#231;&#227;o da profilaxia para endocardite nesse grupo de pacientes antes de procedimentos dent&#225;rios, principalmente em pacientes com CMH obstrutiva.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: A Review</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0607-8189</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bazan</surname>
            <given-names>Silm&#233;ia Garcia Zanati</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5239-4625</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gilberto Ornellas de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silveira</surname>
            <given-names>Caroline Ferreira da Silva Mazeto Pupo da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Reis</surname>
            <given-names>Fabr&#237;cio Moreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Malagutte</surname>
            <given-names>Karina Nogueira Dias Secco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tinasi</surname>
            <given-names>Lucas Santos Nielsen</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bazan</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Hueb</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8980-8839</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Katashi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - UNESP, Botucatu, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Silm&#233;ia Garcia Zanati Bazan</bold> &#8226; Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - UNESP - Distrito Rubi&#227;o Jr, s/n. Postal Code <postal-code>18618-687</postal-code>, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>sgz.bazan@unesp.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Bazan SGZ, Oliveira GO; Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript: Bazan SGZ, Oliveira GO, Silveira CFSMP, Reis FM, Malagutte KNDS, Tinasi LSN, Bazan R, Hueb JC, Okoshi K; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Bazan SGZ.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common heart disease with a genetic origin, and its main characteristic is left ventricular hypertrophy that occurs in the absence of other conditions that trigger this change. HCM may present from asymptomatic forms to manifestations of sudden cardiac death and severe heart failure. Contemporary high-resolution imaging methods and more accurate clinical scores have been used and developed to provide a prognostic assessment and adequate functional assessments, as well as to allow for the stratification of clinical severity. These aspects will be addressed in this review, along with other classic topics inherent to the study of this disease.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Cardiomyopathy, Hypertrophic/genetics</kwd>
        <kwd>Sudden Cardiac Death</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Echocardiography/methods</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypertrophy, Left Ventricle</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a disease with a genetically determined cause that leads to structural changes in the cardiac conformation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 1</xref>). The main anatomical characteristic of this disease is left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) with various morphologies in the absence of other conditions that justify this finding.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> </p>
        <fig id="f7">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Schematic of a normal heart (left panel) and a heart with HCM (right panel).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>The prevalence of HCM is relatively frequent, occurring in about 0.2% of the adult population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> Its clinical presentation is extremely variable, ranging from asymptomatic forms to advanced heart failure (HF), among other presentations that culminate with sudden death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>On the other hand, advances in the treatment of HCM have resulted in a current mortality rate of less than 1% per year.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> </p>
        <p>Thus, it is a subject of great interest due to its significant prevalence and the importance of early identification of at-risk groups, such as competitive athletes.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Genetic bases</title>
          <p>Genetic analyses of HCM have identified a series of mutations in over 11 genes encoding sarcomeric proteins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> HCM can occur in a dominant autosomal inheritance pattern with variable expressivity and penetrance related to age or as a new mutation in non-family related cases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> The predominant mutation is the missense mutation, in which one nucleic acid is replaced by another, with a subsequent modification of the translated amino acid and the functional property of the resulting protein. Insertions and deletions are also common mutations identified as being involved in the pathogenesis of HCM that trigger the production of abnormal proteins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>Patients with HCM are found to have some type of genetic alteration in approximately one-half cases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>Most mutations affect the genes encoding the contractile proteins of the cardiac sarcomere: troponin T and I myosin light chain, myosin heavy chains alpha and beta, myosin-binding protein C, alpha-actin, alpha-tropomyosin and titin. However, mutations in nonsarcomeric protein-coding genes have already been identified in patients with HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> The genes most commonly related to the development of the disease are myosin heavy chain beta (MYH7), myosin-binding protein C (MYBPC3) and troponin T (TNNT2)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f8">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Distribution of gene mutations in HCM (Adapted from Maron BJ et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref>)</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>The pathogenicity of a mutation is evaluated probabilistically using a series of criteria that will determine the risk of developing HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>The concept of phenocopies in the HCM context is also important to highlight. These patients have a CHM phenotype without the CMH genetic mutations, but instead present with some other disease leading to a similar heart condition, such as Fabry disease, LAMP2 cardiomyopathy, PRKAG2 and/or amyloidosis.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pathological findings</title>
