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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">ZQhHYbGRF9RM5PTb8c8M8Xs</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020001200720</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20201047</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20201047</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o das Diretrizes Brasileiras de Valvopatias &#8211; 2020</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9964-3289</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tarasoutchi</surname>
            <given-names>Flavio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Montera</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Westerlund</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ramos</surname>
            <given-names>Auristela Isabel de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6524-9614</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sampaio</surname>
            <given-names>Roney Orismar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6521-2870</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Vitor Emer Egypto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8023-3466</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Accorsi</surname>
            <given-names>Tarso Augusto Duenhas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2720-8595</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santis</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Ricardo Cordeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>Lucas Jos&#233; Tachotti</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8876-0180</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Spina</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Luiz Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lavitola</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo de Lara</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5686-7058</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>&#193;vila</surname>
            <given-names>Walkiria Samuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paix&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Milena Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3543-754X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bignoto</surname>
            <given-names>Tiago</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Togna</surname>
            <given-names>Dorival J&#250;lio Della</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Esteves</surname>
            <given-names>William Ant&#244;nio de Magalh&#227;es</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3394-9493</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Atik</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0955-9225</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Colafranceschi</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Siciliano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8952-8474</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moises</surname>
            <given-names>Valdir Ambr&#243;sio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0827-9021</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kiyose</surname>
            <given-names>Alberto Takeshi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0566-1038</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pomerantzeff</surname>
            <given-names>Pablo M. A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6782-750X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lemos</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brito</surname>
            <given-names>Fabio Sandoli de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9991-3739</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Weksler</surname>
            <given-names>Clara</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Manuel de Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2768-0742</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Poffo</surname>
            <given-names>Robinson</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sim&#245;es</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7210-6486</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rassi</surname>
            <given-names>Salvador</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Le&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Ernesto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2501-302X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mourilhe-Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pena</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Luiz Barros</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6175-5595</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Jatene</surname>
            <given-names>Fabio Biscegli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rcia de Melo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8689-9990</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Abizaid</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Henrique Barbosa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7603-2752</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bacal</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4505-3344</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Hon&#243;rio de Almeida Palma da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5580-7114</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ghorayeb</surname>
            <given-names>Samira Kaissar Nasr</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1253-1514</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Antonio Cartaxo Queiroga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Spina</surname>
            <given-names>Salvador Vicente</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pignatelli</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo H.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3345-8862</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Saraiva</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Francisco Kerr</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) do Hospital de Cl&#237;nica</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) do Hospital de Cl&#237;nica da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>6</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia (FUC), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>7</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>8</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>9</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>10</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Zerbini</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o Zerbini, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff11">
          <label>11</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff12">
          <label>12</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff13">
          <label>13</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff14">
          <label>14</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de Porto Alegre</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff15">
          <label>15</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff16">
          <label>16</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Fel&#237;cio Rocho</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Fel&#237;cio Rocho, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff17">
          <label>17</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Socor</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Socor, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff18">
          <label>18</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Alberto Urquiza Wanderley</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Alberto Urquiza Wanderley, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff19">
          <label>19</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Texas Children&#8217;s Hospital</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Houston</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="US">EUA</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Texas Children&#8217;s Hospital, Houston &#8211; EUA</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff20">
          <label>20</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instru&#231;&#227;o Mantenedora</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Sociedade Campineira de Educa&#231;&#227;o e Instru&#231;&#227;o Mantenedora da Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: <postal-code>20020-907</postal-code>. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>23</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>115</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>720</fpage>
      <lpage>775</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="22"/>
        <table-count count="176"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="221"/>
        <page-count count="56"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Atualmente, h&#225; grande variedade de estrat&#233;gias intervencionistas - tanto transcateter, quanto cir&#250;rgicas - que podem ser indicadas para pacientes portadores de valvopatia card&#237;aca, com objetivo de redu&#231;&#227;o da morbimortalidade associada a esta doen&#231;a. O correto momento de indica&#231;&#227;o e o tipo de tratamento intervencionista est&#227;o atrelados ao preciso diagn&#243;stico anat&#244;mico e funcional da valvopatia card&#237;aca e a uma minuciosa avalia&#231;&#227;o global do paciente. Estas Diretrizes Brasileira de Valvopatias de 2020, al&#233;m da compila&#231;&#227;o de evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas e opini&#227;o de especialistas, mant&#233;m o ideal de ser extremamente &#250;til ao apoio &#224; decis&#227;o frente o paciente portador de valvopatia e tem tr&#234;s caracter&#237;sticas que a diferencia:</p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>Manuten&#231;&#227;o do fluxograma inovador proposto na edi&#231;&#227;o de 2017, com passos sequenciais que norteiam o diagn&#243;stico anat&#244;mico, etiol&#243;gico e funcional, definindo a conduta alinhada &#224;s melhores pr&#225;ticas, com uso racional de recursos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Aumento do n&#250;mero de recomenda&#231;&#245;es a serem consultadas na tentativa de contemplar as m&#250;ltiplas possibilidades frente o aumento da complexidade dos pacientes;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Compara&#231;&#227;o das recomenda&#231;&#245;es destas diretrizes com as principais diretrizes internacionais &#8212; American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) 2017 e European Society of Cardiology/European Association for CardioThoracic Surgery (ESC/EACTS) 2017 &#8211; permitindo individualiza&#231;&#227;o da nossa popula&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <fig id="f1">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo com passos para diagn&#243;stico anat&#244;mico, etiol&#243;gico e funcional, al&#233;m da defini&#231;&#227;o de conduta.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      <p>Esta edi&#231;&#227;o de 2020 contempla o racioc&#237;nio frente o paciente portador de valvopatia n&#227;o importante e enfatiza a necessidade de ponderar a possibilidade de interven&#231;&#227;o transcateter para idosos independente do risco presumido para cirurgia convencional e para todos pacientes com valva nativa ou pr&#243;tese com risco presumido mais elevado para cirurgia convencional. A despeito de grandes avan&#231;os e maior disponibiliza&#231;&#227;o de exames de imagem, h&#225; manuten&#231;&#227;o da recomenda&#231;&#227;o de avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica detalhada que ainda &#233; imprescind&#237;vel para diagn&#243;stico, tomada de conduta e relacionamento m&#233;dico-paciente.</p>
      <p>Abaixo, os passos recomendados a serem seguidos:</p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>Primeiro passo: certificar-se de que a valvopatia &#233; anatomicamente importante e, se confirmada, progredir para segundo passo. Caso n&#227;o seja, procurar diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais em paciente sintom&#225;tico e monitorizar evolu&#231;&#227;o em paciente assintom&#225;tico;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Segundo passo: avaliar a etiologia, incluindo hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e antecedentes pessoais, em conjun&#231;&#227;o com exames complementares;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Terceiro passo: avaliar os sintomas - fundamental na decis&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o. O tratamento farmacol&#243;gico est&#225; indicado para al&#237;vio dos sintomas at&#233; o tratamento intervencionista da doen&#231;a valvar;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Quarto passo: avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores - anat&#244;micos e/ou funcionais (especialmente hipertens&#227;o pulmonar [HP], remodelamento ventricular, disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, dilata&#231;&#227;o aneurism&#225;tica de aorta, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial [FA]). Pode ser determinante para interven&#231;&#227;o nos pacientes assintom&#225;ticos;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Quinto passo: tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o - o procedimento de corre&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a valvar pode ser cir&#250;rgico ou transcateter, com indica&#231;&#227;o individualizada dependendo do risco operat&#243;rio, das comorbidades e da decis&#227;o do <italic>Heart Team</italic>.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2. O <italic>Heart Team</italic></title>
      <p>O <italic>Heart Team</italic> &#233; um conceito no qual um conjunto de diferentes profissionais com experi&#234;ncia em doen&#231;as valvares compartilha a decis&#227;o sobre o tratamento mais adequado para um determinado paciente. Com a grande variedade de estrat&#233;gias intervencionistas dispon&#237;veis para o tratamento do paciente portador de valvopatia, o <italic>Heart Team</italic> &#233; fundamental para an&#225;lise do risco/benef&#237;cio e custo/efic&#225;cia de cada estrat&#233;gia e aux&#237;lio &#224; tomada de decis&#227;o. &#201; composto por diversas subespecialidades cardiol&#243;gicas, que exercer&#227;o pap&#233;is diferentes e fundamentais em cada passo do cuidado: desde o cardiologista cl&#237;nico, a quem caber&#225; a sele&#231;&#227;o e indica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes, al&#233;m do acompanhamento pr&#233; e p&#243;s-interven&#231;&#227;o, at&#233; o cirurgi&#227;o card&#237;aco e o hemodinamicista, que ser&#227;o os profissionais respons&#225;veis pela concretiza&#231;&#227;o dos procedimentos indicados pelo <italic>Heart Team</italic>. Al&#233;m destes, o radiologista ser&#225; importante na an&#225;lise de dados para avaliar a possibilidade t&#233;cnica de realiza&#231;&#227;o de cada tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o, e o ecocardiografista, al&#233;m de avaliar os dados pr&#233;-operat&#243;rios poder&#225; tamb&#233;m acompanhar o procedimento, colaborando para um melhor resultado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Risco Operat&#243;rio</title>
      <p>A indica&#231;&#227;o da interven&#231;&#227;o nos pacientes valvares deve ser sempre baseada na compara&#231;&#227;o do benef&#237;cio e do prov&#225;vel risco do procedimento proposto. Para tal fim, alguns escores <italic>online</italic> s&#227;o utilizados, dentre eles o EuroSCORE II (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.euroscore.org/calc.html">http://www.euroscore.org/calc.html</ext-link>) e o STS (<italic>Society of Thoracic Surgeons</italic>, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://riskcalc.sts.org/stswebriskcalc/#/calculate">http://riskcalc.sts.org/stswebriskcalc/#/calculate</ext-link>), validados em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es, com capacidade preditiva de mortalidade em 30 dias. Pacientes com STS &lt; 4% s&#227;o convencionalmente considerados de baixo risco cir&#250;rgico, enquanto aqueles com escore entre 4-8% t&#234;m risco intermedi&#225;rio e aqueles com escore &gt; 8% tem alto risco. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao EuroSCORE II, quando menor que 4% o paciente &#233; considerado de baixo risco e, se escore &gt; 4%, risco aumentado. Caso ocorra discrep&#226;ncia entre os escores, devemos utilizar aquele cujo risco estimado foi maior.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Importante ressaltar que ambos os escores n&#227;o incluem alguns fatores relacionados a desfechos progn&#243;sticos, como fragilidade e contraindica&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas aos procedimentos, como, por exemplo, aorta em porcelana. Al&#233;m disso, a avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco n&#227;o substitui a impress&#227;o da avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica individual e a decis&#227;o da interven&#231;&#227;o deve ser sempre compartilhada com paciente e familiares.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Fragilidade</title>
      <p>Fragilidade &#233; uma entidade que denota um estado de vulnerabilidade do idoso, associado &#224; fraqueza f&#237;sica e baixa reserva fisiol&#243;gica. Tem extrema relev&#226;ncia na avalia&#231;&#227;o individualizada devido principalmente a 2 fatores:</p>
      <list list-type="simple">
        <list-item>
          <label>&#8211;</label>
          <p>&#233; um preditor de eventos, como mortalidade, tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e decl&#237;nio funcional, ap&#243;s interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica ou transcateter;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <label>&#8211;</label>
          <p>n&#227;o &#233; contemplada nos escores de risco de uso rotineiro.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>V&#225;rios escores e ferramentas est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis para a avalia&#231;&#227;o e quantifica&#231;&#227;o da fragilidade, atrav&#233;s da mensura&#231;&#227;o de dados relacionados ao status funcional, atividades instrumentais di&#225;rias, nutri&#231;&#227;o, cogni&#231;&#227;o, independ&#234;ncia para atividades, dentre outros. Importante que a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fragilidade n&#227;o seja apenas subjetiva (<italic>eyeball test</italic>), mas sim um conjunto da impress&#227;o cl&#237;nica associada a v&#225;rias medidas/escores objetivos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5. Estenose Mitral</title>
      <p>O exame f&#237;sico &#233; o primeiro recurso utilizado para avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica da estenose mitral (EM). Pacientes com EM discreta a moderada poder&#227;o j&#225; apresentar estalido de abertura da valva mitral e sopro diast&#243;lico em ruflar mitral, com formato em decrescendo, com in&#237;cio logo ap&#243;s o estalido. Nos pacientes com ritmo sinusal, o sopro apresenta um refor&#231;o pr&#233;-sist&#243;lico no final da di&#225;stole. Entretanto, &#233; nos pacientes com EM importante que as altera&#231;&#245;es proped&#234;uticas s&#227;o mais evidentes, assim como surgem as altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas e radiol&#243;gicas. Tais altera&#231;&#245;es presentes em pacientes com EM importante encontram-se no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Quadro 1</xref>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Quadro 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 1: Diagn&#243;stico de estenose mitral importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas de estenose mitral importante</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Exame f&#237;sico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>
                      <italic>Facies mitralis</italic>
                    </p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Estalido de abertura precoce</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B1 hiperfon&#233;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B2 hiperfon&#233;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sopro diast&#243;lico em ruflar, com refor&#231;o pr&#233;-sist&#243;lico se paciente em ritmo sinusal</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de congest&#227;o pulmonar e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Presen&#231;a de IT</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sobrecarga de AE</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sobrecarga de c&#226;maras direitas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FA</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&#205;ndice cardiotor&#225;cico normal</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de aumento de AE:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Eleva&#231;&#227;o do br&#244;nquio fonte esquerdo (&#8220;sinal da bailarina&#8221;)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Duplo contorno atrial &#224; direita</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>4&#176; arco na silhueta card&#237;aca &#224; esquerda</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de congest&#227;o pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>AVM &lt; 1,5 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Gradiente diast&#243;lico m&#233;dio AE/VE &#8805; 10 mmHg</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg em repouso</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>PSAP &#8805; 60 mmHg com esfor&#231;o</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo hemodin&#226;mico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indicado em caso de discord&#226;ncia entre achados cl&#237;nicos e ecocardiogr&#225;ficos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Gradiente diast&#243;lico AE/VE &#8805; 10 mmHg (espont&#226;neo ou ap&#243;s prova com atropina e volume)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <p>AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; AVM: &#225;rea valvar mitral; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; IT: insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>A ecocardiografia &#233; o principal exame complementar para a avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica da valva mitral, sendo fundamental para a defini&#231;&#227;o da gravidade da valvopatia, das repercuss&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas e dos par&#226;metros que est&#227;o relacionados &#224; chance de sucesso das interven&#231;&#245;es, com avalia&#231;&#227;o individualizada de cada componente da valva (anel valvar, c&#250;spides valvares, aparato subvalvar).</p>
      <p>Os par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos que classificam a gravidade da EM s&#227;o a &#225;rea valvar mitral (AVM), que pode ser aferida pela planimetria, pelo PHT (da sigla em ingl&#234;s, <italic>pressure half time</italic>) ou pela equa&#231;&#227;o de continuidade, e o gradiente diast&#243;lico transvalvar mitral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Do ponto de vista epidemiol&#243;gico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Quadro 2</xref>), a EM segue apresentando como sua principal etiologia a febre reum&#225;tica (FR), mantendo sua preval&#234;ncia em pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento, inclusive no Brasil. Nestes pa&#237;ses, a doen&#231;a valvar reum&#225;tica mant&#233;m uma estimativa de preval&#234;ncia de 1 a 7 para cada 1000 crian&#231;as em estudos cl&#237;nicos, podendo este n&#250;mero ser at&#233; 10 vezes maior com uso da ecocardiografia para <italic>screening</italic> populacional. Nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, as estat&#237;sticas apontam a EM como respons&#225;vel por cerca de 9% do total das valvopatias nos pa&#237;ses europeus, e apresentando uma preval&#234;ncia de 0,1% nos Estados Unidos. Nestes pa&#237;ses, a predomin&#226;ncia dos casos ocorre em pacientes idosos e em imigrantes jovens, provenientes dos pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t2">
        <label>Quadro 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: Avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia da estenose mitral importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas etiol&#243;gicas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Febre reum&#225;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&gt; 90% dos casos nos pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintomas entre a 3&#7491; e 4&#7491; d&#233;cadas da vida</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Fus&#227;o comissural, espessamento de c&#250;spides</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Comprometimento do aparelho subvalvar</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Abertura em c&#250;pula da c&#250;spide anterior e redu&#231;&#227;o da mobilidade da c&#250;spide posterior</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Acometimento mitroa&#243;rtico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Degenerativa (calcifica&#231;&#227;o do anel valvar)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>12 a 26% dos casos nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Mais comum nos idosos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode chegar a 60% dos casos em pacientes com mais de 80 anos de idade</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Calcifica&#231;&#227;o do anel valvar mitral</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Aus&#234;ncia de fus&#227;o comissural</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Rela&#231;&#227;o com calcifica&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica e coronariana</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Causas raras</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Cong&#234;nita</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Doen&#231;as reumatol&#243;gicas (l&#250;pus/artrite reumatoide)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Drogas (metisergida/anorex&#237;genos)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>S&#237;ndrome carcin&#243;ide</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Doen&#231;a de Fabry</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Les&#227;o act&#237;nica &#8211; p&#243;s-radioterapia</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Al&#233;m da etiologia reum&#225;tica, cresce proporcionalmente o n&#250;mero de pacientes portadores de EM de etiologia degenerativa, ocasionada por calcifica&#231;&#227;o do anel mitral, que pode se estender para a base dos folhetos valvares, gerando restri&#231;&#227;o para a movimenta&#231;&#227;o das c&#250;spides, com consequente restri&#231;&#227;o para o esvaziamento atrial. A preval&#234;ncia estimada de calcifica&#231;&#227;o do anel mitral est&#225; em torno de 10% na popula&#231;&#227;o idosa. Destes pacientes, cerca de 1 a 2% desenvolvem EM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Outras causas raras de EM incluem doen&#231;as reumatol&#243;gicas (como l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico ou artrite reumatoide), doen&#231;as de dep&#243;sito (como doen&#231;a de Fabry), doen&#231;a de Whipple, terapia com metisergida ou anorex&#237;genos, s&#237;ndrome carcin&#243;ide ou altera&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas cong&#234;nitas da valva mitral, como valva mitral em paraquedas ou hipoplasia da valva mitral.</p>
      <p>Nos pacientes com EM importante, &#233; necess&#225;rio estar atento ao poss&#237;vel surgimento de sintomas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Quadro 3</xref>), sendo o mais comum dispneia (classe funcional [CF] II a IV da <italic>New York Heart Association</italic> [NYHA]). Em particular, dispneia pode surgir em situa&#231;&#245;es que levam ao aumento da press&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar (esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, gesta&#231;&#227;o, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial). Com o passar do tempo, pode surgir mesmo em repouso, inclusive com ortopneia associada. Outros sintomas que podem se desenvolver s&#227;o palpita&#231;&#245;es, hemoptise, disfonia, disfagia, tosse e eventos emb&#243;licos.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t3">
        <label>Quadro 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 3: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas na estenose mitral importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia <break/>(NYHA II &#8211; IV)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Principal sintoma</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Inicialmente com eventos que aumentam a press&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar (esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, gesta&#231;&#227;o)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Dispneia em repouso e dispneia parox&#237;stica noturna</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ser acompanhada por palpita&#231;&#245;es, hemoptise, disfonia, disfagia, tosse</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ser acompanhada por eventos emb&#243;licos (cerebrais, mesent&#233;ricos, de extremidades)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Paralelamente &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas, o acompanhamento dos pacientes dever&#225; incluir tamb&#233;m a busca por poss&#237;veis complicadores (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Quadro 4</xref>). No caso da EM importante, as altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais relevantes s&#227;o a presen&#231;a de HP significativa (press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar &#8211;PSAP maior que 50 mmHg em repouso ou maior que 60mmHg no esfor&#231;o) ou FA de in&#237;cio recente (desencadeada nos &#250;ltimos meses).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t4">
        <label>Quadro 4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 4: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores da estenose mitral importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Complicadores</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Hipertens&#227;o pulmonar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg em repouso</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>PSAP &#8805; 60 mmHg ao esfor&#231;o (teste ergom&#233;trico ou ecocardiografia com estresse farmacol&#243;gico)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">FA de in&#237;cio recente</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Rela&#231;&#227;o com remodelamento do AE</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Manter INR 2,0 a 3,0</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN2">
            <p>INR: raz&#227;o normalizada internacional; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; INR: raz&#227;o normalizada internacional; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Os tipos de interven&#231;&#227;o dispon&#237;veis e as indica&#231;&#245;es das referidas interven&#231;&#245;es est&#227;o descritas nos <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Quadros 5</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">6</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>. A valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o (VMCB) segue sendo o tratamento de escolha para os pacientes com EM de etiologia reum&#225;tica, nos quais predomina a calcifica&#231;&#227;o e fus&#227;o comissurais, desde que apresentem anatomia valvar favor&#225;vel (pela avalia&#231;&#227;o do escore de Wilkins-Block &#8211; <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Quadro 7</xref>), e na aus&#234;ncia de contraindica&#231;&#245;es (insufici&#234;ncia mitral [IM] moderada a importante e trombo em AE). O escore de Wilkins-Block consiste na avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica da valva mitral com &#234;nfase na descri&#231;&#227;o dos aspectos estruturais. Quatro par&#226;metros s&#227;o considerados: mobilidade dos folhetos, espessamento valvar, grau de calcifica&#231;&#227;o e acometimento do aparato subvalvar. Uma gradua&#231;&#227;o de um a quatro pontos para cada item resulta num escore que pode variar de 4 a 16 pontos. Pacientes com escore de Wilkins-Block inferior ou igual a 8 s&#227;o candidatos a VMCB, na aus&#234;ncia de outras contraindica&#231;&#245;es. Nos pacientes mais sintom&#225;ticos (NYHA III ou IV) ou com complicadores e que apresentem anatomia desfavor&#225;vel &#224; VMCB ou contraindica&#231;&#245;es ao procedimento percut&#226;neo, o tratamento cir&#250;rgico da valva mitral passa a ser a op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica de escolha. A cirurgia poder&#225; consistir na comissurotomia mitral ou, nos casos em que h&#225; comprometimento valvar muito significativo, sem possibilidade de manuten&#231;&#227;o da valva nativa, na troca valvar por pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica ou mec&#226;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t5">
        <label>Quadro 5</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 5: Tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o na estenose mitral importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Considera&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Tratamento de escolha na etiologia reum&#225;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indica&#231;&#245;es:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>sintomas (CF II-IV) e/ou fatores complicadores</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>escore ecocardiogr&#225;fico de Wilkins-Block &#8804; 8 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></p>
                        <list list-type="simple">
                          <list-item>
                            <p>(aparelho subvalvar e calcifica&#231;&#227;o &#8804; 2)</p>
                          </list-item>
                        </list>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Em gestantes ou pacientes com alto risco cir&#250;rgico, considerar se:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>escore ecocardiogr&#225;fico 9-10</p>
                        <list list-type="simple">
                          <list-item>
                            <p>(aparelho subvalvar e calcifica&#231;&#227;o &#8804; 2)</p>
                          </list-item>
                        </list>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Contraindica&#231;&#245;es:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>trombo em AE</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>IM moderada ou importante</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>fen&#244;meno emb&#243;lico recente</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Tratamento cir&#250;rgico (comissurotomia/troca valvar)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM reum&#225;tica CF III-IV com contraindica&#231;&#245;es &#224; VMCB</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM reum&#225;tica com fatores complicadores, n&#227;o eleg&#237;veis para VMCB</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM degenerativa refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento cl&#237;nico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Implante valvar mitral transcateter (<italic>valve-in-MAC</italic>)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM degenerativa refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento cl&#237;nico, com contraindica&#231;&#227;o ou alto risco ao tratamento cir&#250;rgico (em estudo)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN3">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Individualizar em casos de escore ecocardiogr&#225;fico 9-10. Pacientes com calcifica&#231;&#227;o e aparato subvalvar com pontua&#231;&#245;es menores que 3 t&#234;m maiores taxas de sucesso com VMCB. AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; CF: classe funcional; EM: estenose mitral; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral; MAC: mitral annulus calcificatio; VMCB: valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t6">
        <label>Quadro 6</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Estenose mitral: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM reum&#225;tica CF II-IV, na aus&#234;ncia de contraindica&#231;&#245;es</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM reum&#225;tica assintom&#225;tica, com fatores complicadores, na aus&#234;ncia de contraindica&#231;&#245;es</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C (se FA)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C (se alto risco tromboemb&#243;lico ou de deteriora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="4">Tratamento cir&#250;rgico (comissurotomia/troca valvar)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM reum&#225;tica CF III-IV com contraindica&#231;&#245;es &#224; VMCB</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM reum&#225;tica assintom&#225;tico com fatores complicadores, n&#227;o eleg&#237;veis para VMCB</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C <break/>(Embolia recorrente)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM degenerativa refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento cl&#237;nico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref></td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM reum&#225;tico assintom&#225;tico em programa&#231;&#227;o de outra cirurgia card&#237;aca</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Implante valvar mitral transcateter (valve-in-MAC)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM degenerativa refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento cl&#237;nico, com contraindica&#231;&#227;o ou alto risco a tratamento cir&#250;rgico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref></td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN4">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Considerar discuss&#227;o junto ao Heart Team. AHA: American Heart Association; CF: classe funcional; EM: estenose mitral; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; MAC: mitral annulus calcificatio; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia; VMCB: valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <fig id="f2">
        <label>Figura 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo para tomada de decis&#227;o na estenose mitral. FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; VMCB: valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      <table-wrap id="t7">
        <label>Quadro 7</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Escore ecocardiogr&#225;fico de Wilkins-Block</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="100%">
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Mobilidade dos folhetos: <break/> <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>Mobilidade elevada da valva com apenas restri&#231;&#227;o nas extremidades dos folhetos</p></list-item><list-item><p>Regi&#245;es medial e basal apresentam mobilidade normal</p></list-item><list-item><p>A valva continua se movendo adiante na di&#225;stole, principalmente na base</p></list-item><list-item><p>Nenhum ou m&#237;nimo movimento dos folhetos em di&#225;stole</p></list-item></list></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Acometimento subvalvar: <break/> <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>M&#237;nimo espessamento subvalvar exatamente abaixo dos folhetos mitrais</p></list-item><list-item><p>Espessamento de cordas estendendo-se por mais de um ter&#231;o do comprimento</p></list-item><list-item><p>Espessamento expandindo-se para o ter&#231;o distal das cordas</p></list-item><list-item><p>Espessamento extenso e encurtamento de todas as estruturas das cordas expandindo-se para os m&#250;sculos papilares</p></list-item></list></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Espessura dos folhetos: <break/> <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>Espessamento dos folhetos com espessura pr&#243;xima do normal (4-5 mm)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Camadas m&#233;dias normais, espessamento consider&#225;vel de margens (5-8 mm)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Espessamento expandindo atrav&#233;s de toda a camada (5-8 mm)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Espessamento consider&#225;vel de toda a camada do tecido (&gt; 8-10 mm)</p></list-item></list></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Calcifica&#231;&#227;o valvar: <break/> <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>Uma &#225;rea &#250;nica da ecoluminosidade aumentada</p></list-item><list-item><p>M&#237;nimas &#225;reas de luminosidade confinadas &#224;s margens do folheto</p></list-item><list-item><p>Luminosidade expandindo-se dentro da por&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia dos folhetos</p></list-item><list-item><p>Luminosidade extensa, al&#233;m dos limites dos folhetos</p></list-item></list></td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>No caso dos pacientes com EM degenerativa, por outro lado, a VMCB n&#227;o &#233; uma op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica, uma vez que n&#227;o h&#225; fus&#227;o comissural, e sim calcifica&#231;&#227;o do anel valvar, podendo ou n&#227;o se estender para a base dos folhetos. Al&#233;m disso, nestes pacientes, que habitualmente s&#227;o mais idosos e frequentemente portadores de m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades, o risco cir&#250;rgico &#233; significativamente mais elevado. O procedimento cir&#250;rgico &#233; acompanhado de dificuldades t&#233;cnicas que podem aumentar as chances de complica&#231;&#245;es, incluindo disjun&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular, les&#227;o da art&#233;ria circunflexa e sangramento da parede ventricular. Desta forma, o tratamento inicial de escolha &#233; cl&#237;nico, com controle de frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com betabloqueador, bloqueador de canal de c&#225;lcio ou ivabradina (quando em ritmo sinusal e n&#227;o tolerar medica&#231;&#245;es anteriores), associado a diur&#233;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> Caso haja controle adequado dos sintomas com esta estrat&#233;gia, o paciente poder&#225; permanecer sem indica&#231;&#227;o de novas interven&#231;&#245;es. Para os pacientes refrat&#225;rios ao tratamento cl&#237;nico, entretanto, faz-se necess&#225;rio considerar a possibilidade de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, nos casos de risco baixo a moderado, ou do eventual implante de pr&#243;tese mitral por via transcateter. Nestes casos, o implante transcateter ocorre utilizando como apoio para a pr&#243;tese valvar a calcifica&#231;&#227;o importante do anel mitral, sendo o procedimento habitualmente referido na literatura em l&#237;ngua inglesa como <italic>valve-in-MAC (mitral annulus calcification)</italic>. H&#225; ainda uma experi&#234;ncia limitada com este procedimento, realizado nos estudos cl&#237;nicos mais frequentemente por via transeptal ou transapical. Apresenta ainda um alto &#237;ndice de complica&#231;&#245;es, incluindo <italic>leak paravalvar</italic>, obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE, emboliza&#231;&#227;o da pr&#243;tese, e taxa de mortalidade que pode chegar a 25% em 30 dias e 54% em 12 meses. Requer, portanto, um n&#250;mero maior de estudos, que possibilitem uma menor taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es, para a expans&#227;o de suas indica&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O acompanhamento cl&#237;nico do paciente, enquanto apresentar valvopatia anatomicamente n&#227;o importante &#233; realizado com consultas e reavalia&#231;&#245;es ecocardiogr&#225;ficas peri&#243;dicas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Quadro 8</xref>). No paciente com EM n&#227;o importante, reavalia&#231;&#245;es podem ser realizadas a cada 1 ano. N&#227;o &#233; esperado rotineiramente que pacientes com &#225;rea valvar &#8805; 1,5 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> desenvolvam sintomas ou complicadores. No caso de surgimento destas altera&#231;&#245;es, antes que o paciente desenvolva valvopatia anatomicamente importante, &#233; imperativo considerar a possibilidade de que outros diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais sejam respons&#225;veis pelas mesmas. O paciente com EM importante, por sua vez, dever&#225; ser reavaliado em intervalos menores de tempo, habitualmente a cada 6 a 12 meses.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t8">
        <label>Quadro 8</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Estenose mitral: Acompanhamento individualizado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Estenose mitral</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Acompanhamento</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Importante assintom&#225;tico e sem complicadores</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 6-12 meses</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 12 meses</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 12 meses</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica concomitante em pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a outro procedimento cir&#250;rgico card&#237;aco (revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, aorta ascendente ou outra v&#225;lvula)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">N&#227;o importante (AVM &gt; 1,5 cm&#178; e gradiente m&#233;dio AE/VE &lt; 5 mmHg)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 1 ano</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 3-5 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 2-3 anos</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN5">
            <p>AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; AHA: American Heart Association; AVM: &#225;rea valvar mitral; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; VMCB: valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6. Insufici&#234;ncia Mitral Prim&#225;ria Cr&#244;nica</title>
      <p>Para a tomada de decis&#227;o frente a um paciente com IM prim&#225;ria cr&#244;nica, recomenda-se que sejam seguidos os 5 passos do algoritmo de abordagem das valvopatias, conforme detalhado abaixo e posteriormente resumido na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>.</p>
      <fig id="f3">
        <label>Figura 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo para tomada de decis&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia mitral cr&#244;nica prim&#225;ria. DSVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf03.tif"/></fig>
      <p>Al&#233;m de confirmar a presen&#231;a da valvopatia, o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico &#233; o principal exame empregado para a defini&#231;&#227;o da gravidade anat&#244;mica da IM. Diversos par&#226;metros podem ser utilizados para essa quantifica&#231;&#227;o, sendo de fundamental import&#226;ncia um exame detalhado e completo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Quadro 9</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t9">
        <label>Quadro 9</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 1: Diagn&#243;stico de insufici&#234;ncia mitral prim&#225;ria importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas de insufici&#234;ncia mitral prim&#225;ria importante</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Exame f&#237;sico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><italic>Ictus cordis</italic> desviado para a esquerda e para baixo</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B1 hipofon&#233;tica (frequentemente aud&#237;vel em portadores de IM reum&#225;tica e por prolapso e a perda da intensidade pode ser considerada um marcador de gravidade por disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, rotura cordoalha, dentre outros)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B2 hiperfon&#233;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sopro sist&#243;lico regurgitativo &#8805; +++/6+</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais cl&#237;nicos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sobrecarga de c&#226;maras esquerdas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Arritmias atriais ou ventriculares (extrass&#237;stoles, taquicardia) e FA</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Aumento da silhueta card&#237;aca com dilata&#231;&#227;o do VE e AE Sinais de congest&#227;o pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&#193;rea do jato &#8805; 40% da &#225;rea do AE</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante &#8805; 50%</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Volume regurgitante &#8805; 60 mL/batimento</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><italic>Vena contracta</italic> &#8805; 0,7 cm</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>ERO &#8805; 0,40 cm&#178;</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo hemodin&#226;mico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indicado nos casos de dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Ventriculografia esquerda (importante se &gt; 3+)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de press&#245;es intracavit&#225;rias</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Casos de dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica ou qualidade limitada da imagem ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Confirma&#231;&#227;o da gradua&#231;&#227;o da IM antes de interven&#231;&#227;o programada na valva mitral</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Gradua&#231;&#227;o da IM</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da disjun&#231;&#227;o do anel mitral no complexo da doen&#231;a mixomatosa e prolapso da valva mitral</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN6">
            <p>AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; ERO: &#225;rea efetiva do orif&#237;cio regurgitante; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Os pacientes com IM anatomicamente discreta ou moderada dever&#227;o ser mantidos em acompanhamento cl&#237;nico e ecocardiogr&#225;fico peri&#243;dicos, sem indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o (medicamentosa ou cir&#250;rgica) para interrup&#231;&#227;o da hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a valvar. Por outro lado, pacientes com IM importante devem prosseguir no fluxograma de avalia&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica, buscando-se sintomas secund&#225;rios &#224; valvopatia e/ou presen&#231;a de complicadores.</p>
      <p>Os pacientes com IM dever&#227;o ter definida a etiologia da valvopatia, uma vez que o seguimento cl&#237;nico e a programa&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica (momento e tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o), quando indicada, poder&#227;o ser diferentes conforme a causa da IM (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Quadro 10</xref>). Apesar dos avan&#231;os nos m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos, o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico ainda &#233; o primeiro e principal exame indicado para a quantifica&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica e para a avalia&#231;&#227;o etiol&#243;gica de pacientes com IM. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t10">
        <label>Quadro 10</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de etiologia na insufici&#234;ncia mitral prim&#225;ria importante <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas etiol&#243;gicas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Reum&#225;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Causa mais prevalente no Brasil</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Espessamento com retra&#231;&#227;o das c&#250;spides</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Acometimento comissural</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Acometimento mitroa&#243;rtico</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Frequente em adultos jovens</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Prolapso da valva mitral e doen&#231;as associadas (&#8220;<italic>flail</italic>&#8221;, Barlow)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Segunda causa mais frequente no Brasil</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Protrus&#227;o de c&#250;spides para o AE &#8805; 2 mm</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Mais frequente na popula&#231;&#227;o de meia idade e idosa</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Outras causas</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Endocardite infecciosa</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>S&#237;ndrome de Marfan</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>L&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Les&#245;es traum&#225;ticas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Deformidades cong&#234;nitas</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN7">
            <p>AE: &#225;trio esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>O principal sintoma apresentado pelos pacientes com IM anatomicamente importante &#233; dispneia, a qual deve ser valorizada mesmo que ainda n&#227;o limite as atividades habituais (CF II). Caso haja d&#250;vida quanto &#224; presen&#231;a de sintomas, pode ser solicitado um teste ergom&#233;trico ou ergoespirom&#233;trico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t11">Quadro 11</xref>). Uma vez confirmada a presen&#231;a de sintomas, e sendo estes secund&#225;rios &#224; IM, os pacientes devem receber indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o da valvopatia, conforme descrito no Passo 5 (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t12">Quadro 12</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t11">
        <label>Quadro 11</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 3: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas na insufici&#234;ncia mitral prim&#225;ria importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia (CF II-IV) e fadiga/fraqueza</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Congest&#227;o pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Inicialmente com eventos que aumentam a press&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar (esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, FA, gesta&#231;&#227;o)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Dispneia em repouso e dispneia parox&#237;stica noturna</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ser acompanhada por palpita&#231;&#245;es, tosse, edema</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ser acompanhada por eventos emb&#243;licos</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN8">
            <p>CF: classe funcional; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t12">
        <label>Quadro 12</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 5: Tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia mitral prim&#225;ria importante <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Considera&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Pl&#225;stica da valva mitral</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Tratamento de escolha</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pacientes reum&#225;ticos: resultados menos favor&#225;veis.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Prolapso valvar mitral de c&#250;spide posterior (P2 isolado): melhores resultados.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Troca da valva mitral</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indicada em caso de impossibilidade de pl&#225;stica valvar.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Clipagem percut&#226;nea da valva mitral</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reservado a pacientes de alto risco ou com contraindica&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica com sintomas refrat&#225;rios</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>IM degenerativa por prolapso</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Condi&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica favor&#225;vel</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indicado ap&#243;s decis&#227;o do <italic>Heart Team</italic></p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN9">
            <p>IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Pacientes com IM importante assintom&#225;ticos devem ser periodicamente reavaliados quanto ao desenvolvimento ou n&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas e/ou funcionais secund&#225;rias &#224; doen&#231;a valvar (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t13">Quadro 13</xref>). Os complicadores associados &#224; IM s&#227;o: disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) (fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE [FEVE] &lt; 60%), dilata&#231;&#227;o do VE (di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do VE [DSVE] &#8805; 40 mm), HP (PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg em repouso ou &#8805; 60mmHg ao esfor&#231;o) e FA de in&#237;cio recente (desencadeada nos &#250;ltimos meses).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> Aumento do volume atrial esquerdo (especialmente quando &#8805; 60 ml/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>) pode ser considerado um complicador anat&#244;mico na IM, devendo ser levado em considera&#231;&#227;o na defini&#231;&#227;o de conduta, uma vez que est&#225; associado a pior progn&#243;stico. Al&#233;m disso, caso haja queda progressiva da FEVE ou dilata&#231;&#227;o progressiva do VE em exames de imagem seriados, mesmo antes de atingidos os limites especificados acima, interven&#231;&#227;o valvar mitral deve ser considerada.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t13">
        <label>Quadro 13</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 4: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores na insufici&#234;ncia mitral prim&#225;ria importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Complicadores</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FEVE &#8804; 60% ou queda da FEVE durante a evolu&#231;&#227;o (dentro da normalidade)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Remodelamento progressivo (DSVE &#8805; 40 mm)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg ou &#8805; 60 mmHg ao exerc&#237;cio</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Volume de AE &#8805; 60 ml/m&#178;</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FA de in&#237;cio recente (&lt; 1 ano)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN10">
            <p>AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; DSVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Ap&#243;s confirmada a presen&#231;a de IM anatomicamente importante, analisada e definida a etiologia e, por fim, assegurada a presen&#231;a de sintomas secund&#225;rios &#224; valvopatia e/ou de complicadores, o paciente sem contraindica&#231;&#227;o dever&#225; receber indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o da valvopatia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t13">Quadro 13</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t14">14</xref>). Nesses casos, a cirurgia de pl&#225;stica mitral &#233; o tratamento de escolha, caso a etiologia (principalmente prolapso) e a anatomia sejam favor&#225;veis, e o procedimento seja realizado em hospital capacitado e com cirurgi&#227;o experiente. Em caso contr&#225;rio, est&#225; indicada a cirurgia de troca valvar mitral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t14">
        <label>Quadro 14</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Insufici&#234;ncia mitral prim&#225;ria: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="10">Pl&#225;stica da valva mitral (centros com experi&#234;ncia)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>Reum&#225;ticos</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintom&#225;tico (CF &#8805; II)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Assintom&#225;tico, com complicadores:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>FEVE entre 30 e 60%</p>
                        <p>e/ou DSVE &#8805; 40 mm</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg ou FA</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>IM reum&#225;tica, assintom&#225;tica, sem complicadores</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>N&#227;o reum&#225;ticos</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>CF &#8805; II, com anatomia favor&#225;vel</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Assintom&#225;tico, com anatomia favor&#225;vel e com complicadores:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>FEVE entre 30 e 60%</p>
                        <p>e/ou DSVE &#8805; 40 mm</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg ou FA</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B (DSVE&#8805;45 mm)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Assintom&#225;tico, IM por prolapso, com anatomia favor&#225;vel, sem complicadores</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C (AE &#8805; 60 ml/m&#178; e ritmo sinusal)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="10">Troca da valva mitral</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>Reum&#225;ticos</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintom&#225;ticos (CF &#8805; II)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Assintom&#225;tico, com complicadores:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>FEVE entre 30 e 60%</p>
                        <p>e/ou DSVE &#8805; 40 mm</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg ou FA</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>IM reum&#225;tica, assintom&#225;tica, sem complicadores</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>N&#227;o reum&#225;ticos</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>CF &#8805; II, com anatomia desfavor&#225;vel &#224; pl&#225;stica valvar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Assintom&#225;tico, com anatomia desfavor&#225;vel &#224; pl&#225;stica valvar, com complicadores:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>FEVE entre 30 e 60% e DSVE &#8805; 40mm</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg ou FA</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C (DSVE&#8805;45 mm)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Assintom&#225;tico, IM por prolapso, com anatomia desfavor&#225;vel &#224; pl&#225;stica valvar, sem complicadores</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Clipagem percut&#226;nea da valva mitral</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>IM n&#227;o reum&#225;tica, com alto risco ou contraindica&#231;&#227;o a cirurgia, com sintomas refrat&#225;rios</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref></td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN11">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Em centros com Heart Team. AHA: American Heart Association; CF: classe funcional; DSVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Interven&#231;&#245;es transcateter t&#234;m indica&#231;&#227;o restrita para pacientes com IM prim&#225;ria e devem ser decididas ap&#243;s discuss&#227;o com o <italic>Heart Team</italic>. Da mesma forma, pacientes com contraindica&#231;&#227;o ou que apresentem elevado risco associado &#224; cirurgia convencional, devem ser previamente discutidos com o <italic>Heart Team</italic> antes de terem sua conduta definida.</p>
      <p>Quando, apesar da presen&#231;a de IM anatomicamente importante, o paciente n&#227;o apresentar sintomas nem complicadores, este dever&#225; ser seguido de maneira individualizada, com acompanhamento cl&#237;nico semestral e avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica com intervalo m&#225;ximo de 1 ano (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t15">Quadro 15</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t15">
        <label>Quadro 15</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Insufici&#234;ncia mitral prim&#225;ria: Acompanhamento individualizado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Insufici&#234;ncia mitral prim&#225;ria</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Acompanhamento</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Importante assintom&#225;tico e sem complicadores</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 6 meses a 1 ano</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 6 meses a 1 ano</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 6 meses</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Interven&#231;&#227;o concomitante em pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a outro procedimento cir&#250;rgico card&#237;aco (revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, aorta ascendente ou outra v&#225;lvula)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Moderada <break/>(&#193;rea do jato 20- 40% da &#225;rea do AE, Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante 30-49%, Volume regurgitante 30-59 mL/batimento, Vena contracta 0,3-0,69 cm, ERO 0,2-0,39 cm&#178;)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 1-2 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 1-2 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 1-2 anos</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Interven&#231;&#227;o concomitante em pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a outro procedimento cir&#250;rgico card&#237;aco (revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, aorta ascendente ou outra v&#225;lvula)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Discreta <break/>(&#193;rea do jato &lt; 20% da &#225;rea do AE, Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante &lt; 30%, Volume regurgitante &lt; 30 mL/batimento, Vena contracta &lt; 0,3 cm, ERO &lt; 0,2-0,39mm&#178;)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 2-3 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 3-5 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN12">
            <p>AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; AHA: American Heart Association; ERO: &#225;rea efetiva do orif&#237;cio regurgitante; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Por outro lado, pacientes com IM anatomicamente moderada devem ter avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica anual e realizar ecocardiograma a cada 2 anos.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7. Insufici&#234;ncia Mitral Secund&#225;ria</title>
      <p>A IM secund&#225;ria decorre de altera&#231;&#245;es ventriculares (disfun&#231;&#227;o e/ou dilata&#231;&#227;o), enquanto que os folhetos valvares mitrais e as cordoalhas s&#227;o normais. Nesse contexto, h&#225; uma sobrecarga adicional ao VE pela regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral, culminando num pior progn&#243;stico. As principais etiologias s&#227;o: doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria (IM isqu&#234;mica) e miocardiopatia dilatada (dilata&#231;&#227;o anular e/ou mau posicionamento). Por esses motivos, o tratamento ideal &#233; controverso, uma vez que a corre&#231;&#227;o valvar n&#227;o &#233; curativa. De maneira geral, est&#225; indicada interven&#231;&#227;o em pacientes que se mant&#234;m sintom&#225;ticos, a despeito de tratamento medicamentoso otimizado. Mesmo assim, a decis&#227;o terap&#234;utica deve ser individualizada e, sempre que poss&#237;vel, compartilhada com o <italic>Heart Team.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Como muitas vezes o exame f&#237;sico &#233; frustro para o diagn&#243;stico da IM secund&#225;ria, o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico &#233; exame fundamental. H&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que limites menores da &#225;rea do orif&#237;cio regurgitante e do volume regurgitante est&#227;o associados a pior progn&#243;stico, quando comparados com IM prim&#225;ria. Todavia, para quantifica&#231;&#227;o da gravidade anat&#244;mica da IM secund&#225;ria, os limites ecocardiogr&#225;ficos utilizados s&#227;o os mesmos da IM prim&#225;ria. Em casos de dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de estudo hemodin&#226;mico com ventriculografia esquerda ou resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica podem ajudar na defini&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t16">Quadro 16</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t16">
        <label>Quadro 16</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 1: Diagn&#243;stico de insufici&#234;ncia mitral secund&#225;ria importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas de insufici&#234;ncia mitral secund&#225;ria importante</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Exame f&#237;sico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B1 hipofon&#233;tica ou normofon&#233;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sopro protomesossist&#243;lico ou holossist&#243;lico com irradia&#231;&#227;o para linha axilar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de sobrecarga de c&#226;maras esquerdas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais sugestivos da patologia de base</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Aumento da silhueta card&#237;aca por dilata&#231;&#227;o de c&#226;maras esquerdas</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Quantifica&#231;&#227;o da regurgita&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">*</xref>:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante &#8805; 50%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Volume regurgitante &#8805; 60 mL/batimento</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>ERO &#8805; 0,40 cm&#178;</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo hemodin&#226;mico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Gradua&#231;&#227;o da IM pela ventriculografia esquerda</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica ou qualidade limitada da imagem ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Confirma&#231;&#227;o da gradua&#231;&#227;o da IM antes de interven&#231;&#227;o programada na valva mitral</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Gradua&#231;&#227;o da IM</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN13">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Considerar a possibilidade de insufici&#234;ncia mitral anatomicamente importante em presen&#231;a de ERO entre 0,3-0,4 cm &#178; quando associado a disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica importante. ERO: &#225;rea efetiva do orif&#237;cio regurgitante; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>O ecocardiograma fornece as principais informa&#231;&#245;es necess&#225;rias para se estabelecer a etiologia da IM secund&#225;ria, especialmente pela an&#225;lise de altera&#231;&#245;es do VE (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t17">Quadro 17</xref>). A cineangiocoronariografia, por sua vez, tem papel importante no diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria obstrutiva que pode ser causa de IM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t17">