          <p>Histopathological analysis of HCM tissue shows hypertrophied myocardial fibers distributed in a disorganized pattern and interposed in a variable amount of interstitial fibrosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f9">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Myocyte disarray in the myocardial tissue of a patient with HCM.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>In addition, intramural coronary arterioles are structurally abnormal and present a decreased intraluminal area with deteriorated vasodilatory capacity, which promotes inefficient blood flow during stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Over time, repeated episodes of ischemia lead to cell death, and repair is mediated by replacement with fibrotic tissue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>Different types of anatomical presentations of HCM have been reported. The most common type is asymmetric septal hypertrophy (present in &gt; 75% of cases), followed by apical, concentric, medioventricular and lateral presentations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pathophysiology</title>
          <p>HCM-related symptoms are related to the combination of diastolic dysfunction, obstruction of the left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT), mitral regurgitation, myocardial ischemia and arrhythmias. The most common factor contributing to the development of LVOT obstruction is systolic anterior motion (SAM) of the mitral valve against the IVS. SAM occurs due to the high speed of blood flow through the LVOT that drags the anterior mitral valve leaflet toward the interventricular septum, resulting in a direct impediment to blood flow through the outflow tract.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>In addition, the combination of myocyte disarray, autonomic disorder, LVH, ischemia and myocardial fibrosis generates a sufficient arrhythmogenic substrate for the development of the main arrhythmias observed in patients with HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>These characteristics do not appear simultaneously, and a 4-stage classification has been proposed to assist with the diagnosis and management of patients: nonhypertrophic HCM, classic phenotype, adverse remodeling and overt dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> As the patient advances through the stages, he experiences a loss of ejection fraction, an increase in the left ventricular mass, a worsening of microvascular and diastolic dysfunction, an intensification of symptoms and a loss of a prior left ventricular outflow tract obstruction, which usually begins in stage 2.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Clinical presentations</title>
          <p>HCM-related symptoms are related to the existing profiles of the disease, including an asymptomatic presentation, sudden cardiac death-ventricular arrhythmias, obstruction, heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, atrial fibrillation/stroke and heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Although many patients with HCM have no symptoms or only experience minor symptoms, others may present dyspnea under stress, fatigue, chest pain, pre-syncope and syncope, during or shortly after stress, and heart palpitations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>A well-established correlation has been observed between the presence or magnitude of the LVOT obstruction and the presence of symptoms.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>For most patients with HCM, LVH is not progressive and is compatible with a normal lifespan, with an annual mortality rate of approximately 1%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>On the other hand, a small group of patients present a risk of developing symptoms related to the progression of systolic heart failure, sudden death, and atrial fibrillation related to thromboembolic phenomena.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>The presence of a pressure gradient in the LVOT at rest or provoked by exercise occurs in most patients with HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Significant obstruction at rest is an independent factor for a worse prognosis and progression to heart failure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>The physical examination of patients with HCM may reveal normal findings or the presence of various signs, such as the fourth heart sound (S4), regurgitation systolic heart murmur on the lower left sternal border, paradoxical splitting of second heart sound (S2), heaving apical impulse, and systolic thrill. Additionally, patients with obstruction of the LVOT may present an ejection systolic murmur at the left sternal edge that usually radiates to the right upper sternal edge and may increase upon standing from the squatting position and in the Valsalva maneuver.</p>
          <p>The arterial pulse may be bifid and present a dome-shaped systolic peak, while a prominent &#8220;a&#8221; wave is detected in the venous pulse.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Complementary examinations</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Electrocardiogram (ECG): This test should be performed in all patients with suspected HCM. A normal ECG is unusual, as it was observed in less than 10% of patients with HCM, and this test is very sensitive for identifying the disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> This group of patients tends to present a better prognosis than patients who present electrocardiographic alterations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> The most common abnormal pattern is the presence of localized or diffuse alterations in ventricular repolarization. Other findings may include signs of left ventricular hypertrophy, the inversion of T wave at the left leads, and an increase in the left atrium. Deep and narrow &#8220;Q&#8221; waves may occur in V5 and V6.