        <label>Quadro 17</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: Avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia na insufici&#234;ncia mitral secund&#225;ria importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas etiol&#243;gicas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Isqu&#234;mica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es segmentares da contratilidade</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disposi&#231;&#227;o inadequada dos m&#250;sculos papilares ou das c&#250;spides valvares (&#8220;em tenda&#8221;, ou com tracionamento apical &#8211; <italic>tethering</italic> &#8211; e/ou por falha na coapta&#231;&#227;o das c&#250;spides)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Dilata&#231;&#227;o ou deformidade anular mitral</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de coron&#225;rias pela cinecoronariografia</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade pela resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica de cora&#231;&#227;o</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatada</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Dilata&#231;&#227;o do anel valvar &#8211; dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disposi&#231;&#227;o inadequada dos m&#250;sculos papilares ou das c&#250;spides valvares (&#8220;em tenda&#8221;, ou com tracionamento apical &#8211; <italic>tethering</italic> &#8211; e/ou por falha na coapta&#231;&#227;o das c&#250;spides)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Dissincronia ventricular</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Altera&#231;&#227;o no acoplamento mec&#226;nico atrioventricular</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Exames para avalia&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica (como resson&#226;ncia nuclear magn&#233;tica) podem ser &#250;teis em pacientes com IM isqu&#234;mica, nos quais h&#225; programa&#231;&#227;o de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
      <p>O principal sintoma apresentado por pacientes com IM secund&#225;ria &#233; dispneia, a qual pode decorrer da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e/ou da regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral associada (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t18">Quadro 18</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t18">
        <label>Quadro 18</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 3: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas na insufici&#234;ncia mitral secund&#225;ria importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia e fadiga/fraqueza</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Aumento da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Congest&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ser acompanhada por palpita&#231;&#245;es, tosse, ascite, edema, dor tor&#225;cica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ser acompanhada por eventos emb&#243;licos</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Pacientes com sintomas importantes (CF NYHA III e IV) e persistentes, a despeito de tratamento otimizado para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (incluindo terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o, quando indicada), devem ser considerados para interven&#231;&#227;o de maneira individualizada.</p>
      <p>N&#227;o h&#225; complicadores espec&#237;ficos para pacientes com IM secund&#225;ria, uma vez que a origem do problema est&#225; na doen&#231;a ventricular (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t19">Quadro 19</xref>). Todavia, caso haja agravamento da dilata&#231;&#227;o e/ou da disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE, sem fator causal aparente, a valvopatia mitral concomitante pode ser considerada respons&#225;vel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t19">
        <label>Quadro 19</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 4: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores na insufici&#234;ncia mitral secund&#225;ria importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Complicadores</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Avalia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Agravamento das condi&#231;&#245;es de base sem outras causas atribu&#237;veis (eleva&#231;&#227;o de PSAP, aumento dos di&#226;metros ventriculares, queda da FEVE)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintoma refrat&#225;rio ao tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN14">
            <p>FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>A indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com IM secund&#225;ria &#233; controversa (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t20">Quadros 20</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t21">21</xref>). Em pacientes com IM isqu&#234;mica, candidatos &#224; cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, a abordagem simult&#226;nea da valvopatia mitral deve ser considerada. Por outro lado, em pacientes sem indica&#231;&#227;o de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o, a abordagem cir&#250;rgica isolada da IM est&#225; associada &#224; elevada mortalidade, altas taxas de recorr&#234;ncia da IM e n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia de benef&#237;cio em termos de sobrevida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t20">
        <label>Quadro 20</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 5: Tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia mitral secund&#225;ria importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Considera&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Cirurgia (pl&#225;stica ou troca valvar)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Troca ou pl&#225;stica valvar + revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica quando indicada</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Clipagem percut&#226;nea da valva mitral</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ser considerada ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Heart Team,</italic> principalmente em pacientes com FEVE &#8805; 20% e DSVE &lt; 70 mm</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN15">
            <p>DSVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t21">
        <label>Quadro 21</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Insufici&#234;ncia mitral secund&#225;ria: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es na insufici&#234;ncia mitral secund&#225;ria importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="5">Troca ou Pl&#225;stica da valva mitral</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>Isqu&#234;mica</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintom&#225;tico (CF &#8805; III)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o associada</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C <break/>(FEVE &gt; 30%) <break/>IIa C <break/>(FEVE &lt; 30%)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>Dilatada</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintom&#225;tico (CF &#8805; III)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="4">Clipagem percut&#226;nea da valva mitral</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>Isqu&#234;mica</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintomas refrat&#225;rios (CF &#8805; III), com alto risco ou contraindica&#231;&#227;o &#224; cirurgia</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C <break/>(FE &lt; 30%)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>Dilatada</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintomas refrat&#225;rios (CF &#8805; III) com alto risco ou contraindica&#231;&#227;o &#224; cirurgia</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C <break/>(FE &lt; 30%)</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN16">
            <p>AHA: American Heart Association; CF: classe funcional; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Em pacientes com IM secund&#225;ria a cardiomiopatia dilatada, a indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o na valvopatia mitral &#233; ainda mais restrita. Enquanto a cirurgia valvar mitral isolada n&#227;o mostrou benef&#237;cio nesse cen&#225;rio, novas evid&#234;ncias mostraram benef&#237;cio da interven&#231;&#227;o transcateter em pacientes com IM secund&#225;ria, FEVE &#8805; 20% e sintom&#225;ticos a despeito de tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado, desde que o procedimento n&#227;o seja indicado em fases mais avan&#231;adas da hist&#243;ria natural da valvopatia. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Para indica&#231;&#227;o mais adequada e abordagem mais completa, os casos de IM secund&#225;ria devem ser discutidos com o <italic>Heart Team</italic> antes da tomada de decis&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f4">
        <label>Figura 4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo para tomada de decis&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia mitral secund&#225;ria. CF: classe funcional.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf04.tif"/></fig>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8. Estenose A&#243;rtica</title>
      <p>A estenose a&#243;rtica (EAo) apresenta preval&#234;ncia crescente na atualidade em raz&#227;o do aumento da expectativa de vida e do consequente envelhecimento da popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira. Atualmente, a causa mais comum de EAo &#233; a calcifica&#231;&#227;o/degenera&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica, que acomete principalmente pacientes idosos. O tratamento transcateter tornou-se uma op&#231;&#227;o &#224; troca valvar cir&#250;rgica n&#227;o s&#243; em pacientes fr&#225;geis e de alto risco, mas tamb&#233;m nos outros extratos de risco operat&#243;rio. Dessa maneira, o <italic>Heart Team</italic> torna-se cada vez mais importante e necess&#225;rio para a decis&#227;o da interven&#231;&#227;o em tais pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><sup>73</sup></xref></p>
      <p>De acordo com as evid&#234;ncias atuais e seguindo as recomenda&#231;&#245;es das diretrizes brasileiras de 2017, o primeiro passo para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do paciente com EAo para indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o &#233; a defini&#231;&#227;o da gravidade anat&#244;mica da valvopatia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t22">Quadro 22</xref>). At&#233; o presente momento, apenas pacientes com EAo anatomicamente importante t&#234;m benef&#237;cio de interven&#231;&#227;o. A EAo importante &#233; definida ecocardiograficamente com &#225;rea valvar a&#243;rtica (AVA) &#8804; 1,0 cm&#178; e/ou AVA indexada &#8804; 0,6 cm&#178;/m&#178; na presen&#231;a de gradiente m&#233;dio VE/aorta &#8805; 40 mmHg ou velocidade m&#225;xima do jato a&#243;rtico &#8805; 4,0 m/s. Pacientes com EAo baixo-fluxo e baixo-gradiente (AVA &#8804; 1,0 cm&#178; e gradiente m&#233;dio VE/aorta &lt; 40 mmHg) quando confirmada a gravidade anat&#244;mica, tamb&#233;m podem ter indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o. No caso daqueles com EAo baixo-fluxo e baixo-gradiente e FEVE preservada, &#233; necess&#225;ria a realiza&#231;&#227;o de escore de c&#225;lcio valvar que, se elevado (maior que 1300 AU para mulheres e maior que 2000 AU para homens), confirma EAo importante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><sup>82</sup></xref> J&#225; naqueles com EAo baixo-fluxo e baixo-gradiente e FEVE reduzida, deve ser realizado ecocardiograma com estresse com dobutamina. Se houver reserva contr&#225;til e a AVA mantiver reduzida, definimos EAo importante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83"><sup>83</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86"><sup>86</sup></xref> Se n&#227;o houver reserva contr&#225;til, tamb&#233;m deve ser realizada a avalia&#231;&#227;o com escore de c&#225;lcio valvar para defini&#231;&#227;o da gravidade anat&#244;mica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78"><sup>78</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87"><sup>87</sup></xref> Tais pacientes sem reserva contr&#225;til tamb&#233;m t&#234;m benef&#237;cio com a realiza&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica ou transcateter.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t22">
        <label>Quadro 22</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 1: Diagn&#243;stico de estenose a&#243;rtica importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87"><sup>87</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;stica de estenose a&#243;rtica importante</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Exame f&#237;sico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pulso <italic>Parvus et Tardus</italic></p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sopro sist&#243;lico ejetivo com pico telessist&#243;lico</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Hipofonese de B2</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Hipofonese de B1</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Fen&#244;meno de <italic>Gallavardin</italic></p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Desdobramento paradoxal de B2 ou B2 &#250;nica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sobrecarga de c&#226;maras esquerdas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Altera&#231;&#227;o de repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular (padr&#227;o <italic>Strain</italic>)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&#205;ndice cardiotor&#225;cico pode ser normal</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de congest&#227;o pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>AVA &#8804; 1,0 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>AVA indexada &#8804; 0,6 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Gradiente VE/Aorta &#8805; 40 mmHg</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Velocidade m&#225;xima do jato a&#243;rtico &#8805; 4,0 m/s</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Raz&#227;o das velocidades de fluxo entre a via de sa&#237;da do VE e valva a&#243;rtica &lt; 0,25</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma sob estresse com dobutamina</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indicado para avalia&#231;&#227;o de gravidade anat&#244;mica em pacientes com EAo de baixo fluxo, baixo gradiente com FEVE reduzida, definida como: AVA &#8804; 1,0 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> com FEVE &lt; 50% e gradiente m&#233;dio VE/Aorta &lt; 40 mmHg<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN17">*</xref></p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Na presen&#231;a de reserva contr&#225;til (aumento &#8805; 20% do volume sist&#243;lico ejetado e/ou aumento &gt; 10 mmHg no gradiente m&#233;dio VE/Aorta), pacientes com redu&#231;&#227;o ou manuten&#231;&#227;o da AVA no pico do estresse possuem EAo importante (se aceita aumento da AVA de at&#233; 0,2cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> como crit&#233;rio de manuten&#231;&#227;o da AVA). Pacientes com aumento da AVA &#8805; 0,3 cm&#178; s&#227;o definidos como portadores de EAo moderada (EAo pseudo-importante)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Na aus&#234;ncia da reserva contr&#225;til, devemos corroborar a gravidade anat&#244;mica com o escore de c&#225;lcio valvar pela tomografia de t&#243;rax</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Tomografia computadorizada de t&#243;rax multidetectora</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Escore de c&#225;lcio valvar a&#243;rtico acima de 1.300 AU para mulheres e 2000 AU para homens refor&#231;a possibilidade de valvopatia importante</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo hemodin&#226;mico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Gradiente VE/Aorta (pico) &#8805; 50 mmHg</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Situa&#231;&#227;o especial</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EAo de baixo fluxo, baixo gradiente com FEVE preservada (&#8220;paradoxal&#8221;), definida como: AVA &#8804; 1,0 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> com FEVE &gt; 50% e gradiente m&#233;dio VE/Aorta &lt; 40 mmHg<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN17">*</xref>. Nestes casos devemos ter os seguintes par&#226;metros para defini&#231;&#227;o da EAo importante:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>AVA indexada &#8804; 0,6 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Escore de c&#225;lcio valvar a&#243;rtico elevado</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica &#8804; 140 mmHg</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Volume ejetado indexado &lt; 35 mL/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Paciente com todos os par&#226;metros acima, por&#233;m com volume ejetado indexado normal (&gt; 35 ml/m&#178;) s&#227;o definidos com EAo normofluxo baixo-gradiente. Tal entidade foi recentemente descrita, as evid&#234;ncias s&#227;o escassas e tais pacientes aparentam ter benef&#237;cio com a interven&#231;&#227;o valvar quando sintom&#225;ticos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"><sup>88</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref></p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN17">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Nos casos de EAo com baixo-fluxo, baixo-gradiente e FEVE preservada ou reduzida, devemos atentar para poss&#237;veis erros de aferi&#231;&#227;o das medidas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas. AVA: &#225;rea valvar a&#243;rtica; EAo: estenose a&#243;rtica; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>O segundo passo &#233; a avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t23">Quadro 23</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"><sup>88</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref> Nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, existe maior preval&#234;ncia de etiologia degenerativa/calcifica nos idosos, enquanto em pa&#237;ses subdesenvolvidos, as etiologias reum&#225;tica e bic&#250;spide predominam em pacientes jovens. No Brasil, devido a sua pir&#226;mide et&#225;ria transicional, t&#237;pica de pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento, encontramos um pico bimodal de preval&#234;ncia de EAo, ou seja, encontramos pacientes de todas as etiologias nas diferentes faixas et&#225;rias. A import&#226;ncia da defini&#231;&#227;o da etiologia da EAo tamb&#233;m se traduz na escolha do tratamento (Passo 5). Pacientes com EAo reum&#225;tica usualmente s&#227;o jovens e n&#227;o foram contemplados nos estudos de implante transcateter de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica (TAVI, do ingl&#234;s <italic>transcatheter aortic valve implantation</italic>). A grande maioria dos pacientes estudados apresentava etiologia degenerativa. Entretanto, j&#225; existem evid&#234;ncias da factibilidade do procedimento em pacientes com v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t23">
        <label>Quadro 23</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia na estenose a&#243;rtica importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"><sup>88</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas etiol&#243;gicas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ateroscler&#243;tica/degenerativa</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Associa&#231;&#227;o com senilidade</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Preval&#234;ncia: 3 a 5% da popula&#231;&#227;o &gt; 75 anos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Relacionada &#224; calcifica&#231;&#227;o valvar a&#243;rtica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Presen&#231;a de fatores de risco relacionados &#224; aterosclerose</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Reum&#225;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Fus&#227;o comissural</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Acometimento mitroa&#243;rtico</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Faixa et&#225;ria mais jovem</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Associada a variados graus de insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Bic&#250;spide</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Preval&#234;ncia: 2% da popula&#231;&#227;o</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Associa&#231;&#227;o com aortopatia (70% dos casos)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Orienta&#231;&#227;o l&#225;tero-lateral da fenda comissural: preditor evolutivo de estenose a&#243;rtica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>O terceiro passo trata-se da avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas atribu&#237;veis &#224; valvopatia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t24">Quadro 24</xref>). Pacientes com EAo importante e dispneia, angina ou s&#237;ncope t&#234;m indica&#231;&#227;o inequ&#237;voca de interven&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t24">
        <label>Quadro 24</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 3: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas na estenose a&#243;rtica importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica: hipertrofia ventricular esquerda &#10132; redu&#231;&#227;o de complac&#234;ncia &#10132; deslocamento da curva press&#227;o/volume ventricular para cima e para a esquerda &#10132; eleva&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es de enchimento &#10132; hipertens&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica: ocorre na adapta&#231;&#227;o ventricular inadequada (<italic>afterload mismatch</italic>) e baixo fluxo/baixo gradiente</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pacientes com sintomatologia duvidosa (pseudo-assintom&#225;tico) podem ser submetidos ao teste ergom&#233;trico ou ergoespirom&#233;trico para avalia&#231;&#227;o da dispneia ao esfor&#231;o</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Angina</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Desbalan&#231;o da oferta/consumo de oxig&#234;nio no mioc&#225;rdio hipertr&#243;fico</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Redu&#231;&#227;o do gradiente de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdico (press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final elevada)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">S&#237;ncope</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Resulta da incapacidade de incrementos de d&#233;bito card&#237;aco em situa&#231;&#245;es de redu&#231;&#227;o expressiva da resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica total</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode decorrer do uso de vasodilatadores (agentes deflagradores comuns)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>50% dos casos est&#227;o associados a reflexo cardioinibit&#243;rio</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>No caso de aus&#234;ncia de sintomas, devemos avaliar a presen&#231;a de complicadores para indicar interven&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t25">Quadro 25</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91"><sup>91</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95"><sup>95</sup></xref> Atualmente, os complicadores contemplados nas diretrizes s&#227;o:</p>
      <table-wrap id="t25">
        <label>Quadro 25</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 4: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores na estenose a&#243;rtica importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91"><sup>91</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98"><sup>98</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Complicadores</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo: FEVE &lt; 50%</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Marcadores de mau progn&#243;stico: AVA &lt; 0,7 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>, velocidade m&#225;xima do jato a&#243;rtico &gt; 5,0 m/s, gradiente m&#233;dio VE/Aorta &gt; 60 mmHg</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Teste ergom&#233;trico/ergoespirom&#233;trico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Capacidade funcional limitada</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Resposta press&#243;rica inadequada: ascens&#227;o da press&#227;o art&#233;ria sist&#243;lica menor do que 20 mmHg ou press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica com queda maior que 10 mmHg</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Arritmias: taquicardia ventricular ou mais que 4 extrass&#237;stoles ventriculares sucessivas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Infradesnivelamento de segmento ST &#8805; 2 mm horizontal ou descendente</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Contraindicado em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos e/ou com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN18">
            <p>AVA: &#225;rea valvar a&#243;rtica; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <list list-type="simple">
        <list-item>
          <label>&#8211;</label>
          <p>Ecocardiograma: disfun&#231;&#227;o de VE (FEVE &lt; 50%) e/ou marcadores de mau progn&#243;stico (AVA &lt; 0,7 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>, velocidade m&#225;xima do jato a&#243;rtico &gt; 5,0 m/s, gradiente m&#233;dio VE/Aorta &gt; 60 mmHg).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96"><sup>96</sup></xref></p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <label>&#8211;</label>
          <p>Teste ergom&#233;trico: aus&#234;ncia de reserva inotr&#243;pica no teste ergom&#233;trico e/ou baixa capacidade funcional, hipotens&#227;o arterial durante esfor&#231;o (queda de 20 mmHg na press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica) e/ou presen&#231;a de sintomas em baixas carga.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97"><sup>97</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98"><sup>98</sup></xref></p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>O quinto e &#250;ltimo passo &#233; a escolha da interven&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t26">Quadros 26</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t27">27</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">6</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">7</xref>). A TAVI transfemoral &#233; prefer&#237;vel em rela&#231;&#227;o aos outros acessos tor&#225;cicos (transa&#243;rtico e transapical) por ser menos invasiva e com menor taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es. Assim, tais acessos s&#227;o recomendados apenas quando h&#225; contraindica&#231;&#227;o t&#233;cnica para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do acesso femoral.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t26">
        <label>Quadro 26</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 5: tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o na estenose a&#243;rtica importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99"><sup>99</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132"><sup>132</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Considera&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Cirurgia de troca valvar a&#243;rtica<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN19">*</xref></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Primeira escolha para pacientes com menos de 70 anos e sem contraindica&#231;&#227;o ou risco cir&#250;rgico elevado<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN19">*</xref></p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ser indicada em pacientes com risco intermedi&#225;rio ou idosos com baixo risco a depender da decis&#227;o do <italic>Heart Team</italic> e da disponibilidade do procedimento transcateter</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Implante de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica transcateter - TAVI</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&#201; necess&#225;ria avalia&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Heart Team</italic> institucional</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Via transfemoral &#233; a preferencial</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Primeira escolha em pacientes com risco cir&#250;rgico proibitivo, contraindica&#231;&#245;es &#224; cirurgia convencional, fragilidade ou risco intermedi&#225;rio</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Ampliada indica&#231;&#227;o para pacientes de baixo risco cir&#250;rgico (STS &lt; 4%, EuroSCORE II &lt; 4% ou EuroSCORE log&#237;stico &lt; 10%) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN19">*</xref></p>
                    <p>Acesso transfemoral aparente ser melhor que a cirurgia para esses pacientes</p>
                    <p>Existe uma car&#234;ncia de dados sobre TAVI em pacientes &lt; 70 anos e sobre a durabilidade da pr&#243;tese</p>
                    <p>Assim, pacientes com baixo risco, idade &lt; 70 anos e sem outras indica&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para TAVI, tal procedimento deve ser evitado</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A angiotomografia de aorta &#233; o exame de escolha para avalia&#231;&#227;o do acesso a ser utilizado, do tamanho da v&#225;lvula, tipo de v&#225;lvula, factibilidade do procedimento e predi&#231;&#227;o de poss&#237;veis complica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Contraindicada para pacientes com expectativa de vida estimada menor que 12 meses</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Valvoplastia a&#243;rtica por cateter-bal&#227;o</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&#8220;Ponte terap&#234;utica&#8221; para procedimentos definitivos (cirurgia ou TAVI) em pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica ou sintomas avan&#231;ados</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Palia&#231;&#227;o nos casos com contraindica&#231;&#245;es definitivas &#224; cirurgia convencional e TAVI.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN19">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>As diretrizes europeias a norte-americanas atuais s&#227;o categ&#243;ricas na indica&#231;&#227;o preferencial da TAVI em detrimento da cirurgia para pacientes inoper&#225;veis, fr&#225;geis e/ou de alto risco cir&#250;rgico (avaliados pelos escores STS e EuroSCORE II). Entretanto, ap&#243;s a publica&#231;&#227;o de tais diretrizes, 4 trabalhos comparando a TAVI com a cirurgia em pacientes de baixo risco cir&#250;rgico foram publicados. A metan&#225;lise de tais estudos demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade em 1 ano a favor da TAVI transfemoral. Tais resultados sugerem que a TAVI transfemoral deva ser o tratamento preferencial nestes pacientes. Entretanto, um ponto de relev&#226;ncia &#233; a m&#233;dia et&#225;ria de 75,4 anos e a car&#234;ncia de estudos sobre a durabilidade a longo prazo de tais pr&#243;teses. Dessa maneira, em pacientes de baixo risco, e estendendo para o risco intermedi&#225;rio, devemos evitar o procedimento em pacientes com menos de 70 anos de idade at&#233; que dados robustos de durabilidade das pr&#243;teses sejam publicados. STS: Society of Thoracic Surgeons; TAVI: implante transcateter de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t27">
        <label>Quadro 27</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Estenose a&#243;rtica: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99"><sup>99</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132"><sup>132</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="8">Tratamento cir&#250;rgico convencional ou TAVI<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN20">*</xref></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintomas (CF &#8805; 2, s&#237;ncope e angina)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Assintom&#225;tico, com complicadores:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &lt; 50%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Teste ergom&#233;trico +</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Assintom&#225;tico com valvopatia cr&#237;tica:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>AVA &lt; 0,7 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Velocidade m&#225;xima do jato &gt; 5,0 m/s</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Gradiente m&#233;dio VE/Aorta &gt; 60 mmHg</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C (BNP elevado para idade; PSAP&gt;60 mmHg; velocidade m&#225;xima do jato &gt; 5,5 m/s)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>Situa&#231;&#245;es especiais</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EAo importante de baixo-fluxo/baixo-gradiente com FEVE reduzida:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Com reserva contr&#225;til</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Sem reserva contr&#225;til + escore de c&#225;lcio elevado</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EAo importante paradoxal sintom&#225;tico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="10">Escolha da interven&#231;&#227;o entre cirurgia e TAVI<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">**</xref></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Inoper&#225;vel, risco proibitivo e/ou fragilidade</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>TAVI</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Cirurgia</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Alto risco cir&#250;rgico</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>TAVI</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Cirurgia</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Risco cir&#250;rgico intermedi&#225;rio</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>TAVI</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Cirurgia</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Baixo risco &gt; 70 anos</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>TAVI</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Cirurgia</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Baixo risco &lt; 70 anos</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>TAVI</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Cirurgia</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Valvoplastia a&#243;rtica por cateter-bal&#227;o<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN20">*</xref></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintom&#225;tico com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica importante, impossibilidade moment&#226;nea de interven&#231;&#227;o definitiva (TAVI ou cirurgia convencional) &#8212; &#8220;ponte terap&#234;utica&#8221;</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Tratamento paliativo em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos e com contraindica&#231;&#245;es &#224; cirurgia convencional e/ou TAVI.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN20">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Pr&#233;-requisito obrigat&#243;rio: avalia&#231;&#227;o por Heart Team institucional, contemplando risco cir&#250;rgico, grau de fragilidade, condi&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas e comorbidades.</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN21">
            <label>**</label>
            <p>Outros aspectos como factibilidade t&#233;cnica, riscos e benef&#237;cios de cada procedimento, escolha do paciente, experi&#234;ncia local e disponibilidade dos procedimentos tamb&#233;m devem ser levados em considera&#231;&#227;o para a escolha da t&#233;cnica. As diretrizes americanas e europeias foram publicadas antes dos trabalhos de TAVI no contexto de baixo risco cir&#250;rgico. Devemos levar tais dados em considera&#231;&#227;o na compara&#231;&#227;o das evid&#234;ncias das 3 diretrizes (SBC, AHA e ESC). AHA: American Heart Association; AVA: &#225;rea valvar a&#243;rtica; CF: classe funcional; EAo: estenose a&#243;rtica; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia; TAVI: implante transcateter de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <fig id="f5">
        <label>Figura 5</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo para tomada de decis&#227;o na estenose a&#243;rtica. FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; TE: teste ergom&#233;trico; TAVI: implante de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica transcateter (da sigla em ingl&#234;s, transcateter aortic valve implantation); VACB: valvoplastia a&#243;rtica cateter-bal&#227;o.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf05.tif"/></fig>
      <fig id="f6">