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Echocardiogram: An echocardiogram is an essential examination both for diagnostic confirmation and for evolutionary, functional and prognostic evaluations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> The transthoracic echocardiogram can show the heart morphology, estimate the systolic and diastolic function, assess the presence and severity of the gradient in the LVOT, and determine the degree of mitral regurgitation. The major echocardiographic findings associated with HCM are LVH (particularly if it is asymmetrical and involving the anterolateral wall or septum), an increased gradient in the LVOT, and the systolic anterior motion of the mitral leaflet (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f10">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Transthoracic echocardiogram showing asymmetrical hypertrophy of the interventricular septum. IVS: interventricular septum; LV: left ventricle; LA: left atrium; AO: aortic root. (Servi&#231;o de Ecocardiografia do HC &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; UNESP).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Patients who remain symptomatic and do not present an obstruction at rest may undergo stress echocardiography to induce a gradient and subsequently adjust the therapeutic management and treatment according to the result.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> </p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Holter-ECG: This test is conducted as part of the stratification of the risk of developing ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death, as well as to investigate palpitations and in patients with suspected atrial fibrillation.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Exercise stress test: This test is typically performed for risk stratification by measuring the blood pressure response to exercise and to investigate ischemia and arrhythmias.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Cardiac Magnetic Resonance (CMR): CMR provides high-resolution images for evaluating cardiac structures. In addition to being able to identify hypertrophy in segments that are not displayed in echocardiography, it also shows myocardial fibrosis areas, which are usually detected through late gadolinium enhancement, and are one of the sudden death risk factors, enabling better characterization of structural abnormalities in the mitral valve apparatus<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f11">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>CMR of a patient with HCM and the nonobstructive asymmetric septal presentation. LA: left atrium; RA: right atrium; IVS: interventricular septum; LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; LVOT: left ventricular outflow tract. (Courtesy of the Department of Radiology of the HC &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; UNESP).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment</title>
          <p>The treatment is initiated with preventive measures, such as avoiding intravascular volume depletion and restricting the practice of intense physical exercise, with the recommended activity level being individualized for each patient.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Additional measures include the maintenance of negative inotropic drugs, avoiding the use of vasodilators and the use of an appropriate treatment for tachyarrhythmias.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>Drug therapy</title>
            <p>Pharmacological therapy is the first-line treatment for patients with symptoms of HF related to an LVOT obstruction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> </p>
            <p>The use of medications is not recommended before the development of symptoms, since evidence does not indicate that pharmacological therapy changes the natural history of asymptomatic patients.</p>
            <p>The first-line treatment is beta-blockers. Currently, clinical trials have not indicated preference for a specific beta-blocker, as they have not been compared. However, studies have reported the benefits of propranolol and sotalol, although the latter is a class 3 anti-arrhythmic agent, in reducing the symptoms and decreasing arrhythmias.</p>
            <p>Upon the failure of beta-blockers to alleviate the symptoms, the second option is disopyramide, which may increase effort tolerance, sometimes at the cost of anticholinergic side effects, such as urinary retention and dry mouth.</p>
            <p>When beta-blockers are unable to be used, another option is verapamil, although this treatment must be carefully monitored in patients with severe obstruction due to the risk of pulmonary edema.</p>
            <p>Diltiazem remains the last option when the previous therapies were unsuccessful.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> </p>
            <p>Patients who present an LVOT obstruction and persistent symptoms of HF despite monotherapy may benefit from the combination of disopyramide with the current treatment implemented<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figure 6</xref>). Patients treated with disopyramide should undergo basal and periodic ECG during follow-up to monitor the QTc interval. The use of disopyramide should be avoided in patients with prostatic hyperplasia due to its anticholinergic effect.</p>
            <fig id="f12">
              <label>Figure 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Flow chart to determine the appropriate medication for patients with HCM.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-05-0927-90802-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Arrhythmias and prevention of sudden death</title>
            <p>Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a relatively common arrhythmia in patients with HCM that potentially results in major adverse clinical outcomes, and its incidence is approximately five times greater in patients with HCM than in the general population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> </p>
            <p>AF is usually poorly tolerated in patients with HCM due to the reduction in diastolic filling time and loss of atrial contraction, factors that are often associated with diastolic dysfunction and are present in a large proportion of these patients. The development of AF is associated with a worsening of the functional class of these patients and with symptoms of HF.</p>
            <p>In addition, AF is a marker of poor prognosis for patients with HCM<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> and signals a significantly increased risk of acute cerebrovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> </p>