        <label>Figura 6</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo para confirma&#231;&#227;o da gravidade anat&#244;mica na estenose a&#243;rtica baixo-fluxo, baixo-gradiente com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida. FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; TC: tomografia computadorizada.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf06.tif"/></fig>
      <fig id="f7">
        <label>Figura 7</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo para tomada de decis&#227;o na estenose a&#243;rtica paradoxal. AVAi: &#225;rea valvar a&#243;rtica indexada; PA: press&#227;o arterial; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; TE: teste ergom&#233;trico; TAVI: implante de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica transcateter (da sigla em ingl&#234;s, transcatheter aortic valve implantation); VACB: valvoplastia a&#243;rtica cateter-bal&#227;o.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf07.tif"/></fig>
      <p>Todas as diretrizes atuais s&#227;o categ&#243;ricas na indica&#231;&#227;o preferencial da TAVI em detrimento da cirurgia para pacientes inoper&#225;veis, fr&#225;geis e/ou de alto risco cir&#250;rgico (avaliados pelos escores STS e EuroSCORE II).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99"><sup>99</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113"><sup>113</sup></xref> Entretanto, ap&#243;s a publica&#231;&#227;o de tais diretrizes, 4 trabalhos comparando a TAVI com a cirurgia em pacientes de baixo risco cir&#250;rgico foram publicados. A metan&#225;lise de tais estudos demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade em 1 ano a favor da TAVI transfemoral. Tais resultados sugerem que a TAVI transfemoral deva ser o tratamento preferencial em tais pacientes. Entretanto, um ponto de relev&#226;ncia &#233; a m&#233;dia et&#225;ria de 75,4 anos. Dessa maneira, em pacientes de baixo risco, e estendendo para o risco intermedi&#225;rio, devemos evitar o procedimento em pacientes com menos de 70 anos de idade at&#233; que dados robustos de durabilidade das pr&#243;teses sejam publicados. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100"><sup>100</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114"><sup>114</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120"><sup>120</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Outro aspecto relevante e un&#226;nime nas diretrizes brasileiras e internacionais &#233; a necessidade de avalia&#231;&#227;o de cada caso por um <italic>Heart Team</italic>. Outros aspectos como factibilidade t&#233;cnica, riscos e benef&#237;cios de cada procedimento, escolha do paciente, experi&#234;ncia local e disponibilidade dos procedimentos tamb&#233;m devem ser levados em considera&#231;&#227;o para a escolha da t&#233;cnica.</p>
      <p>Alguns grupos de pacientes devem ser monitorizados frequentemente devido o risco de evolu&#231;&#227;o da valvopatia para um quadro que necessite de interven&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t28">Quadro 28</xref>). Tais grupos s&#227;o:</p>
      <table-wrap id="t28">
        <label>Quadro 28</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Estenose a&#243;rtica: Acompanhamento individualizado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Estenose a&#243;rtica</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Acompanhamento</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Importante assintom&#225;tico e sem complicadores</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 6 meses</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 0,5-1 ano</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 6 meses</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Interven&#231;&#227;o concomitante em pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a outro procedimento cir&#250;rgico card&#237;aco (revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, aorta ascendente ou outra v&#225;lvula)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Moderada (AVA entre 1,0-1,5 cm&#178; e gradiente m&#233;dio VE/Aorta 25-39 mmHg)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada ano</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 1-2 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada ano</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Interven&#231;&#227;o concomitante em pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a outro procedimento cir&#250;rgico card&#237;aco (revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, aorta ascendente ou outra v&#225;lvula)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Discreta (AVA &gt; 1,5 cm&#178; e gradiente m&#233;dio VE/Aorta &lt; 25 mmHg)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 2-3 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 3-5 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 2-3 anos</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN22">
            <p>AHA: American Heart Association; AVA: &#225;rea valvar a&#243;rtica; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <list list-type="simple">
        <list-item>
          <label>&#8211;</label>
          <p>EAo importante assintom&#225;tico e sem complicadores: at&#233; o presente momento, apresentam indica&#231;&#227;o cirurgia valvar apenas se submetidos a outros procedimentos cardiovasculares invasivos (revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, aorta ascendente ou outra v&#225;lvula). Trabalhos avaliando o benef&#237;cio de interven&#231;&#227;o precoce neste grupo de pacientes est&#227;o em andamento.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <label>&#8211;</label>
          <p>EAo moderada, definida como AVA entre 1,0-1,5 cm&#178; e gradiente m&#233;dio VE/Aorta 25-39 mmHg: apresentam indica&#231;&#227;o cirurgia valvar apenas se submetidos a outros procedimentos cardiovasculares invasivos (revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, aorta ascendente ou outra v&#225;lvula).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <label>&#8211;</label>
          <p>EAo discreta, definida como AVA &gt; 1,5 cm&#178; e gradiente m&#233;dio VE/Aorta &lt; 25 mmHg: indica&#231;&#227;o apenas de acompanhamento cl&#237;nico/ecocardiogr&#225;fico.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>9. Insufici&#234;ncia A&#243;rtica Cr&#244;nica</title>
      <p>A abordagem cl&#237;nica escalonada atrav&#233;s de cinco passos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 8</xref>), marco das Diretrizes Brasileiras de Valvopatias, tamb&#233;m &#233; recomendada para o manejo da insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica (IAo) cr&#244;nica. O primeiro passo para o manejo apropriado dos portadores de IAo consiste na caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de sua gravidade anat&#244;mica, sobretudo a identifica&#231;&#227;o dos portadores de les&#245;es anatomicamente importantes. O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t29">Quadro 29</xref> apresenta os principais achados de exame cl&#237;nico e de m&#233;todos complementares para defini&#231;&#227;o de IAo importante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133"><sup>133</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134"><sup>134</sup></xref> De maneira geral, o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico ainda representa a principal ferramenta para diagn&#243;stico e grada&#231;&#227;o da gravidade da IAo. A ecocardiografia tridimensional tem sido cada vez mais incorporada na avalia&#231;&#227;o complementar, especialmente nos casos de limita&#231;&#227;o na an&#225;lise bidimensional (jatos exc&#234;ntricos, determina&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica como em valvopatia bic&#250;spide). Al&#233;m disso, recentemente, destaca-se o surgimento de estudos com a aplica&#231;&#227;o de resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica de cora&#231;&#227;o na avalia&#231;&#227;o da IAo, com possibilidade de aquisi&#231;&#227;o de novos marcadores diagn&#243;sticos e progn&#243;sticos como a fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante e estimativa do volume diast&#243;lico final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134"><sup>134</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t29">
        <label>Quadro 29</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 1: Diagn&#243;stico de insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133"><sup>133</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134"><sup>134</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;stica de Insufici&#234;ncia A&#243;rtica importante</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Exame f&#237;sico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sopro diast&#243;lico aspirativo decrescente com B2 hipofon&#233;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sopro mesossist&#243;lico de hiperfluxo</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sopro de Austin-Flint (jato da insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica n&#227;o permite a abertura valvar mitral, gerando sopro diast&#243;lico em ruflar)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pulso em martelo d&#8217;&#225;gua ou Corrigan: ascenso r&#225;pido e alta amplitude</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Diverg&#234;ncia entre press&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais cl&#237;nicos de aumento de press&#227;o de pulso: sinal de Musset, sinal de Becker, dan&#231;a das art&#233;rias, sinal de Muller, sinal de Quincke, sinal de Rosenbach, sinal de Gerhard, sinal de Traube, sinal de Duroziez, sinal de Mayne e sinal de Hill</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de sobrecarga de c&#226;maras esquerdas</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Aumento da silhueta card&#237;aca &#224; custa de dilata&#231;&#227;o do VE</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de dilata&#231;&#227;o ou ectasia da aorta</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia da doen&#231;a valvar, di&#226;metro da aorta ascendente, di&#226;metros ventriculares, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Quantifica&#231;&#227;o da regurgita&#231;&#227;o:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p><italic>Vena contracta</italic> &gt; 0,6 cm</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Largura do jato &gt; 0,65 cm</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>&#193;rea do jato &#8805; 60%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante &#8805; 50%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Volume regurgitante &#8805; 60 mL/batimento</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>ERO &#8805; 0,30cm&#178;</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo hemodin&#226;mico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Necess&#225;rio nos casos de dissocia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nico-ecocardiogr&#225;fica (eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do VE, regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica durante a aortografia)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da aorta</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular em casos lim&#237;trofes</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o valvar nos casos de dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Novos preditores: Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante e volume diast&#243;lico final do ventr&#237;culo esquerda</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Angiotomografia de aorta</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da aorta</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN23">
            <p>ERO: &#225;rea efetiva do orif&#237;cio regurgitante; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <fig id="f8">
        <label>Figura 8</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo para tomada de decis&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica cr&#244;nica. DDVE: di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; DSVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf08.tif"/></fig>
      <p>No segundo passo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t30">Quadro 30</xref>), h&#225; que se verificar a etiologia respons&#225;vel pela IAo. Do ponto de vista etiopatog&#234;nico, a IAo cr&#244;nica relaciona-se a altera&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas relacionadas aos folhetos das semilunares e/ou patologias do &#226;nulo valvar a&#243;rtico. Dentre as causas condicionadas por disfun&#231;&#227;o dos folhetos valvares destacam-se a sequela reum&#225;tica (ainda uma das principais etiologias no Brasil), endocardite infecciosa (EI), degenerativa, malforma&#231;&#245;es cong&#234;nitas como a valvopatia bic&#250;spide e degenera&#231;&#227;o mixomatosa. Quanto &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao anel valvar a&#243;rtico, destacamos a dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta ascendente, dilata&#231;&#245;es aneurism&#225;ticas (provocadas principalmente por hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica e doen&#231;as do col&#225;geno como Marfan e E<underline>h</underline>lers-Danlos), espondiloartropatias soronegativas (espondilite anquilosante, doen&#231;a de Reiter), aortite sifil&#237;tica e arterite de Takayasu.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135"><sup>135</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136"><sup>136</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t30">
        <label>Quadro 30</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: Avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia na insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135"><sup>135</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136"><sup>136</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas etiol&#243;gicas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Reum&#225;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Alta preval&#234;ncia no Brasil</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Geralmente associada &#224; les&#227;o mitral</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Frequente em adultos jovens</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ateroscler&#243;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Geralmente associada &#224; EAo</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Frequente na popula&#231;&#227;o idosa</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Bic&#250;spide</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Associada a altera&#231;&#245;es da aorta (40% dos casos - aneurisma, dissec&#231;&#227;o, coarcta&#231;&#227;o)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Frequente em adultos jovens</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Doen&#231;as relacionadas &#224; altera&#231;&#227;o da geometria da raiz da aorta</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, dissec&#231;&#227;o da aorta ascendente, s&#237;ndrome de Marfan, espondilite anquilosante, aortite sifil&#237;tica, osteog&#234;nese imperfeita, s&#237;ndrome de Ehlers-Danlos, s&#237;ndrome de Reiter, estenose suba&#243;rtica e defeito do septo interventricular com prolapso da c&#250;spide a&#243;rtica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Outras</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Endocardite infecciosa, degenera&#231;&#227;o mixomatosa, les&#245;es traum&#225;ticas, artrite reumatoide</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN24">
            <p>EAo: estenose a&#243;rtica.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>O terceiro passo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t31">Quadro 31</xref>) caracteriza-se pela avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas relacionados &#224; IAo. A identifica&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas pode ser tarefa dif&#237;cil na rotina assistencial, sobretudo em pacientes idosos que comumente recorrem &#224; pr&#225;tica de autolimita&#231;&#227;o. Nestes casos, a incorpora&#231;&#227;o de testes funcionais provocativos, como a ergoespirometria, pode auxiliar na identifica&#231;&#227;o destes &#8220;assintom&#225;ticos&#8221; autolimitados. Tendo em vista a elevada morbimortalidade relacionada &#224; instala&#231;&#227;o de sintomas, sua identifica&#231;&#227;o condiciona o referenciamento do paciente para a interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t31">
        <label>Quadro 31</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 3: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas na insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Ocorre por aumento da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final secund&#225;ria &#224; sobrecarga de volume sangu&#237;neo no VE, e consequente congest&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Angina</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Ocorre pela redu&#231;&#227;o da reserva mioc&#225;rdica. Pode ocorrer angina noturna pelo aumento da regurgita&#231;&#227;o valvar decorrente da bradicardia durante o sono</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">S&#237;ncope</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco efetivo</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN25">
            <p>VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>No quarto passo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t32">Quadro 32</xref>), destaca-se a avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores relacionados &#224; IAo. Este est&#225;gio tem especial relev&#226;ncia nos pacientes assintom&#225;ticos. O principal complicador da IAo consiste na perda de fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE, relacionada ao estresse sist&#243;lico e dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Chaliki et al, em estudo retrospectivo, verificaram reduzida sobrevida em portadores de IAo com FEVE inferior a 50%. As taxas de mortalidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria tamb&#233;m foram influenciadas pela fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular (14% para pacientes com FEVE inferior a 35%, 6,7% para FEVE entre 35 a 50% e 3,7% para pacientes com FEVE superior a 50%, p = 0,02). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137"><sup>137</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t32">
        <label>Quadro 32</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 4: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134"><sup>134</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137"><sup>137</sup></xref><sup>,</sup> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137"><sup>137</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139"><sup>139</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141"><sup>141</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Complicadores</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FEVE &lt; 50%</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>DDVE &gt; 70 mm (n&#227;o reum&#225;tico) e &gt; 75 mm (reum&#225;tico)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>DSVE &gt; 50 mm (n&#227;o reum&#225;tico) e &gt; 55 mm (reum&#225;tico)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>DSVE indexado &gt; 25 mm/m&#178;</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Presen&#231;a de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica (realce tardio)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante &gt; 33%</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Volume diast&#243;lico final do VE &gt; 246 mL</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Angiotomografia</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Valva Bic&#250;spide com indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o + Raiz da Aorta &gt; 45 mm</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN26">
            <p>DDVE: di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; DSVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo;; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>O remodelamento ventricular ainda representa uma ambival&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica: de um lado o aumento dos di&#226;metros ventriculares funciona como um mecanismo adaptativo &#224; sobrecarga volum&#233;trica; por outro lado, o remodelamento ventricular pode determinar pior progn&#243;stico, sobretudo em popula&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o reum&#225;ticas. Em estudo nacional conduzido com 75 pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com IAo importante de etiologia reum&#225;tica, a estrat&#233;gia de indicar tratamento cir&#250;rgico baseada no surgimento de sintomas mesmo em pacientes com di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do VE (DDVE) maior que 75mm e DSVE maior que 55mm com fun&#231;&#227;o de VE normal foi eficaz em promover a melhora da qualidade de vida e regress&#227;o da dilata&#231;&#227;o, com taxa de sobrevida de 90,6% em dez anos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138"><sup>138</sup></xref> Por outro lado, estudos prospectivos com popula&#231;&#245;es com maior predom&#237;nio de IAo n&#227;o reum&#225;tica verificaram que valores de DSVE acima de 50 mm associaram-se com desfechos cl&#237;nicos compostos (morte, sintomas e/ou disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular) de at&#233; 19%/ano. Mais recentemente, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que a indexa&#231;&#227;o destes di&#226;metros pela superf&#237;cie corp&#243;rea seja mais apropriada, sobretudo para mulheres. Um estudo com 246 pacientes com IAo assintom&#225;ticos verificou que valores de DSVE indexado iguais ou superiores a 25 mm/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> associaram-se a desfechos negativos (mortalidade, sintomas e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139"><sup>139</sup></xref> Mais recentemente, estudos avaliaram o papel do pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral (BNP: sigla do ingl&#234;s <italic>Brain Natriuretic Peptide</italic>) na IAo. Valores de corte de 130 pg/mL para BNP e 602 pg/mL para o NT-pro-BNP associaram-se com desfechos cl&#237;nicos adversos. A combina&#231;&#227;o destes valores de BNP com par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos pode melhorar a capacidade de estratifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes assintom&#225;ticos. Eleva&#231;&#245;es persistentes de BNP durante o seguimento cl&#237;nico tamb&#233;m foram relacionadas a eventos cl&#237;nicos adversos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140"><sup>140</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos funcionais como o estresse longitudinal tamb&#233;m s&#227;o preditores evolutivos na IAo assintom&#225;tica, influenciando inclusive os resultados p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios. A limita&#231;&#227;o para utiliza&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do estresse longitudinal na IAo consiste na diverg&#234;ncia para os pontos de corte a serem utilizados.</p>
      <p>Outro complicador relacionado &#224; IAo consiste na fibrose mioc&#225;rdica pelo realce tardio. A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica de cora&#231;&#227;o com realce tardio &#233; o principal m&#233;todo de imagem capaz para sua quantifica&#231;&#227;o. Estudos demonstram que a presen&#231;a de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica influencia o per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, associando-se &#224; persist&#234;ncia de sintomas, fal&#234;ncia de recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e maior mortalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141"><sup>141</sup></xref> Ainda relativo &#224; resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, novos estudos demonstram que fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante acima de 33% e volume diast&#243;lico final do VE acima de 246 ml foram associados a menor sobrevida livre de cirurgia. Estes novos par&#226;metros podem melhorar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, assegurando indica&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas mais precisas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134"><sup>134</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Por fim, no quinto passo, definimos a necessidade de interven&#231;&#227;o na IAo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t33">Quadros 33</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t34">34</xref>). O tratamento cir&#250;rgico com troca valvar a&#243;rtica consiste ainda na principal terapia intervencionista na IAo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142"><sup>142</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143"><sup>143</sup></xref> As taxas de mortalidade cir&#250;rgica variam de 1% (procedimento de troca valvar isolada) at&#233; 7% (procedimentos combinados). O aparecimento de sintomas, redu&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e remodelamento excessivo do VE geram pior progn&#243;stico e, portanto, s&#227;o os principais deflagradores do tratamento cir&#250;rgico. Como exposto anteriormente, novos complicadores relacionados &#224; fibrose mioc&#225;rdica, remodelamento ventricular e comportamento de biomarcadores podem representar potenciais deflagradores de interven&#231;&#227;o. O acompanhamento cl&#237;nico dos pacientes sem indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o est&#225; descrito no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t35">Quadro 35</xref>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t33">
        <label>Quadro 33</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 5: Interven&#231;&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142"><sup>142</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143"><sup>143</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Considera&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Cirurgia (troca valvar)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Tratamento de escolha</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Troca valvar combinado com corre&#231;&#227;o da aorta ascendente, quando indicada</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">TAVI</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Requer estudos que validem sua indica&#231;&#227;o</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN27">
            <p>TAVI: implante transcateter de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t34">
        <label>Quadro 34</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142"><sup>142</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143"><sup>143</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Cirurgia de troca valvar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintomas</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FEVE &lt; 50%</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Di&#226;metros ventriculares</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B <break/>Reum&#225;tico <break/>DDVE &gt; 75 mm ou DSVE &gt; 55 mm <break/>IIa B <break/>N&#227;o reum&#225;tico <break/>DDVE &gt; 70 mm ou DSVE &gt; 50 mm ou DSVE indexado &gt; 25 mm/m&#178;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C <break/>DDVE &gt; 70 mm ou DSVE &gt; 50 mm ou DSVE indexado &gt; 25 mm/m&#178;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B <break/>DDVE &gt; 70 mm ou DSVE &gt; 50 mm ou DSVE indexado &gt;25 mm/m&#178;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Implante valvar transcateter &#8211; TAVI<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN28">*</xref></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintom&#225;ticos com expectativa de vida &gt; 1 ano com contraindica&#231;&#245;es/risco proibitivo &#224; cirurgia convencional</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN28">*</xref></td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN28">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Considerar discuss&#227;o junto ao Heart Team. AHA: American Heart Association; DDVE: di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; DSVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia; TAVI: implante transcateter de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t35">
        <label>Quadro 35</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica: Acompanhamento individualizado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Acompanhamento</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Importante assintom&#225;tico e sem complicadores</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 0,5 a 1 ano</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 0,5 a 1 ano</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 3 a 6 meses</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Interven&#231;&#227;o concomitante em pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a outro procedimento cir&#250;rgico card&#237;aco (revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, aorta ascendente ou outra v&#225;lvula)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Moderada <break/>(Vena contracta 0,3-0,6 cm, Largura do jato 0,25-0,64, Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante 30-49%, Volume regurgitante 30-59mL/batimento, ERO 0,10-0,29 cm&#178;)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 1-2 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 1-2 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 1-2 anos</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Interven&#231;&#227;o concomitante em pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a outro procedimento cir&#250;rgico card&#237;aco (revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, aorta ascendente ou outra v&#225;lvula)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Discreta (Vena contracta &lt; 0,3 cm, Largura do jato &lt; 0,25, Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante &lt; 30%, Volume regurgitante &lt; 30 ml/batimento, ERO &lt; 0,10 cm&#178;)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 3-5 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 3-5 anos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">A cada 1-2 anos</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN29">
            <p>AHA: American Heart Association; ERO: &#225;rea efetiva do orif&#237;cio regurgitante; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10. Estenose Tric&#250;spide</title>
      <p>A estenose tric&#250;spide (ET) &#233; uma valvopatia rara, habitualmente associada &#224; IT. O ecocardiograma mant&#233;m-se como principal ferramenta para defini&#231;&#227;o da gravidade anat&#244;mica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t36">Quadro 36</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144"><sup>144</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t36">
        <label>Quadro 36</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 1: Diagn&#243;stico de estenose tric&#250;spide importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144"><sup>144</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas de Estenose Tric&#250;spide importante</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Exame f&#237;sico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Estalido de abertura precoce</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B1 hiperfon&#233;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sopro diast&#243;lico em ruflar, com refor&#231;o pr&#233;-sist&#243;lico se paciente em ritmo sinusal em borda esternal esquerda que aumenta com a inspira&#231;&#227;o.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica: hepatomegalia, ascite, edema de membros inferiores, estase jugular, sinal de Kussmaul</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sobrecarga de AD</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FA</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Aumento de AD</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&#193;rea valvar tric&#250;spide &#8804; 1,0 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Gradiente diast&#243;lico m&#233;dio AD/ventr&#237;culo direito &#8805; 5 mmHg</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Aumento isolado de AD</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>PHT tric&#250;spide &#8805; 190 ms</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo hemodin&#226;mico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Casos de dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Gradiente diast&#243;lico AD/ventr&#237;culo direito &#8805; 5 mmHg</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Casos de dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica ou qualidade limitada da imagem ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN30">
            <p>AD: &#225;trio direito; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; PHT: pressure half time.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Sua etiologia mais comum &#233; a doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica, e neste caso geralmente ocorre concomitantemente ao comprometimento da valva mitral e/ou da valva a&#243;rtica. Ocorre espessamento e retra&#231;&#227;o das c&#250;spides, com acometimento comissural. Outras poss&#237;veis causas de ET s&#227;o ainda mais raras, e est&#227;o descritas no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t37">Quadro 37</xref>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145"><sup>145</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147"><sup>147</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t37">
        <label>Quadro 37</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: Avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia na estenose tric&#250;spide importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145"><sup>145</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147"><sup>147</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas etiol&#243;gicas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Reum&#225;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Causa mais prevalente</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Associa&#231;&#227;o com outras valvopatias</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Espessamento com retra&#231;&#227;o das c&#250;spides</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Acometimento comissural</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Frequente em adultos jovens</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Outras</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Endocardite infecciosa</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>L&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>S&#237;ndrome carcin&#243;ide</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Deformidades cong&#234;nitas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Mixoma atrial</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Les&#227;o act&#237;nica (p&#243;s-radioterapia)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Doen&#231;a de dep&#243;sito: amiloidose, doen&#231;a de Fabry</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Doen&#231;a de Whipple</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Tanto os sintomas quanto as altera&#231;&#245;es do exame f&#237;sico restringem-se habitualmente aos pacientes com ET anatomicamente importante. O sintoma mais comumente encontrado &#233; a fadiga, que pode estar associada a sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de c&#226;maras direitas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t38">Quadro 38</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t38">
        <label>Quadro 38</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 3: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas na estenose tric&#250;spide importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Fadiga</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Principal sintoma</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Associada a dor e edema de membros inferiores</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Aus&#234;ncia de dispneia</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode estar associada a palpita&#231;&#245;es, ascite, sinais de disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Quando os pacientes forem portadores de ET importante, mas ainda n&#227;o tiverem sintomas secund&#225;rios &#224; valvopatia, deve ser avaliado se apresentam ou n&#227;o complicadores (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t39">Quadro 39</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t39">
        <label>Quadro 39</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 4: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores na estenose tric&#250;spide importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Complicadores</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FA</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de comprometimento hep&#225;tico (eleva&#231;&#227;o de enzimas, altera&#231;&#227;o do coagulograma)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN31">
            <p>FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>A presen&#231;a de sintomas ou dos complicadores descritos acarreta na indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o sobre a valvopatia. Apesar da raridade dos casos e da escassez da literatura, a valvoplastia tric&#250;spide por cateter-bal&#227;o (VCTB) ainda &#233; o tratamento de escolha (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t40">Quadros 40</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t41">41</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 9</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148"><sup>148</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t40">
        <label>Quadro 40</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 5: Tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o na estenose tric&#250;spide importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148"><sup>148</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Considera&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Valvoplastia tric&#250;spide por bal&#227;o</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Tratamento de escolha</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Poss&#237;vel fazer em pacientes com refluxo tricusp&#237;deo moderado.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Contraindicado se presen&#231;a de trombo refrat&#225;rio &#224; anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e/ou vegeta&#231;&#227;o</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Troca da valva tric&#250;spide</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Op&#231;&#227;o em caso de impossibilidade de valvoplastia por bal&#227;o.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Prefer&#234;ncia por pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Prefer&#237;vel se associada &#224; cirurgia para tratamento da valvopatia mitral.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t41">
        <label>Quadro 41</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Estenose tric&#250;spide: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148"><sup>148</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Valvoplastia tric&#250;spide por cateter-bal&#227;o</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>ET importante isolada sintom&#225;tica sem contraindica&#231;&#245;es</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>VMCB concomitante</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>VTCB com IT importante</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Troca da valva tric&#250;spide ou pl&#225;stica (comissurotomia)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>ET importante sintom&#225;tica com contraindica&#231;&#227;o a VTCB</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>ET importante isolada sintom&#225;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Prefer&#234;ncia por pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica em caso de troca valvar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN32">
            <p>AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; ET: estenose tric&#250;spide; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia; VTCB: valvoplastia tric&#250;spide por cateter-bal&#227;o.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <fig id="f9">
        <label>Figura 9</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo para tomada de decis&#227;o na estenose tric&#250;spide. FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; VTCB: valvoplastia tric&#250;spide por cateter-bal&#227;o.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf09.tif"/></fig>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>11. Insufici&#234;ncia Tric&#250;spide</title>
      <p>Pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide (IT) discreta habitualmente n&#227;o requerem qualquer tipo de abordagem direcionada &#224; valva tric&#250;spide. Os pacientes com IT moderada a importante s&#227;o aqueles que exigir&#227;o um acompanhamento espec&#237;fico, em particular relacionado ao esclarecimento da etiologia da valvopatia e das repercuss&#245;es a ela associadas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t42">Quadro 42</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149"><sup>149</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t42">
        <label>Quadro 42</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 1: Diagn&#243;stico de insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149"><sup>149</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas de Insufici&#234;ncia Tric&#250;spide Importante</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Exame f&#237;sico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Turg&#234;ncia jugular patol&#243;gica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B2 hiperfon&#233;tica (hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sopro sist&#243;lico regurgitativo em borda esternal esquerda com sinal de Rivero-Carvallo</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Hepatomegalia</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sobrecarga de c&#226;maras direitas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FA</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de aumento de c&#226;maras direitas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Congest&#227;o pulmonar se les&#227;o concomitante do lado esquerdo</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Retifica&#231;&#227;o/abaulamento de tronco pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>ERO &#8805; 0,40cm&#178;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Fluxo reverso nas veias hep&#225;ticas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Volume regurgitante &gt; 45 ml/batimento</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Volume regurgitante denso, triangular e pico precoce no Doppler cont&#237;nuo.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><italic>Vena contracta</italic> &#8805; 0,7 cm</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Di&#226;metro do anel &#8805; 40mm</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Falha de coapta&#231;&#227;o das c&#250;spides</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo hemodin&#226;mico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Em caso de dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Mensurar PSAP em casos de falha de coapta&#231;&#227;o das c&#250;spides</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Em caso de dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica ou qualidade limitada da imagem ecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN33">
            <p>FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; ERO: &#225;rea efetiva do orif&#237;cio regurgitante; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>A IT &#233; habitualmente funcional, secund&#225;ria a condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que levam &#224; dilata&#231;&#227;o do anel valvar tric&#250;spide, principalmente envolvendo as c&#226;maras card&#237;acas esquerdas (doen&#231;as valvares ou cardiomiopatias) e/ou HP. Os casos de IT prim&#225;ria em geral est&#227;o relacionados &#224; doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica, podendo ainda estar associados a interven&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas (bi&#243;psias endomioc&#225;rdicas de repeti&#231;&#227;o, presen&#231;a de eletrodos de marcapasso ou cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel) ou ocorrer em consequ&#234;ncia de EI ou outras causas mais raras (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t43">Quadro 43</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150"><sup>150</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t43">
        <label>Quadro 43</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: Avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia na insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150"><sup>150</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas etiol&#243;gicas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Prim&#225;ria</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Acometimento reum&#225;tico</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Prolapso e degenera&#231;&#227;o mixomatosa</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Les&#227;o act&#237;nica por radia&#231;&#227;o (p&#243;s-radioterapia)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Trauma tor&#225;cico fechado</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Endocardite Infecciosa</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Biopsia endomioc&#225;rdica de repeti&#231;&#227;o</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>S&#237;ndrome carcinoide</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Cong&#234;nita (Ebstein)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Eletrodos de marcapasso ou desfibrilador</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Secund&#225;ria</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Dilata&#231;&#227;o do &#226;nulo tric&#250;spide (&gt; 40 mm ou &gt; 21 mm/m&#178;)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Doen&#231;a valvar do lado esquerdo do cora&#231;&#227;o</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FA de longa dura&#231;&#227;o</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>HP prim&#225;ria</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Miocardiopatia de ventr&#237;culo direito (isqu&#234;mica, displasia arritmog&#234;nica, mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o compactado, cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pericardite constrictiva</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Causas raras</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Doen&#231;as reumatol&#243;gicas</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Drogas (metissergida/anorex&#237;genos)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Doen&#231;a de Fabry</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN34">
            <p>FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; HP: hipertens&#227;o pulmonar.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Nos pacientes com IT importante, conforme aumenta o per&#237;odo de tempo em que o paciente mant&#233;m disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar significativa, poder&#227;o surgir sintomas que ter&#227;o impacto significativo para a tomada de decis&#227;o sobre o melhor tratamento a ser institu&#237;do (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t44">Quadro 44</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t44">
        <label>Quadro 44</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 3: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas na insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Sintomas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia <break/>(NYHA II &#8211; IV)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Na IT secund&#225;ria decorre da doen&#231;a do lado esquerdo do cora&#231;&#227;o (congest&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar, hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar).</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Dispneia aos esfor&#231;os e parox&#237;stica noturna</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Fadiga</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Principal sintoma</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Associada a dor e edema de membros inferiores</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Mais comum na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN35">
            <p>IT: insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide; NYHA: New York Heart Association.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Por outro lado, mesmo naqueles pacientes que n&#227;o apresentarem sintomas pode haver evolu&#231;&#227;o com remodelamento do ventr&#237;culo direito, que poder&#225; justificar interven&#231;&#227;o sobre a valva. Assim, os pacientes com dilata&#231;&#227;o ou disfun&#231;&#227;o (exceto importante) do ventr&#237;culo direito ser&#227;o considerados como portadores de fator complicador (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t45">Quadro 45</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t45">
        <label>Quadro 45</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 4: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores na insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Complicadores</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>IT prim&#225;ria: dilata&#231;&#227;o ou disfun&#231;&#227;o progressiva de ventr&#237;culo direito</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN36">
            <p>IT: insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Novos dados t&#234;m elucidado a import&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica da IT. Um estudo recentemente publicado encontrou uma preval&#234;ncia de IT moderada a importante de 0,55% na popula&#231;&#227;o, sendo 72% dos casos secund&#225;rios &#224; presen&#231;a de valvopatia esquerda (49,5%) ou HP (23%). Neste estudo, apenas 8% dos casos ocorreram de forma isolada. Os pacientes com IT isolada moderada a importante apresentaram maior taxa de mortalidade (risco relativo 1,68, com IC 95% 1,04 a 2,6, p = 0,03), confirmando dados que haviam sido publicados pelo mesmo grupo j&#225; em 2014.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151"><sup>151</sup></xref> Esta maior mortalidade foi tamb&#233;m demonstrada em uma metan&#225;lise recente, na qual foram inclu&#237;dos 70 estudos, tendo sido encontrado quase o dobro de mortalidade nos pacientes portadores de IT moderada ou importante (risco relativo 1,95, IC 95% 1,75 a 2,17). Esta maior taxa de &#243;bito foi mantida nas an&#225;lises mesmo ap&#243;s serem feitos ajustes pela presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito, de HP, de FA, de IM ou de disfun&#231;&#227;o de VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152"><sup>152</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O tratamento intervencionista de escolha, quando indicado, ser&#225; a pl&#225;stica da valva tric&#250;spide, com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de anel prot&#233;tico capaz de diminuir o di&#226;metro do anel tricusp&#237;deo, melhorar a coapta&#231;&#227;o dos folhetos valvares e corrigir a regurgita&#231;&#227;o. A troca valvar fica reservada aos pacientes sem condi&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica para que seja realizada pl&#225;stica com resultado satisfat&#243;rio. Cabe observar que a abordagem cir&#250;rgica isolada sobre a valva tric&#250;spide segue sendo pouco indicada atualmente, e apresenta o maior risco cir&#250;rgico entre as cirurgias valvares, com taxas de mortalidade cir&#250;rgica que variam de 8,8% a 9,7%. Al&#233;m disso, apesar dos estudos que demonstram aumento da taxa de mortalidade em pacientes com IT moderada a importante, ainda n&#227;o h&#225; dados demonstrando melhora de sobrevida com o tratamento cir&#250;rgico. Assim, a indica&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica ainda tem como principal objetivo, nesta popula&#231;&#227;o, a melhora dos sintomas e a preven&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o importante do ventr&#237;culo direito.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153"><sup>153</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155"><sup>155</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Paralelamente &#224; cirurgia, tem crescido o n&#250;mero de estudos voltados ao tratamento intervencionista percut&#226;neo da IT. Diversos dispositivos foram desenvolvidos, com estrat&#233;gias que se baseiam na diminui&#231;&#227;o do anel valvar tricusp&#237;deo, ou na melhora da coapta&#231;&#227;o entre os folhetos, ou ainda nos implantes valvares transcateter. Novos dados estar&#227;o dispon&#237;veis no futuro, e poder&#227;o dar maior suporte ao <italic>Heart Team</italic> para a indica&#231;&#227;o do implante destes dispositivos em pacientes com IT (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t46">Quadros 46</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t47">47</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 10</xref>) <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149"><sup>149</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156"><sup>156</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158"><sup>158</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t46">
        <label>Quadro 46</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 5: Tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149"><sup>149</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151"><sup>151</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158"><sup>158</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Considera&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Pl&#225;stica tric&#250;spide com anel prot&#233;tico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Tratamento de escolha</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indica&#231;&#245;es:</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Abordagem cir&#250;rgica de outra valvopatia na presen&#231;a de: anel tricusp&#237;deo &#8805; 40 mm e/ou IT moderada a importante</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>IT isolada, refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento cl&#237;nico, sem contraindica&#231;&#245;es e de baixo risco cir&#250;rgico.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Contraindica&#231;&#245;es: disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo direito importante</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Troca valvar cir&#250;rgica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Quando pl&#225;stica contraindicada</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Prefer&#234;ncia por pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Implante valvar transcateter</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintomas refrat&#225;rios ao tratamento cl&#237;nico, com contraindica&#231;&#227;o ou alto risco a tratamento cir&#250;rgico (em estudo)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN37">
            <p>IT: insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t47">
        <label>Quadro 47</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149"><sup>149</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151"><sup>151</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158"><sup>158</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="6">Pl&#225;stica tric&#250;spide com anel prot&#233;tico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Abordagem de outra valvopatia e IT importante</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Abordagem de outra valvopatia e anel tric&#250;spide &#8805; 40 mm</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Abordagem de outra valvopatia, IT importante e sinais de disfun&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo direito</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Abordagem de outra valvopatia, IT moderada a importante e/ou anel &#8805; 40 mm com PSAP &#8805; 70 mmHg</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>IT importante isolada refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento cl&#237;nico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>IT importante prim&#225;ria assintom&#225;tica isolada com dilata&#231;&#227;o ou perda de fun&#231;&#227;o progressiva de ventr&#237;culo direito</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Troca valvar cir&#250;rgica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>IT com indica&#231;&#227;o de abordagem sem possibilidade de pl&#225;stica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Prefer&#234;ncia para pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Implante valvar tric&#250;spide transcateter</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento cl&#237;nico, com contraindica&#231;&#227;o ou alto risco a tratamento cir&#250;rgico (em estudo)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIb C<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN38">*</xref></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN38">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Considerar discuss&#227;o junto ao Heart Team. AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; IT: insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <fig id="f10">
        <label>Figura 10</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo para tomada de decis&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide. VD: ventr&#237;culo direito.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf10.tif"/></fig>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>12. Disfun&#231;&#227;o de Pr&#243;tese Valvar</title>
      <p>Ap&#243;s cirurgia de troca valvar, os seguimentos cl&#237;nico e ecocardiogr&#225;fico peri&#243;dicos devem ser realizados para a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese, assim como para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de sintomas e complicadores anat&#244;micos e funcionais secund&#225;rios a essa disfun&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>O principal exame para suspeita e diagn&#243;stico da disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese &#233; o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico. Entretanto, ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico e a angiotomografia de aorta com sincronizada ao ECG ganham espa&#231;o principalmente na avalia&#231;&#227;o de trombose de biopr&#243;tese (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t48">Quadros 48</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t49">49</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t48">
        <label>Quadro 48</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 1: Diagn&#243;stico de disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese valvar importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas da Disfun&#231;&#227;o de Pr&#243;tese Valvar Importante</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Exame f&#237;sico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais cl&#237;nicos conforme o tipo da disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese predominante</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es condizentes com o tipo de disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese predominante</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es condizentes com a disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese predominante</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do tipo de disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar e confirmar gravidade da disfun&#231;&#227;o</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>espessamento de folhetos</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>calcifica&#231;&#227;o e mobilidade de folhetos</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>redu&#231;&#227;o da AOE</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>gradiente transvalvar</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>regurgita&#231;&#227;o valvar</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avaliar disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o evolutiva dos di&#226;metros das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Janela inadequada para ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o paravalvar importante com anatomia favor&#225;vel para tratamento percut&#226;neo</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indicado quando necess&#225;ria melhor avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo hemodin&#226;mico com manometria</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Necess&#225;rio nos casos de dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Angiotomografia de aorta sincronizada ao ECG</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da aorta</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de trombose de biopr&#243;tese e TAVI</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN39">
            <p>AOE: &#225;rea efetiva do orif&#237;cio; ECG: eletrocardiograma; TAVI: implante transcateter de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t49">
        <label>Quadro 49</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: Avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia da disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese valvar importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas etiol&#243;gicas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estenose de pr&#243;tese</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>
                      <bold>Pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica:</bold>
                    </p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>trombose</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <italic>pannus</italic>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>
                      <bold>Pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica:</bold>
                    </p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>degenera&#231;&#227;o de folhetos</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>calcifica&#231;&#227;o de folhetos</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><italic>mismatch</italic> pr&#243;tese-paciente (AOE indexada &#8804; 0,85 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Regurgita&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>
                      <bold>Central:</bold>
                    </p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>degenera&#231;&#227;o de folheto (ruptura, perfura&#231;&#227;o)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>calcifica&#231;&#227;o de folheto</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>
                      <bold>Paravalvar:</bold>
                    </p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>endocardite infecciosa</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>degenera&#231;&#227;o do anel</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN40">
            <p>AOE: &#225;rea efetiva do orif&#237;cio.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>O sintoma mais frequentemente encontrado &#233; a dispneia, decorrente da congest&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar consequente a disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t50">Quadro 50</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t50">
        <label>Quadro 50</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 3: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas da disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese valvar importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Sintomas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia <break/>(NYHA II &#8211; IV)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Fisiopatologia conforme disfun&#231;&#227;o predominante, determinando congest&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN41">
            <p>NYHA: New York Heart Association.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores na disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese &#233; complexa pois em muitos casos o paciente j&#225; apresenta HP, dilata&#231;&#227;o ou disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular decorrente da valvopatia pr&#233;via. Dessa maneira, a progress&#227;o de tais altera&#231;&#245;es deve ser notada e levada em considera&#231;&#227;o para indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t51">Quadro 51</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t51">
        <label>Quadro 51</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 4: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores da disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese valvar importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Complicadores</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Progress&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Progress&#227;o de remodelamento de VE (caso di&#226;metros iniciais j&#225; elevados)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>HP</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Calcifica&#231;&#227;o importante de biopr&#243;tese</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Anemia hemol&#237;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Ocorre em casos de regurgita&#231;&#227;o importante de pr&#243;tese valvar, sobretudo se paravalvar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN42">
            <p>HP: hipertens&#227;o pulmonar; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Novos procedimentos, como tratamento percut&#226;neo de regurgita&#231;&#227;o paravalvar e <italic>valve-in-valve</italic> j&#225; s&#227;o realidade e est&#227;o inclu&#237;dos nas novas Diretrizes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t52">Quadros 52</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t53">53</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162"><sup>162</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t52">
        <label>Quadro 52</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 5: Tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese valvar importante <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162"><sup>162</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Considera&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Cirurgia (retroca valvar)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Tratamento de escolha</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indica&#231;&#245;es: disfun&#231;&#227;o importante de pr&#243;tese valvar, com sintomas e/ou anemia hemol&#237;tica grave</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o por cateter - <italic>Valve-in-valve</italic></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o de biopr&#243;tese mitral ou a&#243;rtica, em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos e com alto risco para cirurgia ou inoper&#225;veis (ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Heart Team</italic>)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Oclus&#227;o percut&#226;nea de regurgita&#231;&#227;o paravalvar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Em casos de regurgita&#231;&#227;o paravalvar importante, associada &#224; anemia hemol&#237;tica ou sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (CF III/IV), em pacientes com alto risco para cirurgia e com anatomia favor&#225;vel ao procedimento, em centro capacitado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN43">
            <p>CF: classe funcional.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t53">
        <label>Quadro 53</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese valvar: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162"><sup>162</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Retroca valvar cir&#250;rgica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o importante de pr&#243;tese valvar, com sintomas</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Anemia hemol&#237;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IB</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o importante de pr&#243;tese valvar, assintom&#225;tico, com baixo risco para cirurgia</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN44">*</xref></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Oclus&#227;o percut&#226;nea de regurgita&#231;&#227;o paravalvar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Hem&#243;lise ou sintomas, com anatomia favor&#225;vel e alto risco para cirurgia, ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Heart Team</italic>.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Valve-in-valve</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o importante de biopr&#243;tese, em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos, com alto risco para cirurgia ou inoper&#225;veis, ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Heart Team</italic>.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN44">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica com regurgita&#231;&#227;o. AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>13. Doen&#231;a Multivalvar</title>
      <p>Considera-se doen&#231;a multivalvar o acometimento prim&#225;rio de duas ou mais valvas. Portanto, s&#227;o exclu&#237;das dessa classifica&#231;&#227;o valvopatias secund&#225;rias a uma valvopatia prim&#225;ria, como &#233; o caso da IT funcional, consequente &#224; doen&#231;a mitral, assim como a IM secund&#225;ria ao remodelamento ventricular esquerdo consequente &#224; valvopatia a&#243;rtica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t54">Quadro 54</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t54">
        <label>Quadro 54</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 1: Diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a multivalvar importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas de Doen&#231;a Multivalvar Importante</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Exame f&#237;sico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Presen&#231;a de sopros distintamente caracterizados como mitral e a&#243;rtico - insufici&#234;ncia, estenose ou dupla les&#227;o.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Excluir possibilidade de sopro causado por interfer&#234;ncia hemodin&#226;mica (ex.: sopro de Austin-Flint)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Excluir possibilidade de valvopatias secund&#225;rias a uma valvopatia prim&#225;ria (ex.: IT secund&#225;ria &#224; doen&#231;a mitral).</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Exame f&#237;sico especialmente importante para definir a predomin&#226;ncia de uma das valvopatias</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sobrecarga de c&#226;maras esquerdas, dependendo da valvopatia predominante</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FA em valvopatias mitrais importantes</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&#205;ndice cardiotor&#225;cico aumentado, especialmente em associa&#231;&#227;o de valvopatias regurgitantes</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de congest&#227;o pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sinais de sobrecarga do ventr&#237;culo direito em les&#227;o mitral esten&#243;tica associada</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Os achados ecocardiogr&#225;ficos variam de acordo com as valvopatias</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo hemodin&#226;mico</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indicado na dissocia&#231;&#227;o clinicoecocardiogr&#225;fica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN45">
            <p>FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; IT: insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>No Brasil, a doen&#231;a multivalvar &#233; resultado do acometimento reum&#225;tico na maioria das vezes, por&#233;m h&#225; um aumento progressivo de doen&#231;a mitroa&#243;rtica degenerativa calc&#237;fica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t55">Quadro 55</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t55">