            <p>The treatment of AF in patients with HCM is similar to the general recommendations for treating AF in patients without HCM, and both the control of rhythm and heart rate are available options,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> with the choice of the best strategy being based on the clinical profile of each patient. Since the risk of thromboembolic events is increased in patients who develop AF, the recommendation of anticoagulant treatment in this group of patients is reasonable and indicated in most cases, regardless of the risk stratification based on the CHADS2 score.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> </p>
            <p>Ventricular arrhythmias are common in patients with HCM, including ventricular extrasystoles (VES), non-sustained ventricular tachycardia (NSVT), ventricular tachycardia (VT), ventricular fibrillation (VF), and sudden cardiac death (SCD). The first two types occur more frequently in patients with HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> </p>
            <p>The treatment of VES is only necessary in patients who present symptoms, since the presence of this condition alone does not confer an increased risk of SCD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> </p>
            <p>NSVT occurs more frequently in patients with higher degrees of LVH, in patients with more advanced functional classes (III/IV) and in older individuals. However, its presence in young individuals confers a greater risk of SCD. NSVT episodes are more frequent during sleep or during other periods of vagal hyperactivity. Patients with HCM who present NSVT during a Holter-ECG exhibit an increased risk of SCD,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> and this risk is even higher if the episodes of NSVT are prolonged, repetitive, or associated with symptoms of low cardiac output.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> When adjuvant pharmacological therapy is proposed to reduce symptoms or the incidence of ventricular arrhythmias, the medicine that is most commonly used as the initial therapy is the beta-blocker, and amiodarone has been used to treat refractory cases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> In patients at high risk of developing SCD, no drug is a suitable alternative to the implantation of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD).</p>
            <p>Clinically documented, sustained VT is usually rare and presents mostly as palpitations, pre-syncope or syncope. In the absence of the identification of a possible triggering factor, it is considered a major risk factor for SCD. Most patients who develop this type of arrhythmia receive the ICD as a secondary prevention strategy.</p>
            <p>Risk stratification for SCD should be performed in all patients with HCM. The first two major risk factors for this condition are prior aborted cardiac arrest and spontaneous sustained VT.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> Patients who survive an episode of VF or VT are at very high risk of recurring events, which justifies the implant of an ICD for secondary prevention in these patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> </p>
            <p>Additional major risk factors for primary prevention have been identified, since the majority of patients do not survive the first episode of ventricular arrhythmia,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> and because it may be the first manifestation of the disease in asymptomatic individuals.</p>
            <p>Eight major factors are more commonly considered in the primary prevention of SCD:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> </p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p>A family history (FH) of HCM related to sudden cardiac death<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> (particularly if early SCD is present or multiple individuals within the same family are affected);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p>Syncope that is not explained by another cause;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> </p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p>NSVT<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> (particularly if it is associated with symptoms or occurs in young individuals);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p>Abnormal response of blood pressure in patients aged less than 40 years or patients with a family history of early SCD;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> </p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p>Severe LVH (&#8805;30 mm),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref> particularly in patients aged less than 30 years;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p>Contrast CMR showing late gadolinium enhancement - identified fibrosis, usually greater than 15% of the LV mass;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p>Systolic dysfunction with an ejection fraction less than 50%; and</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p>Left ventricular apical aneurysm, regardless of size.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> </p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Possible risk factors include the patient's age at the time of diagnosis, a pressure gradient greater than 30 mmHg in the LVOT, diastolic dysfunction, myocardial ischemia and the presence of high-risk genotypes, among others (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t2">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Predictors of SCD in patients with HCM</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classical Factors</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Possible factors</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Aborted SCD</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Elevated gradient (above 30 mmHg) in LVOT</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">HF of SCD</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Diastolic dysfunction</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Unexplained syncope</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Myocardial ischemia</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">NSVT to Holter</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Late enhancement in MRI</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">BP abnormal to exercise</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">High-risk mutation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Severe LVH (&gt;30 mm)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Patients with two or three major risk factors have an aborted SCD rate of approximately 5% per year, which justifies the implantation of an ICD in this population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref> </p>