        <label>Quadro 55</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: Avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia da doen&#231;a multivalvar importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas etiol&#243;gicas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Febre reum&#225;tica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&gt; 95% dos casos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>T&#237;pico de pacientes jovens</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Frequente evolu&#231;&#227;o extempor&#226;nea.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintomas entre os 20 e 40 anos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Fus&#227;o comissural, espessamento de c&#250;spides, frequente dupla disfun&#231;&#227;o - fisiopatologia complexa</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Comprometimento do aparelho subvalvar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Endocardite Infecciosa</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Insufici&#234;ncia valvar por destrui&#231;&#227;o do aparelho mitral e/ou a&#243;rtico</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Infec&#231;&#227;o metast&#225;tica aorticomitral</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Calcifica&#231;&#227;o do aparelho valvar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pacientes idosos ou muito idosos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Associa&#231;&#227;o com valvopatia a&#243;rtica ateroscler&#243;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Calcifica&#231;&#227;o do anel valvar mitral com calcifica&#231;&#227;o caseosa</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Aus&#234;ncia de fus&#227;o comissural</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Rela&#231;&#227;o com calcifica&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica e coronariana</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">S&#237;ndrome de Marfan/Ehlers-Danlos</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Insufici&#234;ncias valvares mitral e a&#243;rtica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pesquisar acometimento de aorta ascendente</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Os sintomas geralmente est&#227;o associados &#224; valvopatia de maior gravidade anat&#244;mica e, nos casos em que ambas s&#227;o importantes, a valvopatia mais proximal costuma prevalecer (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t56">Quadro 56</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t56">
        <label>Quadro 56</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 3: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas da doen&#231;a multivalvar importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia <break/>(NYHA II &#8211; IV)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Principal sintoma</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Inicialmente com eventos que aumentam a press&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ser acompanhada por palpita&#231;&#245;es, hemoptise, disfonia, disfagia, tosse</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita associada em portadores de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dor precordial</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Especialmente com associa&#231;&#227;o de valvopatia a&#243;rtica regurgitante ou esten&#243;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ser causada por HP</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Baixo d&#233;bito/s&#237;ncope</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Presente especialmente na associa&#231;&#227;o EAo + IM</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN46">
            <p>EAo: estenose a&#243;rtica; HP: hipertens&#227;o pulmonar; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Os complicadores, quando presentes, decorrem da valvopatia com maior gravidade anat&#244;mica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t57">Quadro 57</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t57">
        <label>Quadro 57</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 4: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores da doen&#231;a multivalvar importante</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Complicadores</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Hipertens&#227;o pulmonar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg em repouso</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Mais presente quando h&#225; estenose mitral associada</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Rela&#231;&#227;o com aumento do risco cir&#250;rgico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial de in&#237;cio recente</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Rela&#231;&#227;o com remodelamento do AE</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Aumento de di&#226;metros ventriculares</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Considerar di&#226;metros a depender do tipo de les&#227;o valvar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN47">
            <p>AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>O tratamento padr&#227;o da doen&#231;a mitroa&#243;rtica com sintomas e/ou complicadores &#233; o tratamento cir&#250;rgico, no entanto, as estrat&#233;gias transcateter podem ser indicadas em casos selecionados, principalmente em pacientes com alto risco presumido para cirurgia convencional (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t58">Quadros 58</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t59">59</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t58">
        <label>Quadro 58</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 5: Tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a multivalvar importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Considera&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Casos de EM importante com anatomia favor&#225;vel e valvopatia a&#243;rtica moderada</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Tratamento cir&#250;rgico (comissurotomia/troca valvar)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Cirurgia conservadora da valva mitral quando h&#225; predom&#237;nio de estenose</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Evitar pl&#225;stica valvar a&#243;rtica - frequente recorr&#234;ncia da valvopatia e sintomas, mesmo com bom resultado imediato</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Abordagem da valvopatia anatomicamente moderada concomitante a interven&#231;&#227;o da valvopatia importante</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Tratamento transcateter &#8211; <italic>Valve-in-Valve</italic></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o de biopr&#243;tese mitral e a&#243;rtica, em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos e com alto risco para cirurgia ou inoper&#225;veis (ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Heart Team</italic>)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Tratamento transcateter &#8211; TAVI e clipagem percut&#226;nea mitral</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EAo importante e IM prim&#225;ria importante, em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos ou com complicadores, com alto risco para cirurgia ou inoper&#225;veis (ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Heart Team</italic>)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN48">
            <p>EAo: estenose a&#243;rtica; EM: estenose mitral; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral; TAVI: implante transcateter de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t59">
        <label>Quadro 59</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Doen&#231;a multivalvar: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM: estenose mitral importante sintom&#225;tica com anatomia favor&#225;vel e les&#227;o a&#243;rtica moderada</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Tratamento cir&#250;rgico/troca valvar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Doen&#231;a multivalvar sintom&#225;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Doen&#231;a multivalvar com complicadores</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Abordagem de les&#227;o valvar moderada concomitante ao tratamento de valvopatia importante ou outra cirurgia card&#237;aca ou de aorta ascendente</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Tratamento transcateter &#8211; Valve-in-Valve</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica mitral e a&#243;rtica com sintomas e alto risco cir&#250;rgico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica mitral e a&#243;rtica com complicadores e alto risco cir&#250;rgico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Tratamento transcateter &#8211; TAVI e clipagem percut&#226;nea mitral<sup>&#174;</sup></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EAo importante e IM prim&#225;ria importante com sintomas e alto risco cir&#250;rgico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EAo importante e IM prim&#225;ria importante com complicadores e alto risco cir&#250;rgico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN49">
            <p>AHA: American Heart Association; EAo: estenose a&#243;rtica; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia; TAVI: implante transcateter de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>14. Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana</title>
      <p>Pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia valvar devem ser submetidos &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana com cineangiocoronariografia se: idade maior que 40 anos, suspeita de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (fatores de risco para aterosclerose [diabetes, dislipidemia, hipertens&#227;o arterial, dentre outros], eventos pr&#233;vios, angina), disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda ou para avalia&#231;&#227;o de etiologia na IM secund&#225;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166"><sup>166</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168"><sup>168</sup></xref> A avalia&#231;&#227;o poder&#225; ser com angiotomografia de coron&#225;ria nos casos de pacientes com baixa ou intermedi&#225;ria probabilidade de doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria. Se a angiotomografia demonstrar les&#245;es significativas ou duvidosas, o paciente dever&#225; ser submetido &#224; cineangiocoronariografia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t60">Quadro 60</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169"><sup>169</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171"><sup>171</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t60">
        <label>Quadro 60</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Interven&#231;&#227;o na doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria concomitante &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o Valvar: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166"><sup>166</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171"><sup>171</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica cir&#250;rgica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o valvar cir&#250;rgica e les&#227;o coron&#225;ria &#8805; 70%</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Angioplastia coron&#225;ria</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o valvar transcateter e les&#227;o coron&#225;ria &#8805; 70% em segmento proximal</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN50">
            <p>AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>15. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Os dois complicadores de maior impacto na hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a valvar s&#227;o as altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas e o tromboembolismo. O acidente vascular cerebral &#233; o evento tromboemb&#243;lico de maior signific&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica, acometendo at&#233; 20% dos indiv&#237;duos com FA associada &#224; doen&#231;a valvar. Est&#225; recomendada a aplica&#231;&#227;o do escore CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc para decis&#227;o quanto &#224; anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, exceto nos pacientes portadores de EM reum&#225;tica e naqueles com pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica. Os crit&#233;rios para anticoagula&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o os mesmos em portadores de FA parox&#237;stica, persistente ou permanente. As principais indica&#231;&#245;es de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o est&#227;o descritas no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t61">Quadro 61</xref>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t61">
        <label>Quadro 61</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Indica&#231;&#245;es de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172"><sup>172</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183"><sup>183</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Medica&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="5">
                <bold>Valva nativa</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>EM com FA e/ou trombo atrial esquerdo<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN51">*</xref></p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Demais valvopatias com FA</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Evento emb&#243;lico pr&#233;vio sem FA</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="5">
                <bold>Pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FA</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Ritmo sinusal &#8211; pr&#243;tese mitral (primeiros 3-6 meses)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Ritmo sinusal &#8211; pr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica (primeiros 3-6 meses)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="5">
                <bold>TAVI</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="4">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FA</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS + clopidogrel</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="4">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Ritmo sinusal</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B 3 meses</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C 3 meses</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS ou clopidogrel indefinidamente</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS + clopidogrel 3-6 meses</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Ritmo sinusal + angioplastia com stent (doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria cr&#244;nica)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">AAS + clopidogrel at&#233; 12 meses conforme tipo de stent</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>FA + angioplastia com stent (doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria cr&#244;nica)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">DOAC + clopidogrel</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina + AAS + clopidogrel 1m, seguido de varfarina + clopidogrel at&#233; 12m</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="5">
                <bold>Pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="4"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina + AAS rotineiramente</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Varfarina + AAS ap&#243;s evento tromboemb&#243;lico com INR terap&#234;utico</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN51">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Considerar anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com varfarina nos indiv&#237;duos com EM com epis&#243;dios de taquicardia atrial sustentada ou aumento de AE (&#8805; 50 mm de di&#226;metro anteroposterior ou &#8805; 50 ml/m&#178; de volume de AE) e contraste espont&#226;neo. AAS: &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico; AHA: American Heart Association; DOACs: anticoagulantes orais diretos; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; EM: estenose mitral; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral; INR: raz&#227;o normalizada internacional; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia; TAVI: implante transcateter de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Atualmente a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral como forma de prevenir eventos tromboemb&#243;licos nos portadores de doen&#231;a valvar ainda &#233; feita predominantemente com antagonistas da vitamina K (sigla em ingl&#234;s VKA &#8211; <italic>vitamin K antagonist</italic>), sendo a varfarina o atual representante desta classe no Brasil. &#201; uma estrat&#233;gia segura iniciar a varfarina na dose de 5mg/dia para indiv&#237;duos abaixo dos 65 anos e 2,5 mg/dia acima dos 65 anos. O tempo de protrombina dever&#225; ser dosado no 3&#186; dia para avalia&#231;&#227;o de hiper-responsividade &#224; medica&#231;&#227;o e novamente no 5&#186; dia, data a partir da qual a dose passa a ser ajustada. Nesta fase os exames devem ser feitas com intervalo de at&#233; 5 dias, at&#233; que se atinja n&#237;vel terap&#234;utico. A raz&#227;o normalizada internacional (INR) dever&#225; ficar entre 2,0 e 3,0, exceto para os portadores de pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica em posi&#231;&#227;o mitral, pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica a&#243;rtica associada &#224; FA, estados de hipercoagulabilidade e eventos cardioemb&#243;licos na vig&#234;ncia de INR entre 2,0 e 3,0. Nestes casos, o alvo passa a ser 2,5 a 3,5. O controle da INR habitualmente &#233; realizado mensalmente, sendo razo&#225;vel o controle a cada dois meses em pacientes com doses est&#225;veis de longa data e que n&#227;o foram expostos a novos fatores que interajam com a varfarina (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t62">Quadro 62</xref>). No caso de INR fora do alvo, deve ser coletado novo exame mais precocemente, em 1 a 2 semanas. O ajuste de dose deve ser em m&#233;dia 10-15% da dose semanal e devem ser investigados os fatores que ocasionaram a oscila&#231;&#227;o da INR. O monitoramento do tempo de protrombina com dispositivos <italic>point-of-care</italic> fornece informa&#231;&#245;es r&#225;pidas e confi&#225;veis, por&#233;m sua disponibilidade ainda &#233; limitada pelo alto custo do aparelho e tiras.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t62">
        <label>Quadro 62</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Ajuste de dose da varfarina</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Valor de INR</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Ajuste de dose</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8804; 1,5</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Aumentar 15% na dose semanal</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">1,51 &#8211; 1,99</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Aumentar 10% na dose semanal</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">2 &#8211; 3<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN52">*</xref></td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Manter dose</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">3,01 &#8211; 4,0</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Reduzir 15% na dose semanal</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">4,01 &#8211; 4,99</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Suspender 1 dose e reduzir 10% na dose semanal</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">5,0 &#8211; 8,99</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Suspender a varfarina at&#233; INR 2-3 e reiniciar com 15% menos da dose semanal</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8805; 9,00</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, suspender a varfarina em m&#233;dia por 4 dias, prescrever vitamina K na dose de 1 a 2,5 mg por via oral a ser repetida em 24-48 horas se n&#227;o houver redu&#231;&#227;o para INR &lt;5,0 e reiniciar a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s INR pr&#243;ximo aos valores-alvo (abaixo de 4)</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN52">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Considerar manuten&#231;&#227;o da dose semanal da varfarina se INR at&#233; 3,5; desde que a medica&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o tenha sido iniciada recentemente e realizar nova dosagem em 1-2 semanas. No caso de alvo terap&#234;utico de INR entre 2,5 a 3,5 o ajuste de dose dever&#225; ser realizado para valores 0,5 maiores, exceto se INR &#8805; 9,0. INR: raz&#227;o normalizada internacional.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Sabe-se que quanto maior o tempo no alvo terap&#234;utico (sigla em ingl&#234;s TTR &#8211; <italic>time in therapeutic range</italic>), menor o risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos e de sangramento. Em um estudo com 119 pacientes com doen&#231;a valvar mitral e FA, 78,2% dos indiv&#237;duos apresentavam INR &lt;2,0 no momento do evento tromboemb&#243;lico. Para valores de INR &lt;1,7 a probabilidade destes dobrou e para valores abaixo de 1,5, triplicou. As dificuldades no manejo dos VKAs decorrem da grande variabilidade de dose individual, intera&#231;&#227;o com alimentos e medica&#231;&#245;es, al&#233;m da necessidade de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o frequente. Os pacientes devem ser aconselhados a evitar o consumo de &#225;lcool e manter equil&#237;brio na dieta, especialmente em rela&#231;&#227;o aos alimentos ricos em vitamina K, como verduras e legumes verdes. Estes alimentos n&#227;o devem ser exclu&#237;dos da rotina alimentar.</p>
      <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, o papel dos anticoagulantes orais diretos (sigla em ingl&#234;s DOACs &#8211; <italic>direct oral anticoagulants</italic>) tem se tornado progressivamente maior. A dosagem das medica&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis no Brasil encontra-se no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t63">Quadro 63</xref>. M&#250;ltiplos ensaios cl&#237;nicos envolvendo portadores de valvopatias est&#227;o em andamento. A maior parte das informa&#231;&#245;es atuais s&#227;o provenientes de an&#225;lises de subgrupos dos principais estudos com os DOACs, al&#233;m de estudos de coorte retrospectiva.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t63">
        <label>Quadro 63</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Dose dos anticoagulantes orais diretos para profilaxia de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177"><sup>177</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180"><sup>180</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="25%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Anticoagulante</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Dose habitual</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Ajuste de dose</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Contraindica&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dabigatrana</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">150 mg 2x/dia</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805; 80 anos e/ou alto risco de sangramento: 110 mg 2x/dia</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Clearance de creatinina &lt; 30 mL/min, uso concomitante de cetoconazol</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Rivaroxabana</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">20 mg 1x/dia</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">15mg 1x/dia se Clearance de creatinina &lt; 50 mg/dL</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Clearance de creatinina &lt; 15 mL/min, doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica associada &#224; coagulopatia</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Apixabana</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">5 mg 2x/dia</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">2,5 mg 2x/dia em pacientes com pelo menos 2 de: idade &#8805; 80 anos, peso corporal &#8804; 60 kg ou creatinina s&#233;rica &#8805; 1,5 mg/dL</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Clearance de creatinina &lt;15mL/min, doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica associada &#224; coagulopatia</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Edoxabana</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">60 mg 1x/dia</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">30mg 1x/dia</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Clearance de creatinina &gt; 95 mL/min ou &lt; 15 mL/min</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Nos portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas, ensaios pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos envolvendo animais sugeriram que o uso de DOACs poderia ser t&#227;o seguro e eficaz quanto a varfarina. No entanto, o estudo cl&#237;nico RE-ALIGN (<italic>Dabigatran versus Warfarin in Patients with Mechanical Heart Valves</italic>) que comparou dabigatrana <italic>versus</italic> varfarina foi interrompido precocemente devido a maior ocorr&#234;ncia do desfecho combinado acidente vascular cerebral, acidente isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio, embolia sist&#234;mica, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e morte (9% <italic>versus</italic> 5%; <italic>hazard ratio</italic> 1,94, IC 95% 0,64-5,86) e de sangramento (27% <italic>versus</italic> 12%, p &lt; 0,05) no primeiro grupo. O estudo envolveu 252 pacientes e utilizou dabigatrana nas dosagens de 150, 220 e 300mg administrados a cada 12 horas de acordo com o clearance de creatinina, tendo sido a dose ajustada para n&#237;vel s&#233;rico acima de 50 ng/mL. Sendo assim, n&#227;o indicamos o uso de DOACs nos portadores de pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176"><sup>176</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Embora os grandes ensaios cl&#237;nicos que validaram o uso dos DOACs na FA tenham exclu&#237;do indiv&#237;duos com EM importante e pr&#243;teses valvares mec&#226;nicas, estes estudos inclu&#237;ram indiv&#237;duos com outras valvopatias. No estudo ARISTOTLE (<italic>Apixaban versus Warfarin in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation</italic>) 26,4% dos participantes apresentavam valvopatia moderada ou importante, no RE-LY (<italic>Dabigatran versus Warfarin in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation</italic>) 21,8%, no ROCKET AF (<italic>Rivaroxaban versus Warfarin in Nonvalvular Atrial Fibrillation</italic>) 14,1% e, por fim, no ENGAGE AF (<italic>Edoxaban versus Warfarin in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation</italic>) 13%. As suban&#225;lises destes estudos sugeriram efic&#225;cia dos DOACs em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; varfarina nos indiv&#237;duos com FA e doen&#231;a valvar, exclu&#237;das as pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas e EM importante. O ARISTOTLE e o ENGAGE-AF contemplaram indiv&#237;duos com biopr&#243;teses. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177"><sup>177</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180"><sup>180</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Apesar dos resultados negativos nos indiv&#237;duos portadores de pr&#243;teses valvares mec&#226;nicas, a dabigatrana mostrou-se eficaz em prevenir a forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos intracard&#237;acos em indiv&#237;duos com pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica a&#243;rtica e/ou mitral no estudo unic&#234;ntrico brasileiro DAWA (<italic>Dabigatran Versus Warfarin After Bioprosthesis Valve Replacement for the Management of Atrial Fibrillation Postoperatively</italic>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175"><sup>175</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Uma coorte sul coreana com 2230 pacientes avaliou indiv&#237;duos com FA e EM de diferentes etiologias e gravidades anat&#244;micas comparando o uso <italic>off-label</italic> dos DOACs em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; varfarina. Os eventos isqu&#234;micos ocorreram em 2,22%/ano no grupo DOAC versus 4,19%/ano no grupo varfarina (<italic>hazard ratio</italic> 0,28; IC 95% 0,18-0,45) e os sangramentos intracranianos em 0,49% no grupo DOAC versus 0,93% no grupo varfarina (<italic>hazard ratio</italic> 0,53; IC 95% 0,22-1,26). Este estudo refor&#231;a a hip&#243;tese da efic&#225;cia dos DOACs na EM. Deve-se ter aten&#231;&#227;o para o fato de que o tempo de INR em faixa terap&#234;utica (<italic>TTR &#8211; time in therapeutic range</italic>) n&#227;o foi avaliado nesta coorte. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B181"><sup>181</sup></xref> Em um estudo observacional multic&#234;ntrico, os pacientes coreanos tinham apenas 31% de valores de INR no alvo terap&#234;utico.</p>
      <p>O primeiro regime antitromb&#243;tico que se adotou para os indiv&#237;duos submetidos ao TAVI em ritmo sinusal foi a dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o com AAS e clopidogrel por 6 meses, extrapolando-se a experi&#234;ncia com stents e tendo em vista o per&#237;odo esperado para que ocorra endoteliza&#231;&#227;o da pr&#243;tese. Uma metan&#225;lise de tr&#234;s ensaios cl&#237;nicos pequenos recentes mostrou que a antiagrega&#231;&#227;o com AAS ou clopidogrel isoladamente n&#227;o mostrou aumento de mortalidade em 30 dias frente &#224; dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o (<italic>odds ratio</italic> 5,2 <italic>versus</italic> 3,2%, p = 0,447), bem como de eventos isqu&#234;micos (3,8 versus 3,8%, p = 0,999), al&#233;m de ter ocorrido maior chance de sangramento no grupo dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o (<italic>odds ratio</italic> 2,24; IC 95% 1,12-4,46; p = 0,022). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173"><sup>173</sup></xref></p>
      <p>H&#225; evid&#234;ncias atrav&#233;s de ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico e angiotomografia computadorizada da ocorr&#234;ncia de espessamento de folhetos ap&#243;s a TAVI em at&#233; 13% dos pacientes, o que pode corresponder a forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos e tem se associado ao aumento na incid&#234;ncia de acidentes isqu&#234;micos transit&#243;rios e acidente vascular cerebral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174"><sup>174</sup></xref> Coortes observacionais nas quais os indiv&#237;duos receberam VKA ou DOACs indicaram que o uso destas medica&#231;&#245;es poderia ser seguro na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos. Entretanto, foi publicado recentemente o estudo multic&#234;ntrico GALILEO (<italic>Global Study Comparing a Rivaroxaban-based Antithrombotic Strategy to an Antiplatelet-based Strategy After Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement to Optimize Clinical Outcomes</italic>) que envolveu 1644 pacientes sem indica&#231;&#227;o de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o ou anticoagula&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;vios e comparou o uso de rivaroxabana 10 mg/dia (associada a AAS 75-100 mg/dia nos primeiros 3 meses) <italic>versus</italic> AAS 75-100 mg (associada a clopidogrel 75mg/dia nos primeiros 3 meses). O estudo foi interrompido precocemente devido a maior ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos tromb&#243;ticos no grupo rivaroxabana (9,8 e 7,2 por 100 pessoas-ano; <italic>hazard ratio</italic> 1,35, IC 95% 1,01-1,81; p = 0,04), bem como sangramentos (4,3 e 2,8 por 100 pessoas-ano; <italic>hazard ratio</italic> 1,5, IC 95% 0,95-2,37; p = 0,08) e mortes (5,8 e 3,4 por 100 pessoas-ano; <italic>hazard ratio</italic> 1,69, IC 95% 1,13-2,53). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172"><sup>172</sup></xref></p>
      <sec>
        <title>15.1. Procedimentos Cir&#250;rgicos</title>
        <p>Nos procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos com baixo risco de sangramento e possibilidade de hemostasia, como na cirurgia de catarata, glaucoma, dermatol&#243;gicas pequenas, cirurgias odontol&#243;gicas gengival, raspagem periodontal e extra&#231;&#227;o de at&#233; 3 dentes simultaneamente sugere-se a manuten&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral. No caso da varfarina, a INR dever&#225; estar em faixa terap&#234;utica, tendo sido dosado nas 24 a 48 horas que precedem o procedimento. No caso dos DOACs, idealmente o procedimento n&#227;o dever&#225; ser feito nas horas subsequentes ao uso destes medicamentos para evitar seu pico de a&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Diante de procedimentos que impliquem em maior risco de sangramento devido ao porte cir&#250;rgico ou dificuldade de hemostasia, est&#225; indicada a ponte com heparina nos indiv&#237;duos em uso de VKA. Fazem parte destes a cineangiocoronariografia, endoscopia ou colonoscopia com polipectomia, postectomia, vasectomia, bi&#243;psias de &#243;rg&#227;os internos e cirurgias de maior porte. Neste caso, a varfarina dever&#225; ser suspensa nos 5 dias que precedem o procedimento, devendo a heparina ser iniciada 3 dias antes do mesmo. No caso da heparina de baixo peso molecular, a &#250;ltima dose dever&#225; ser administrada 24 horas antes do procedimento e a heparina n&#227;o fracionada dever&#225; ser suspensa 4 a 6 horas antes. A heparina em geral &#233; reintroduzida 12 horas ap&#243;s, desde que a hemostasia tenha sido adequada. A varfarina, em geral, &#233; reiniciada no dia subsequente. Dever&#225; ser coletado INR em 5 dias e a heparina suspensa assim que for atingido o alvo terap&#234;utico. Nas cirurgias de emerg&#234;ncia, idealmente dever&#225; ser administrado o complexo protromb&#237;nico 50 UI/kg intravenoso.</p>
        <p>O r&#225;pido in&#237;cio da a&#231;&#227;o dos DOACs (2-4 horas) e a meia vida curta dispensam a necessidade do uso da ponte de heparina. Para procedimento eletivo de baixo risco de sangramento, recomenda-se a suspens&#227;o 24 horas antes da cirurgia, e nos casos de elevado risco de sangramento ou s&#237;tio de dif&#237;cil hemostasia 48 horas antes. Na cirurgia emergencial, recomenda-se o uso do ant&#237;doto idarucizumab nos indiv&#237;duos em uso de dabigatrana na dose total de 5 g endovenosa (duas al&#237;quotas de 2,5 g). Ainda n&#227;o est&#225; dispon&#237;vel no Brasil o andexanet alfa (AndexXa), ant&#237;doto dos inibidores do fator Xa.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>16. Trombose de Pr&#243;tese Valvar</title>
      <p>A trombose de pr&#243;tese valvar &#233; evento incomum, sendo mais frequente em pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas, principalmente em posi&#231;&#227;o mitral, este evento cursa com alta morbimortalidade. Pode ser assintom&#225;tica ou se manifestar com s&#237;ndrome de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, baixo d&#233;bito e at&#233; mesmo a morte. O diagn&#243;stico e suspeita usualmente se d&#227;o atrav&#233;s do ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico, podendo ser confirmado pelo m&#233;todo transesof&#225;gico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t64">Quadros 64</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t65">65</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t66">66</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t64">
        <label>Quadro 64</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 1: Diagn&#243;stico de trombose de pr&#243;tese valvar</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas da Trombose de Pr&#243;tese</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintomas e sinais sugestivos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda/exacerbada (dispneia, dor tor&#225;cica, baixo d&#233;bito/s&#237;ncope)</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sopro compat&#237;vel com valvopatia esten&#243;tica</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Abafamento do clique met&#225;lico</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Possibilidade de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o eficaz (INR fora da faixa terap&#234;utica)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Compat&#237;vel com a doen&#231;a de base que motivou a cirurgia valvar.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Raramente com altera&#231;&#227;o aguda</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Compat&#237;vel com a doen&#231;a de base que motivou a cirurgia valvar</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Raramente com altera&#231;&#227;o aguda na silhueta card&#237;aca</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Pode ter congest&#227;o pulmonar</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Exame fundamental para diagn&#243;stico.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Idealmente transesof&#225;gico.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Documenta&#231;&#227;o de trombo aderido &#224; pr&#243;tese, identifica&#231;&#227;o do local e tamanho da trombose</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo hemodin&#226;mico (fluoroscopia)</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Mobilidade inadequada de um ou mais folhetos da pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN53">
            <p>INR: raz&#227;o normalizada internacional.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t65">
        <label>Quadro 65</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: Avalia&#231;&#227;o da etiologia da trombose de pr&#243;tese valvar</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas etiol&#243;gicas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o ineficaz</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Interrup&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Intera&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa/comportamental</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>INR abaixo do alvo terap&#234;utico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN54">
            <p>INR: raz&#227;o normalizada internacional.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t66">
        <label>Quadro 66</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 3: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas da trombose de pr&#243;tese valvar</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Principal sintoma</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Distinguir entre discreta piora CF I e sintomas mais n&#237;tidos (CF II-IV)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dor Precordial</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Possibilidade de embolia de coron&#225;ria</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Baixo d&#233;bito/S&#237;ncope</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Indicativo de obstru&#231;&#227;o importante</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN55">
            <p>CF: classe funcional.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>O principal complicador da trombose &#233; o tamanho do trombo devido ao risco de embolia e obstru&#231;&#227;o valvar (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t67">Quadro 67</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t67">
        <label>Quadro 67</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 4: Avalia&#231;&#227;o de complicadores da trombose de pr&#243;tese valvar</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Complicadores</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Alto risco de emboliza&#231;&#227;o associada &#224; tromb&#243;lise</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Trombo &gt; 8 mm</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Trombo m&#243;vel (pedunculado)</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Hipertens&#227;o pulmonar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg em repouso</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Mais frequente nos casos de EM associada</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Clinicamente &#8211; sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Rela&#231;&#227;o com aumento do risco cir&#250;rgico</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">FA de in&#237;cio recente</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Rela&#231;&#227;o com remodelamento importante do AE</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN56">
            <p>AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; EM: estenose mitral; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>As recomenda&#231;&#245;es das diretrizes internacionais s&#227;o heterog&#234;neas em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento e h&#225; car&#234;ncia de estudos randomizados nesta &#225;rea (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t68">Quadros 68</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t69">69</xref>). Na trombose de pr&#243;tese sem repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica significativa (CF I e II) e sem obstru&#231;&#227;o de fluxo valvar nos exames complementares, &#233; indicada anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral e monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial com imagem. No caso de trombo grande (especialmente maior do que 8mm) e/ou m&#243;vel, portanto, com elevado risco de emboliza&#231;&#227;o, est&#225; indicada interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar para anticoagula&#231;&#227;o venosa. N&#227;o havendo resolu&#231;&#227;o do trombo em exames de imagem realizados a cada 5 a 7 dias, pode ser considerada fibrin&#243;lise e/ou cirurgia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184"><sup>184</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185"><sup>185</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t68">
        <label>Quadro 68</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 5: Tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o da trombose de pr&#243;tese valvar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184"><sup>184</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185"><sup>185</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Considera&#231;&#245;es</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Tromb&#243;lise</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Terapia priorit&#225;ria</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>rTPA 10 mg em bolus seguido por 90 mg em 2 horas OU Estreptoquinase 500.000 UI em 20 minutos, seguido de 1.500.000 UI em 10 horas</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Cirurgia valvar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Reservada para casos com alto risco de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas ou emb&#243;licas associadas &#224; tromb&#243;lise</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN57">
            <p>rTPA: recombinant tissue plasminogen activator.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t69">
        <label>Quadro 69</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Trombose de pr&#243;tese: Recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184"><sup>184</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185"><sup>185</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Tromb&#243;lise</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Trombose valvar em c&#226;mara direita</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Trombo pequeno (&lt; 0,8 cm&#178;), NYHA I-III, c&#226;maras esquerdas se persist&#234;ncia do trombo ap&#243;s hepariniza&#231;&#227;o endovenosa</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Cirurgia valvar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>NYHA IV, c&#226;maras esquerdas</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IB</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Trombo m&#243;vel ou grande (&gt; 0,8 cm&#178;), c&#226;maras esquerdas</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C (trombo &gt;10mm)</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN58">
            <p>NYHA: New York Heart Association.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Nos casos em que h&#225; comprometimento hemodin&#226;mico mais significativo (CF III e IV), habitualmente s&#227;o indicadas administra&#231;&#227;o de terapia fibrinol&#237;tica ou cirurgia valvar. Recentemente, h&#225; tend&#234;ncia de prioriza&#231;&#227;o da fibrin&#243;lise frente &#224; cirurgia, com base em dados de metan&#225;lise de 48 estudos. Na decis&#227;o sobre estas &#250;ltimas duas estrat&#233;gias, &#233; recomendada discuss&#227;o em <italic>Heart Team</italic>, devendo ser pesados riscos da fibrin&#243;lise (procedimento de primeira escolha) e da cirurgia individualmente. Favorecem a fibrin&#243;lise: alto risco cir&#250;rgico, baixo risco de sangramento, acometimento de valvas direitas, primeiro epis&#243;dio de trombose valvar, trombo menor do que 1cm&#178;. Havendo instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, o tratamento de escolha &#233; a cirurgia, podendo ser considerada a fibrin&#243;lise em indiv&#237;duos de elevado risco cir&#250;rgico. Os fatores que favorecem o procedimento cir&#250;rgico s&#227;o: contraindica&#231;&#227;o &#224; fibrin&#243;lise, alto risco de sangramento, baixo risco cir&#250;rgico, suspeita de <italic>pannus</italic> associado &#224; trombose e necessidade de outros procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos card&#237;acos concomitantes (ex: revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184"><sup>184</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185"><sup>185</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>17. Profilaxia da Febre Reum&#225;tica</title>
      <p>A FR, e consequente a Cardiopatia Reum&#225;tica Cr&#244;nica, permanece como a mais importante causa de valvopatia adquirida no Brasil. A Doen&#231;a Reum&#225;tica &#233; das que acarretam maiores custos para o Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de e para a comunidade em geral, pois acomete indiv&#237;duos muito jovens e frequentemente determina m&#250;ltiplas interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares e cirurgias. Permanece como a principal causa de valvopatia adquirida em nosso meio. Diminuir esta incid&#234;ncia permanece objetivo important&#237;ssimo, considerado que esta, das doen&#231;as cardiol&#243;gicas, &#233; com certeza a mais facilmente preven&#237;vel.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>17.1. Profilaxia Prim&#225;ria da Febre Reum&#225;tica</title>
        <p>Para diminuir a incid&#234;ncia de FR, a medida de maior impacto &#233; a profilaxia prim&#225;ria, impedindo que os indiv&#237;duos suscet&#237;veis venham a contrair a doen&#231;a (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t70">Quadros 70</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t71">71</xref>). Recentemente encontramos dificuldades s&#233;rias para realizar a profilaxia prim&#225;ria: o suprimento de Penicilina G benzatina est&#225; err&#225;tico, com frequentes desabastecimentos da medica&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, restri&#231;&#245;es a locais de aplica&#231;&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o por preocupa&#231;&#245;es com rea&#231;&#245;es al&#233;rgicas e falta de familiaridade de profissionais de sa&#250;de prim&#225;ria com a aplica&#231;&#227;o intramuscular fazem com que seja cada vez mais dif&#237;cil a realiza&#231;&#227;o da profilaxia prim&#225;ria por via intramuscular. Este fato ir&#225; certamente contribuir para o aumento da incid&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a nos pr&#243;ximos anos.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t70">
          <label>Quadro 70</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Regimes terap&#234;uticos indicados para a faringoamigdalite estreptoc&#243;cica &#8211; profilaxia prim&#225;ria da febre reum&#225;tica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186"><sup>186</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193"><sup>193</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Medica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Dose</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Via de administra&#231;&#227;o / Dura&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Coment&#225;rios</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">
                  <bold>Penicilinas e derivados</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Benzilpenicilina G benzatina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">600.000 UI at&#233; 25 kg, 1.200.000 UI acima de 25 kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Intramuscular Dose &#250;nica</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Medica&#231;&#227;o de escolha: dose &#250;nica, alta efic&#225;cia e baixo custo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Amoxicilina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">50 mg/kg para crian&#231;as e 1,5g di&#225;rias para adultos, divididos em 2 a 3 tomadas</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Via Oral 10 dias</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Baixa ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento completo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Fenoximetilpenicilina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">250 mg 2 a 3x ao dia at&#233; 25 kg, 500 mg 3x ao dia &gt; 25 kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Via Oral 10 dias</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Baixa ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento completo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Para pacientes al&#233;rgicos &#224; penicilina</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Clindamicina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">20 mg/kg dividido 3x ao dia, adultos: 300 a 600 mg 3x ao dia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Via Oral 10 dias</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Frequente intoler&#226;ncia gastrointestinal</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Azitromicina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">12 mg/kg em dose &#250;nica di&#225;ria. Para adultos, 500 mg 1x ao dia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Via Oral 5 dias</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#218;nica antibioticoterapia por via oral que pode erradicar o estreptococo em menos de 10 dias</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Claritromicina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">15 mg/kg 2x ao dia ou para adultos, 250 mg 2x ao dia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Via Oral 10 dias</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN59">
              <p>IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t71">
          <label>Quadro 71</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para profilaxia prim&#225;ria da febre reum&#225;tica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186"><sup>186</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193"><sup>193</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Classe I</bold>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Benzilpenicilina G benzatina para pacientes com amigdalite estreptoc&#243;cica</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Benzilpenicilina G benzatina para pacientes com suspeita de amigdalite estreptoc&#243;cica, mesmo sem confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Antibioticoterapia por via oral para pacientes com amigdalite estreptoc&#243;cica naqueles pacientes al&#233;rgicos &#224; penicilina</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Classe IIa</bold>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Uso de antibi&#243;ticos por via oral para tratamento de faringoamigdalite estreptoc&#243;cica em pacientes n&#227;o al&#233;rgicos &#224; penicilina</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Realiza&#231;&#227;o de testes r&#225;pidos para a detec&#231;&#227;o de estreptococos em orofaringe para decis&#227;o sobre tratamento com penicilina.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Classe III</bold>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Realiza&#231;&#227;o de cultura de orofaringe em pacientes com suspeita de amigdalite para decis&#227;o sobre tratamento com peniclina.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Terapias por via oral n&#227;o devem ser usadas rotineiramente, pois em geral &#233; necess&#225;rio o uso de 10 dias de terap&#234;utica para a completa erradica&#231;&#227;o dos estreptococos da orofaringe. Por isso h&#225; um risco muito grande da n&#227;o ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento completo, fazendo com que o paciente tenha risco de desenvolver surto reum&#225;tico. Tratamentos com base em 5 dias de Azitromicina foram propostos, mas ainda n&#227;o possuem estudo cl&#237;nico validando seu uso em faringoamigdalites.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186"><sup>186</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193"><sup>193</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>17.2. Profilaxia Secund&#225;ria da Febre Reum&#225;tica</title>
        <p>Para pacientes que j&#225; tem o diagn&#243;stico de FR, &#233; indicada a profilaxia secund&#225;ria para a preven&#231;&#227;o de novos surtos de FR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t72">Quadros 72</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t73">73</xref>). A droga de escolha &#233; a Benzilpenicilina G benzatina, nas mesmas doses de 600.000 UI para crian&#231;as com at&#233; 27 kg e 1.200.000 UI acima deste peso, com intervalo m&#225;ximo de tr&#234;s semanas. Aplica&#231;&#245;es mensais de Penicilina Benzatina n&#227;o proporcionarem prote&#231;&#227;o adequada aos portadores de doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica em pa&#237;ses com alta endemicidade da doen&#231;a como o nosso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194"><sup>194</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198"><sup>198</sup></xref> Para pacientes com alergia a penicilina est&#225; indicada a Sulfadiazina, na dose de 1 g/dia, sendo necess&#225;rio o controle de poss&#237;veis quadros leucop&#234;nicos.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t72">
          <label>Quadro 72</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Profilaxia secund&#225;ria para a febre reum&#225;tica: Medica&#231;&#245;es recomendadas e posologia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194"><sup>194</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200"><sup>200</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Medica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Dose e periodicidade</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Recorr&#234;ncia/Notas</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Benzilpenicilina G benzatina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 25 kg &#8211; 600.000UI <break/>&gt; 25 kg &#8211; 1.200.000 UI <break/>15/15 dias nos dois primeiros anos do surto <break/>21/21 dias nos anos subsequentes</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Recorr&#234;ncia de 0,3% ao ano <break/>Medica&#231;&#227;o de escolha</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Fenoximetilpenicilina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">250 mg por boca 2x ao dia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Recorr&#234;ncia de 5% ao ano &#8211; n&#227;o deve ser usada como alternativa &#224; penicilina G benzatina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Para pacientes al&#233;rgicos &#224; penicilina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Sulfadiazina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 25 kg &#8211; 500 mg ao dia <break/>&gt; 25 kg &#8211; 1g ao dia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Recorr&#234;ncia de 1,3% ao ano Pode ser usado at&#233; conclu&#237;da dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o &#224; penicilina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Para al&#233;rgicos &#224; Penicilina e &#224; sulfadiazina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Eritromicina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">250 mg 2x ao dia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Regime de profilaxia emp&#237;rico, n&#227;o foi objeto de estudos em profilaxia secund&#225;ria da FR &#8211; s&#243; deve ser usado excepcionalmente.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN60">
              <p>FR: febre reum&#225;tica.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t73">
          <label>Quadro 73</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a profilaxia secund&#225;ria da febre reum&#225;tica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194"><sup>194</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200"><sup>200</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Classe I</bold>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Benzilpenicilina G benzatina para profilaxia secund&#225;ria de FR, de 15/15 dias nos dois primeiros anos ap&#243;s o surto e de 21/21 dias nos anos subsequentes.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Uso de Benzilpenicilina G benzatina at&#233; os 18 anos, ou 5 anos ap&#243;s o &#250;ltimo surto em pacientes com FR sem cardite.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Uso de Benzilpenicilina G benzatina at&#233; os 25 anos, ou 10 anos ap&#243;s o &#250;ltimo surto em pacientes com FR com cardite, mas sem sequelas card&#237;acas ou sequelas leves, desde que n&#227;o sejam les&#245;es esten&#243;ticas.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Uso de at&#233; os 40 anos e em pacientes com FR com cardite e com sequelas graves ou cirurgia card&#237;aca para corre&#231;&#227;o da valvopatia.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Uso de Benzilpenicilina G benzatina ap&#243;s os 40 anos em pacientes com exposi&#231;&#227;o ocupacional a estreptococos.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Sulfadiazina para antibioticoprofilaxia da FR em pacientes al&#233;rgicos &#224; penicilina</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Classe IIa</bold>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Uso de antibioticoprofilaxia via oral para pacientes com FR em pacientes n&#227;o al&#233;rgicos &#224; penicilina</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Classe IIb</bold>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Uso de eritromicina para antibioticoprofilaxia para pacientes com FR em pacientes al&#233;rgicos &#224; penicilina e &#224;s sulfas</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Classe III</bold>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Suspens&#227;o da antibioticoprofilaxia para FR ap&#243;s a realiza&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia card&#237;aca com implante de pr&#243;tese (s) valvar (es), mesmo com demais valvas sem les&#227;o aparente.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN61">
              <p>FR: febre reum&#225;tica.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>A alternativa frente ao desabastecimento recente de Penicilina G benzatina &#233; a sulfadiazina, que frequentemente est&#225; dispon&#237;vel para doen&#231;as reumatol&#243;gicas no sistema p&#250;blico de sa&#250;de, listada nos regimes de medica&#231;&#227;o de alto custo. Devemos lembrar tamb&#233;m que apenas a Penicilina G Benzatina e a Sulfadiazina possuem estudos controlados com efic&#225;cia comprovada para a profilaxia secund&#225;ria da FR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199"><sup>199</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200"><sup>200</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>17.3. Os Crit&#233;rios de Suspens&#227;o das Profilaxias (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t74">Quadro 74</xref>)</title>
        <table-wrap id="t74">
          <label>Quadro 74</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Dura&#231;&#227;o da profilaxia secund&#225;ria para febre reum&#225;tica</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Categoria</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Dura&#231;&#227;o</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">FR sem cardite: quadros puros de artrite ou cor&#233;ia</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">At&#233; os 18 anos ou 5 anos ap&#243;s o &#250;ltimo surto de FR, o que for mais longo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">FR com cardite, mas sem sequelas ou com sequelas valvares muito leves (exceto les&#245;es esten&#243;ticas, mesmo que leves)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">At&#233; os 25 anos ou 10 anos ap&#243;s o &#250;ltimo surto</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">FR com cardite e sequelas graves. Pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">At&#233; os 40 anos no m&#237;nimo. Por toda a vida se exposi&#231;&#227;o ocupacional.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN62">
              <p>FR: febre reum&#225;tica.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Pacientes sem acometimento card&#237;aco, apenas com manifesta&#231;&#227;o articular ou cor&#233;ia &#8220;pura&#8221; &#8211; suspender aos 18 anos ou 5 anos ap&#243;s o surto reum&#225;tico;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Pacientes com cardite durante o surto agudo que n&#227;o apresentam sequelas tardias ou apresentam sequelas muito discretas &#8211; suspender aos 25 anos ou dez anos ap&#243;s o &#250;ltimo surto reum&#225;tico;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Pacientes nos quais &#233; retirada a profilaxia e os sintomas retornam dever&#227;o ter profilaxia mantida por mais 5 anos.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Pacientes com acometimento card&#237;aco, mesmo discreto, dever&#227;o ter profilaxia prolongada, de prefer&#234;ncia por toda a vida, e quando isso n&#227;o for poss&#237;vel at&#233; a quarta d&#233;cada. Devemos quando da suspens&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o sempre pesquisar sobre contato ocupacional com fontes de estreptococos.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>18. Profilaxia de Endocardite Infecciosa nas Valvopatias</title>
      <p>A EI &#233; complica&#231;&#227;o grave das valvopatias, sendo frequentemente fatal. Desta forma, havendo a possibilidade de fazer profilaxia para tal entidade, a mesma deveria ser aplicada. Com este intuito, foram utilizados v&#225;rios esquemas antibi&#243;ticos, por&#233;m com pouca evid&#234;ncia em estudos controlados, principalmente pela dificuldade em se realizar estudo controlado de grande porte com medica&#231;&#245;es j&#225; em dom&#237;nio p&#250;blico.</p>
      <p>Os estreptococos fazem parte da flora normal da orofaringe e trato gastrointestinal e causam pelo menos 50% das EI adquiridas na comunidade em nosso meio. Demonstrou-se bacteremia pelos estreptococos do grupo viridans em at&#233; 61% dos pacientes, ap&#243;s extra&#231;&#227;o dent&#225;ria e cirurgia periodontal (36% a 88%). E estudos experimentais em animais mostraram que a profilaxia antibi&#243;tica era capaz de evitar EI por estreptococos viridans e enterococos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B201"><sup>201</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202"><sup>202</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Mais recentemente tem se notado que h&#225; bacteremias espont&#226;neas, de origem especialmente dent&#225;ria e gengival, em situa&#231;&#245;es do dia-a-dia. Assim, atividades prosaicas rotineiras, como escova&#231;&#227;o de dentes (0 a 50%), uso de fio dental (20% a 68%), uso de palito de dentes e mesmo mastiga&#231;&#227;o de refei&#231;&#227;o (7% a 51%), s&#227;o associadas &#224; bacteremia. Desse modo, a carga de bacteremia espont&#226;nea, n&#227;o determinada por interven&#231;&#227;o odontol&#243;gica, seria maior do que a determinada por tratamentos dent&#225;rios. Um estudo te&#243;rico da bacteremia cumulativa, durante cerca de um ano, calculou que a bacteremia do dia-a-dia &#233; seis vezes maior do que a bacteremia causada por uma extra&#231;&#227;o dent&#225;ria isolada. Considerando que a indica&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia dent&#225;ria recomenda duas visitas por ano ao dentista, percebe-se um impacto das atividades do dia-a-dia na gera&#231;&#227;o de bacteremias muito maior do que a pr&#243;pria interven&#231;&#227;o dent&#225;ria. Trabalhos epidemiol&#243;gicos recentes n&#227;o mostram rela&#231;&#227;o entre tratamento dent&#225;rio duas semanas antes e epis&#243;dios de EI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B203"><sup>203</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208"><sup>208</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Por este motivo, mais importante que a profilaxia antes de procedimentos dent&#225;rios &#233; a manuten&#231;&#227;o de &#243;tima sa&#250;de bucal em valvopatas. Aqueles com boa sa&#250;de bucal tem menor possibilidade de bacteremia em atividades cotidianas. Assim devemos focar mais na preven&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica que na profilaxia farmacol&#243;gica. Faz parte da profilaxia n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica da EI refor&#231;ar em todas as consultas a necessidade de se manter uma &#243;tima sa&#250;de bucal e aumentar a frequ&#234;ncia das consultas odontol&#243;gicas, de duas (recomenda&#231;&#227;o para a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral) para quatro vezes ao ano. Devemos ressaltar que muitas das afec&#231;&#245;es odontol&#243;gicas que mais causam EI s&#227;o oligossintom&#225;ticas, como a gengivite e les&#245;es periapicais endod&#244;nticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209"><sup>209</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Para pacientes submetidos a interven&#231;&#245;es dent&#225;rias, existe crescente evid&#234;ncia de que a profilaxia antibi&#243;tica previne apenas um n&#250;mero muito pequeno de casos. Entretanto h&#225; evid&#234;ncias recentes que abolir totalmente a profilaxia antibi&#243;tica pode levar ao aumento da incid&#234;ncia da EI. O Instituto Nacional de Sa&#250;de e Excel&#234;ncia Cl&#237;nica (NICE &#8211; sigla em ingl&#234;s), institui&#231;&#227;o brit&#226;nica, prop&#244;s que n&#227;o seja realizada profilaxia para EI em nenhuma ocasi&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210"><sup>210</sup></xref> Como consequ&#234;ncia observou-se uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da prescri&#231;&#227;o da profilaxia antibi&#243;tica antes de tratamentos dent&#225;rios seguindo de um aumento do n&#250;mero de casos de EI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211"><sup>211</sup></xref> Assim temos evid&#234;ncia emp&#237;rica que abolir o completamente a profilaxia antibi&#243;tica pode levar a um aumento dos casos de EI. Desta maneira preconizamos a manuten&#231;&#227;o da profilaxia antibi&#243;tica antes de procedimentos dent&#225;rios, gastrointestinais e geniturin&#225;rios.</p>
      <p>Todo paciente com valvopatia moderada a importante, seja de etiologia reum&#225;tica, degenerativa, ou portador de pr&#243;tese valvar deve realizar profilaxia n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica e farmacol&#243;gica para EI, visto que todos pacientes com EI apresentam alta morbimortalidade.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>18.1. Profilaxia N&#227;o Farmacol&#243;gica da Endocardite Infecciosa</title>
        <p>A profilaxia n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica da EI pode ser mais eficaz que a farmacol&#243;gica por atuar na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de fontes comprovadas de bacteremia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t75">Quadro 75</xref>). Destacamos como medidas priorit&#225;rias para o valvopata manuten&#231;&#227;o de &#243;tima sa&#250;de bucal, evitar procedimentos de arte corporal invasiva, como o implante de <italic>piercings</italic> e tatuagens.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t75">
          <label>Quadro 75</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Profilaxia n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica da endocardite infecciosa</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Refor&#231;o da necessidade de manter boa sa&#250;de bucal e h&#225;bitos adequados de higiene durante consultas m&#233;dicas.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Consultas odontol&#243;gicas trimestrais</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Tatuagem</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><italic>Piercings</italic> em pele</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><italic>Piercings</italic> l&#237;ngua e mucosas</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; arte corporal (procedimentos como tatuagens e <italic>piercings</italic>) a mesma deve ser contraindicada. O <italic>piercing</italic> leva &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de um trajeto que precisa ser epitelizado, e at&#233; este processo ser completo &#233; fonte de cont&#237;nua bacteremia, sendo abundantes na literatura relatos de endocardite, inclusive com desfecho fatal, relacionado a implantes de <italic>piercings</italic>. &#201; importante que os pacientes sejam informados dos riscos do procedimento, assim como os m&#233;dicos devem sempre abordar esse assunto quando atendem pacientes que tem ou que pretendem ter arte corporal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B212"><sup>212</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>18.2. Profilaxia da Endocardite Infecciosa para Procedimentos Dent&#225;rios (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t76">Quadros 76</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t77">77</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t78">78</xref>)</title>
        <table-wrap id="t76">
          <label>Quadro 76</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Indica&#231;&#245;es de profilaxia para procedimentos dent&#225;rios</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Com alta probabilidade de bacteremia significativa</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Sem alta probabilidade de bacteremia significativa</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="7">Procedimentos que envolvem a manipula&#231;&#227;o de tecido gengival, regi&#227;o periodontal ou perfura&#231;&#227;o da mucosa oral.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Anestesia local em tecido n&#227;o infectado</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Radiografia odontol&#243;gica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Coloca&#231;&#227;o ou remo&#231;&#227;o de aparelhos ortod&#244;nticos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Ajuste de aparelhos ortod&#244;nticos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Coloca&#231;&#227;o de pe&#231;as em aparelhos ortod&#244;nticos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Queda natural de dente-de-leite</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Sangramento oriundo de trauma da mucosa oral ou l&#225;bios</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t77">