            <p>Thus, most professional societies and organizations recommend that patients with HCM presenting with two or more major risk factors receive an ICD for the primary prevention of SCD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref>, although studies have shown that the presence of a major risk factor justifies the implantation of an ICD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref> </p>
            <p>Recently, a new model for risk stratification has been developed. This score uses an equation that introduces continuous variables such as age, left ventricular shortening fraction, left ventricular maximum thickness, maximum gradient in the LVOT, and left atrial diameter, and proved to be promising in the search for a more accurate method to determine the prognosis of patients with HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref> </p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Invasive therapy</title>
          <p>A pressure gradient in the LVOT occurs in most patients with HCM,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> and represents a poor prognostic factor and predictor of the emergence of HF symptoms when present at rest.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> Patients with an LVOT obstruction and LV/aorta pressure gradient (either at rest or induced) &gt; 50 mmHg and that persist with limiting symptoms despite the use of the maximum optimized drug therapy are candidates for invasive septal reduction.</p>
          <p>Septal myectomy is a good option when the mitral valve or papillary muscle abnormalities must be repaired or myocardial revascularization is required, in addition to directly removing the septal muscle and expanding the LVOT.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> Myectomy generally results in the resolution of the gradient in the LVOT and improves the symptoms of patients,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref> in addition to being associated with excellent long-term survival.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>Percutaneous alcohol septal ablation is also a good alternative, as no meta-analysis has favored one method to date. It is particularly indicated when myectomy should not be conducted due to a high surgical risk or the desire of the patient. This procedure reduces the LVOT obstruction, promotes improvement in the functional class, and increases exercise capacity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref> Patients subjected to alcohol ablation present a five-year survival rate that is comparable to patients subjected to septal myectomy and to the general population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>The main advantage of septal myectomy compared with alcohol ablation are: reduced need for implantation of a definitive pacemaker (PM) due an advanced atrial-ventricular block, reduced need for reintervention because of the recurrence of the LVOT obstruction, and reduced LV/aorta gradient after the procedure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> In addition, in contrast to septal ablation, septal myectomy has been shown to reduce the risks of SCD and inappropriate discharges of the ICD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> </p>
          <p>The implantation of a DDD bicameral PM is a reasonable option during myectomy to reduce the gradient in the LVOT and improve symptoms related to this condition. However, this indication is restricted to patients who already have a bicameral device for other indications, since data on the long-term effects of right ventricle pacing on an HCM left ventricle are unavailable, and the benefit is restricted to only a small subset of patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref> </p>
          <sec>
            <title>Family screening</title>
            <p>Considering the genetic cause of HCM, close relatives of affected individuals should be evaluated periodically due to the possibility of inheriting the disease. The evaluation consists of anamnesis, physical examination, ECG and echocardiogram, as a strategy for early detection of HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref> Evaluations every 12-18 months are recommended, starting at the age of 12, and every 5 years beginning at the age of 18.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref> Echocardiogram with tissue Doppler has been shown to detect alterations in ventricular contraction and relaxation that may predict the emergence of myocardial dysfunction in these patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref> However, the presence of these abnormalities is not considered in the diagnosis of HCM.</p>
            <p>Genetic tests are not routinely performed in family screening, except in situations where the mutation causing the HCM has been identified in the index case. In this situation, the genetic status of the family members should be determined. However, the mutation is generally only detected in approximately 35% of all patients. On the other hand, if the index case has the mutation and the family member does not, the likelihood of disease onset is very low.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> </p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Endocarditis prophylaxis</title>
            <p>Patients with HCM present a higher risk of developing infective endocarditis (IE) than patients without HCM, according to a study showing an increased incidence of mitral valve IE in patients with obstructive HCM and with increased size of the left atrium.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><sup>64</sup></xref> However, recent reviews of international guidelines do not recommend the routine administration of prophylaxis for patients with HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> On the other hand, specialists' opinions are still in favor of maintaining the prophylaxis for endocarditis in this group of patients before dental procedures, particularly in patients with obstructive HCM.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn3">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Study Association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