          <label>Quadro 77</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Profilaxia antibi&#243;tica de endocardite em valvopatias</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Indica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes com valvopatia moderada e importante, assim como portadores de pr&#243;tese valvar, e que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos odontol&#243;gicos de alta probabilidade de bacteremia significativa.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes com risco elevado para endocardite infecciosa grave<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN63">*</xref> e que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos geniturin&#225;rios ou gastrointestinais associados &#224; les&#227;o de mucosa.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes com risco elevado para endocardite infecciosa grave<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN63">*</xref> e que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos esof&#225;gicos ou do trato respirat&#243;rio associado &#224; les&#227;o de mucosa.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes com PVM sem regurgita&#231;&#227;o, pacientes ap&#243;s cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ou ap&#243;s coloca&#231;&#227;o de stents, com sopros card&#237;acos inocentes, portadores de marcapasso ou desfibrilador, com doen&#231;a de Kawasaki ou FR sem disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar, que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos odontol&#243;gicos, do trato respirat&#243;rio, geniturin&#225;rio ou gastrointestinal.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes submetidos a procedimentos que n&#227;o envolvam risco de bacteremia.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN63">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Risco elevado para EI grave: pr&#243;tese valvar card&#237;aca, EI pr&#233;via, cardiopatia cong&#234;nita n&#227;o reparada ou corrigida parcialmente ou corrigida com material prot&#233;tico, transplantado card&#237;aco com valvopatia. FR: febre reum&#225;tica; PVM: prolapso da valva mitral.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t78">
          <label>Quadro 78</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Esquemas de profilaxia para endocardite infecciosa antes de procedimentos dent&#225;rios</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Via de administra&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Medica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Dose &#250;nica 1 hora antes do procedimento</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Crian&#231;a</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Adulto</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Oral</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Amoxicilina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">50 mg/kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">2 g</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Oral (alergia &#224; penicilina)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Clindamicina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">20 mg/kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">600 mg</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Azitromicina ou claritromicina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">15 mg/kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">500 mg</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Parenteral (endovenoso ou intramuscular)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Ampicilina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">50 mg/kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">2 g</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Cefazolina ou ceftriaxone</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">50 mg/kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1 g</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Parenteral (endovenoso ou intramuscular) (alergia &#224; penicilina)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Clindamicina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">20 mg/kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">600 mg</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN64">
              <p>IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>O antibi&#243;tico deve ser ministrado, uma hora antes do procedimento. O regime usado deve impedir a bacteremia por estreptococos viridans sempre que for manipulado tecido da gengiva ou da regi&#227;o periapical do dente. O antibi&#243;tico de escolha, se n&#227;o houver alergia, &#233; a amoxicilina, por sua absor&#231;&#227;o adequada e pela suscetibilidade do agente infeccioso. No entanto, t&#234;m sido descritas resist&#234;ncias de v&#225;rias cepas desse micro-organismo a esse antibi&#243;tico. Para pacientes al&#233;rgicos a penicilina utiliza-se clindamicina, azitromicina ou claritromicina.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>18.3. Profilaxia da Endocardite Infecciosa para Procedimentos no Trato Respirat&#243;rio</title>
        <p>Pacientes a serem submetidos &#224; incis&#227;o ou bi&#243;psia da mucosa do trato respirat&#243;rio, como cirurgias otorrinolaringol&#243;gicas, devem receber esquema antibi&#243;tico semelhantes ao utilizados para afec&#231;&#245;es da boca.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>18.4. Profilaxia da Endocardite Infecciosa para Procedimentos nos Tratos Geniturin&#225;rio e Gastrointestinal</title>
        <p>Os enterococos fazem parte da flora normal do trato gastrointestinal e podem causar EI. Assim, considerando a falta de adequada evid&#234;ncia cient&#237;fica, as diretrizes americanas e europeias passaram a n&#227;o mais indicar profilaxia antibi&#243;tica antes de interven&#231;&#245;es nestas localiza&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213"><sup>213</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214"><sup>214</sup></xref> No entanto, considerando a gravidade de uma eventual ocorr&#234;ncia de EI decorrente destas fontes, foi optado, no atual documento, por considerar a profilaxia para pacientes com risco elevado para EI grave e que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos geniturin&#225;rios ou gastrointestinais associados a les&#227;o de mucosa (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t79">Quadro 79</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215"><sup>215</sup></xref> Na presen&#231;a de infec&#231;&#245;es instaladas nos tratos geniturin&#225;rio e gastrointestinal, o tratamento deve incluir antibi&#243;ticos que ajam contra o enterococo.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t79">
          <label>Quadro 79</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Profilaxia antibi&#243;tica parenteral para procedimentos do trato gastrointestinal e geniturin&#225;rio</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Via de administra&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Medica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">Dose &#250;nica 1 hora antes do procedimento</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Crian&#231;a</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Adulto</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Parenteral (endovenoso)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Ampicilina +</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">50 mg/kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">2 g</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Gentamicina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1,5 mg/kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Parenteral (endovenoso) - alergia &#224; penicilina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Vancomicina +</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">20 mg/kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1 g</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Gentamicina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1,5 mg/kg</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>19. Gravidez, Planejamento Familiar e Contracep&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <sec>
        <title>19.1. Aconselhamento Pr&#233;vio &#224; Gravidez</title>
        <p>A estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco das doen&#231;as valvares para o planejamento de gravidez deve ser fundamentada no diagn&#243;stico anat&#244;mico da les&#227;o valvar que classifica a gesta&#231;&#227;o em riscos alto, intermedi&#225;rio e aceit&#225;vel (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t80">Quadro 80</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t80">
          <label>Quadro 80</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o dos riscos das doen&#231;as valvares para gravidez</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Risco Alto</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Risco intermedi&#225;rio</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Risco aceit&#225;vel</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">EM importante</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica com disfun&#231;&#227;o moderada</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Doen&#231;a valvar discreta</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">EAo importante <break/>Pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica esten&#243;tica/calcificada <break/>Pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica com disfun&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Estenose valvar pulmonar</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica sem disfun&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica mitral &gt; Pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica aorta</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Sem fatores complicadores</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN65">
              <p>EAo: estenose a&#243;rtica; EM: estenose mitral.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>A concomit&#226;ncia de fatores complicadores deve ser considerada como agravante do progn&#243;stico materno e fetal, (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t81">Quadro 81</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216"><sup>216</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t81">
          <label>Quadro 81</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Condi&#231;&#245;es agravantes do progn&#243;stico da gravidez em portadoras de doen&#231;a valvar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216"><sup>216</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Fatores complicadores: FA, HP, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, eventos pr&#233;vios (insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, tromboembolismo, endocardite infecciosa)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Les&#245;es obstrutivas &#224; esquerda de grau moderado &#224; importante</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Doen&#231;as de aorta associada com di&#226;metros aumentados de aorta ascendente</p>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>S&#237;ndrome de Marfan (Di&#226;metro de aorta &gt; 40 mm)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Valva a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide (Di&#226;metro de aorta &gt; 45 mm)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>NYHA CF III/IV</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Doen&#231;a valvar com indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica ou percut&#226;nea</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Necessidade do uso de anticoagulantes (transit&#243;ria ou permanente)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN66">
              <p>CF: classe funcional; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; HP: hipertens&#227;o pulmonar; NYHA: New York Heart Association.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>No planejamento de gravidez, considera-se que a interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea ou cir&#250;rgica deva ser indicada em pacientes com doen&#231;a valvar importante, mesmo em pacientes assintom&#225;ticas, porque CF I/II n&#227;o assegura boa evolu&#231;&#227;o materna, em les&#245;es obstrutivas graves. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t82">Quadro 82</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217"><sup>217</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t82">
          <label>Quadro 82</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para conduta em doen&#231;a valvar nativa no planejamento familiar e durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217"><sup>217</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Doen&#231;a valvar</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Planejamento Familiar Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">Gesta&#231;&#227;o</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Risco Materno</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Risco fetal</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Estenose mitral importante <break/>AVM &lt; 1,5 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Considerar VMCB ou cirurgia: <break/>CF III/IV <break/>ou <break/>CF I/II + PSAP &gt; 50 mmHg <break/>ou <break/>FA in&#237;cio recente</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Risco aumentado: <break/>CF III/IV e/ou FA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Prematuridade <break/>Restri&#231;&#227;o de crescimento intrauterino <break/>Perda fetal <break/>Aumentado em CF III/IV</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Betabloqueador <break/>Diur&#233;tico <break/>Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o se FA <break/>Se refrat&#225;ria CF materna III/IV considerar VMCB ou cirurgia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Estenose a&#243;rtica importante <break/>AVA &#8804; 1 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Considerar valvoplastia cateter-bal&#227;o ou cirurgia: <break/>Sintom&#225;tica <break/>ou <break/>Assintom&#225;tica + <break/>Teste ergom&#233;trico alterado <break/>ou <break/>FEVE &lt; 50% <break/>ou <break/>AVA &lt; 0,7 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> <break/>gradiente m&#233;dio &gt; 60 mmHg <break/>ou <break/>Valva bic&#250;spide + di&#226;metro de aorta &gt; 45 mm</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Risco aumentado <break/>IC <break/>Arritmia <break/>S&#237;ncope <break/>Morte s&#250;bita <break/>Dissec&#231;&#227;o Ao</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Complica&#231;&#245;es <break/>Prematuridade <break/>Restri&#231;&#227;o de crescimento intrauterino <break/>Perda fetal</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Repouso <break/>Uso de diur&#233;ticos &#233; controverso <break/>Considerar betabloqueador ou bloqueador do canal de c&#225;lcio + Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o se FA <break/>Considerar valvoplastia cateter-bal&#227;o ou cirurgia se insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou s&#237;ncope</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Insufici&#234;ncia mitral importante</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Considerar cirurgia (pl&#225;stica/pr&#243;tese): <break/>CF &#8805; II <break/>ou <break/>Assintom&#225;tica + FEVE &#8804; 60% <break/>+ PSAP &#8805; 50 mmHg <break/>+ DSVE &#8805; 40 mm</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca <break/>FA <break/>Risco aumentado se FEVE &lt; 35%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Baixo risco</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Diur&#233;tico, vasodilatador <break/>Digoxina, Betabloqueador <break/>Considerar cirurgia ou clipagem percut&#226;nea mitral<sup>&#174;</sup> se insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca refrat&#225;ria</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Insufici&#234;ncia A&#243;rtica importante</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Considerar cirurgia: <break/>Sintom&#225;tica CF &#8805; II <break/>ou <break/>Fatores complicadores <break/>FEVE &lt; 50% <break/>DDVE &gt; 70 mm (75 se reum&#225;tica) <break/>DSVE &gt; 50 mm (55 se reum&#225;tica) <break/>Considerar interven&#231;&#227;o em aorta proximal: <break/>Valva bic&#250;spide isolada di&#226;metro de aorta &gt; 45 mm</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Baixo risco se assintom&#225;tica e FEVE normal <break/>Risco de Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e/ou FA se CF &gt; II ou FEVE &lt; 35%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Baixo risco</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Diur&#233;tico, vasodilatador, Digoxina <break/>Considerar cirurgia se insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca refrat&#225;ria <break/> <break/>Considerar interven&#231;&#227;o em aorta proximal: <break/>Valva bic&#250;spide isolada com di&#226;metro de aorta &gt; 45 mm</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN67">
              <p>AVA: &#225;rea valvar a&#243;rtica; AVM: &#225;rea valvar mitral; CF: classe funcional; DDVE: di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; DSVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar; VMCB: valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Em contrapartida, as les&#245;es de regurgita&#231;&#227;o apresentam melhor progn&#243;stico quando a fra&#231;&#227;o FEVE &#233; preservada e os raros casos que complicam s&#227;o aqueles que j&#225; apresentavam indica&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica pr&#233;via a gesta&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o, o princ&#237;pio b&#225;sico para a preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento das complica&#231;&#245;es &#233; priorizar as medidas gerais e selecionar f&#225;rmacos n&#227;o teratog&#234;nicos com doses ajustadas &#224; idade gestacional. O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t83">Quadro 83</xref> apresenta os f&#225;rmacos e doses di&#225;rias mais frequentemente utilizados no controle das complica&#231;&#245;es da doen&#231;a valvar durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218"><sup>218</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t83">
          <label>Quadro 83</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es Gerais e farmacol&#243;gicas durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218"><sup>218</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Restri&#231;&#227;o de atividades f&#237;sicas e dieta hiposs&#243;dica (4 g/dia)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Profilaxia da doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica deve ser mantida (exceto a sulfadiazina)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Se indicado tratamento farmacol&#243;gico, considerar:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#9675;</label>
                          <p>Diur&#233;tico: Furosemida (&lt; 80 mg/dia)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#9675;</label>
                          <p>Betabloqueador: Propranolol (&lt; 80 mg/dia) ou Succinato de Metoprolol (&lt; 100 mg/dia), carvedilol &lt; 50 mg</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#9675;</label>
                          <p>Bloqueador dos canais de c&#225;lcio n&#227;o dihidropirid&#237;nicos: Verapamil (&lt; 240 mg/dia)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#9675;</label>
                          <p>Vasodilatador: Hidralazina (&lt; 100 mg/dia)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#9675;</label>
                          <p>Digital: digoxina (0,25 mg/dia)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Medidas intervencionistas em doen&#231;as valvares durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o reservadas para os casos refrat&#225;rios ao tratamento cl&#237;nico. Os procedimentos percut&#226;neos devem ser preferidos &#224; cirurgia e as propostas de tratamento devem ser discutidas pelo <italic>Heart Team,</italic> compartilhada com a equipe obst&#233;trica. A valvoplastia por cateter bal&#227;o na EAo tem sido indicada quando a etiologia &#233; cong&#234;nita ou na tentativa de resgate da vida materna em casos extremos de gravidade. Em contrapartida a VMCB &#233; segura com resultados equivalentes aos da cirurgia, contudo requer crit&#233;rios cl&#225;ssicos de indica&#231;&#227;o tais como a aus&#234;ncia de trombo em AE, IM no m&#225;ximo de grau discreto e escore ecocardiogr&#225;fico de Wilkins-Block &#8804; 8.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>19.2. Pr&#243;teses Valvares</title>
        <p>Do ponto de vista hemodin&#226;mico, tanto as pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas como as biol&#243;gicas melhoram a capacidade funcional e proporcionam semelhante evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica durante a gravidez, contudo a pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica parece ser mais vantajosa porque n&#227;o requer anticoagula&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t84">Quadro 84</xref>). A durabilidade limitada com possibilidade de reopera&#231;&#227;o em curto prazo, inclusive durante a gravidez, s&#227;o as maiores restri&#231;&#245;es no implante de pr&#243;teses biol&#243;gicas em mulheres jovens.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t84">
          <label>Quadro 84</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Pr&#243;tese valvar com fun&#231;&#227;o normal e riscos para a gesta&#231;&#227;o</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2" style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica com FEVE normal</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica com FEVE normal</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Risco materno</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Risco fetal</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Risco materno</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Resultados fetais</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Risco baixo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Risco baixo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Risco intermedi&#225;rio Requer anticoagula&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Alto risco</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o requer anticoagula&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Embolia sist&#234;mica Trombose de pr&#243;tese Hemorragia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Embriopatia varfar&#237;nica Perdas fetais Prematuridade Hemorragia perinatal</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN68">
              <p>FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>A conduta perante a disfun&#231;&#227;o de pr&#243;tese durante a gravidez deve sempre priorizar a vida materna e as propostas devem ser discutidas com <italic>Heart Team,</italic> e compartilhadas com a equipe obst&#233;trica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t85">Quadro 85</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t85">
          <label>Quadro 85</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Conduta em pr&#243;teses com disfun&#231;&#227;o durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="center" valign="top" colspan="2" style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica</th>
                <th align="center" valign="top" colspan="2">Pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="center" valign="top">Risco materno</th>
                <th align="center" valign="top" style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Risco fetal</th>
                <th align="center" valign="top">Risco materno</th>
                <th align="center" valign="top">Risco fetal</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="border-right: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Disfun&#231;&#227;o com predom&#237;nio de insufici&#234;ncia, CF I/II e FEVE normal Considerar medidas farmacol&#243;gicas</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="border-right: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Risco baixo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="border-right: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Disfun&#231;&#227;o com insufici&#234;ncia &#8220;paravalvar&#8221; leve a moderada, sem hem&#243;lise significativa ou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca grave <break/>Considerar medidas farmacol&#243;gicas para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e anemia <break/>IM severa ou hem&#243;lise significativa <break/>Considerar interven&#231;&#227;o <break/>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e/ou hem&#243;lise sintom&#225;ticas <break/>Considerar fechamento percut&#226;neo do &#8220;leak&#8221; paravalvar ou cirurgia (alto risco de recidiva)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Alto risco fetal se cirurgia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Disfun&#231;&#227;o com predom&#237;nio de estenose valvar com calcifica&#231;&#227;o (mitral, a&#243;rtica ou tric&#250;spide) <break/>Riscos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca grave, choque, morte s&#250;bita <break/>Sempre considerar Implante percut&#226;neo ou transapical (<italic>valve-in-valve</italic>) ou cirurgia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Alto risco fetal <break/>Perda fetal Prematuridade</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Trombose pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica Considerar interven&#231;&#227;o de emerg&#234;ncia (tromb&#243;lise ou cirurgia) <break/>Estenose de pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica por crescimento endotelial intravalvar- <italic>Pannus ou mismatch</italic> <break/>Necessidade de interven&#231;&#227;o &#233; rara Se necess&#225;rio, considerar cirurgia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">Alto risco fetal se cirurgia</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN69">
              <p>CF: classe funcional; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>O esquema da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o para pacientes portadoras de pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica &#233; ainda controverso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218"><sup>218</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219"><sup>219</sup></xref> At&#233; o momento n&#227;o h&#225; uma orienta&#231;&#227;o uniforme e aceita amplamente. Fatores a serem considerados incluem: prefer&#234;ncia da paciente, <italic>expertise</italic> do m&#233;dico assistente, recursos no atendimento e disponibilidade de controle adequado da coagula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>As recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a preven&#231;&#227;o de tromboembolismo em pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas pretendem atender aos requisitos ideais de um posicionamento baseadas na documenta&#231;&#227;o da literatura, na viv&#234;ncia dos autores e que seja efetiva para a realidade dos diversos Servi&#231;os. Entende-se que a din&#226;mica da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o permanente para portadoras de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas seja multidisciplinar e fragmentada em cinco momentos: preconcep&#231;&#227;o, cada trimestre, parto e puerp&#233;rio, apresentada no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t86">Quadro 86</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 11</xref>. O rigoroso controle da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e doses dos anticoagulantes devem ser ajustados de acordo com as metas convencionais.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t86">
          <label>Quadro 86</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Controles da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica durante a gravidez</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Idade gestacional (semanas)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Anticoagulante</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Controle</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Entre 6&#170; e 12&#170;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Heparina de baixo peso molecular 1,0 mg/kg subcut&#226;nea 12/12 horas ou <break/>Heparina n&#227;o fracionada endovenosa 18 UI/kg/hora em bomba infus&#227;o (&lt; 30.000 UI)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Anti-Xa: 0.8-1.2 U/ml/ <break/>TTPa 1,5 vez a 2,0 vezes do valor controle</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">12&#170; at&#233; a 36&#170;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Varfarina na dose de acordo com INR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">A&#243;rtica INR entre 2,5 e 3,0 <break/>Mitral INR 3,0 e 3,5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ap&#243;s 36&#170; at&#233; o parto</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Heparina de baixo peso molecular 1,0 mg/kg subcut&#226;nea 12/12 horas ou <break/>Heparina n&#227;o fracionada endovenosa 18 UI/kg/hora em bomba de infus&#227;o (&lt; 30.000 UI)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Anti-Xa: 0.8-1.2 U/ml <break/>TTPa 1,5 vez a 2,0 vezes do valor controle</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Puerp&#233;rio</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Heparina de baixo peso molecular 1,0 mg/kg subcut&#226;nea 12/12 horas <break/>Heparina n&#227;o fracionada endovenosa 18 UI/kg/hora em bomba de infus&#227;o (&lt; 30.000 UI) <break/>Varfarina alcan&#231;ar INR alvo para alta hospitalar</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Anti-Xa: 0.8-1.2 U/ml <break/>TTPa 1,5 vez a 2,0 vezes do valor controle <break/>INR entre 2,0 e 2,5</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN70">
              <p>TTPa: tempo de tromboplastina parcial ativada; INR: raz&#227;o normalizada internacional.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <fig id="f11">
          <label>Figura 11</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Algoritmo com recomenda&#231;&#245;es para anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em portadoras de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas para gravidez, parto e puerp&#233;rio. AVK: antagonista da vitamina K, HCG: gonadotrofina cori&#244;nica, HBPM SC: heparina de baixo peso molecular subcut&#226;nea; HNF IV: heparina n&#227;o fracionada intravenosa.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf11.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Momento 1 - <italic>Orienta&#231;&#227;o quanto ao diagn&#243;stico precoce da gravidez:</italic> Esclarecimento sobre a obrigatoriedade em manter a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, a disponibilidade dos anticoagulantes e os seus riscos em todas as etapas da gesta&#231;&#227;o, parto e puerp&#233;rio. A orienta&#231;&#227;o inclui a informa&#231;&#227;o sobre a import&#226;ncia do diagn&#243;stico precoce da gravidez em reduzir a ocorr&#234;ncia da embriopatia, que ocorre entre 6&#170; e 9&#170; semana de gesta&#231;&#227;o. Nesta consulta &#233; fornecido um pedido de exame para a dosagem de gonadotrofina cori&#244;nica beta (&#946;HCG) que deve ser realizado &#224; primeira d&#250;vida de atraso menstrual.</p>
        <p>Momento 2 - <italic>Primeiro trimestre:</italic> confirmado o diagn&#243;stico da gravidez (&#946;HCG e ultrassonografia obst&#233;trica), deve ser realizado a substitui&#231;&#227;o da varfarina pela heparina que permite uma concilia&#231;&#227;o entre o benef&#237;cio da preven&#231;&#227;o de trombose materna e o malef&#237;cio da embriopatia. Em pacientes que chegam na 1&#170; visita m&#233;dica com idade gestacional al&#233;m da 6&#170; semana, a varfarina n&#227;o deve ser suspensa. O casal deve ser informado da possibilidade da embriopatia e que os riscos da substitui&#231;&#227;o pela heparina, neste momento, n&#227;o s&#227;o mais justificados.</p>
        <p>Momento 3 - <italic>Segundo trimestre:</italic> retorno ao anticoagulante oral. O retorno para &#224; varfarina ajusta-se &#224; suposi&#231;&#227;o de abreviar o uso da heparina e do menor risco da embriopatia. A proposta &#233; manter as doses de varfarina de acordo com as metas de anteriores &#224; gesta&#231;&#227;o, com controle da INR semanal ou quinzenal. A reintrodu&#231;&#227;o da varfarina deve obedecer a din&#226;mica da transi&#231;&#227;o, ou seja, simult&#226;nea &#224; heparina de baixo peso molecular subcut&#226;nea ou &#224; heparina n&#227;o fracionada endovenosa at&#233; o alcance da meta da INR.</p>
        <p>Momento 4 - <italic>terceiro trimestre:</italic> considerar a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, redirecionar para a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o parenteral e planejar o parto. A hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o deve ser programada com 36 semanas de gesta&#231;&#227;o para o uso de heparina de baixo peso molecular subcut&#226;nea ou heparina n&#227;o fracionada endovenosa.</p>
        <p>Momento 5 - <italic>puerp&#233;rio:</italic> reintrodu&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral e alta hospitalar. Decorrido 6 horas do parto e em aus&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#227;o materna, a heparina n&#227;o fracionada endovenosa ou heparina de baixo peso molecular subcut&#226;nea em doses terap&#234;uticas devem ser reintroduzidas. A varfarina deve ser prescrita 48 horas ap&#243;s o parto, obedecendo a din&#226;mica de transi&#231;&#227;o em conjunto com a heparina at&#233; o valor de 2,0 da INR, quando &#233; dada a alta hospitalar.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>19.3. Parto e Puerp&#233;rio</title>
        <p>A programa&#231;&#227;o do parto deve ser multidisciplinar a partir da 34&#170; semana de gesta&#231;&#227;o. Considera-se o parto vaginal mais vantajoso porque est&#225; associado a menor perda sangu&#237;nea e menores riscos tromb&#243;tico e infeccioso. As t&#233;cnicas anest&#233;sicas sequenciais, com bloqueio do neuroeixo, apresentam vantagens hemodin&#226;micas porque permitem a forma gradual do bloqueio simp&#225;tico. Os casos de indica&#231;&#227;o materna de ces&#225;rea geralmente requerem anestesia geral (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t87">Quadro 87</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t87">
          <label>Quadro 87</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para via de parto e anestesia em portadoras de doen&#231;a valvar</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Parto vaginal e anestesia peridural/raquidiana s&#227;o preferenciais para doen&#231;a valvar de risco baixo e intermedi&#225;rio</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Parto ces&#225;rea deve ser considerado</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Doen&#231;a Valvar de Alto Risco (les&#245;es obstrutivas graves)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Doen&#231;as de aorta tor&#225;cica ascendente</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Parto na vig&#234;ncia de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Hist&#243;ria de dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Profilaxia antibi&#243;tica na ocasi&#227;o do parto n&#227;o &#233; mais rotina. Contudo, pode ser considerada em pr&#243;teses valvares ou hist&#243;ria de endocardite infecciosa:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Ampicilina 2,0 g endovenoso + Gentamicina 1,5 mg/kg/dia IM uma hora antes do parto</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Sem restri&#231;&#245;es &#224; amamenta&#231;&#227;o</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>19.4. Contracep&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A sele&#231;&#227;o dos m&#233;todos de contracep&#231;&#227;o para mulheres com doen&#231;as valvares exige a parceria multidisciplinar &#8211; ginecologista e cardiologista &#8211; para busca da seguran&#231;a, efic&#225;cia, toler&#226;ncia e f&#225;cil acesso. Nesse sentido, a orienta&#231;&#227;o para a prescri&#231;&#227;o deve se apoiar nos Crit&#233;rios de Elegilibidade dos Contraceptivos que classifica os anticoncepcionais em quatro categorias de risco e no &#237;ndice de Pearl que calcula a efic&#225;cia do m&#233;todo considerando o n&#250;mero de gravidez em 100 mulheres no primeiro ano do uso do m&#233;todo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220"><sup>220</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B221"><sup>221</sup></xref> Para pacientes portadoras de doen&#231;a valvar a tend&#234;ncia atual &#233; se indicar os m&#233;todos que contenham progesterona isolada ou os combinados de progesterona com estr&#243;geno natural na forma injet&#225;vel/mensal, porque s&#227;o seguros, eficazes e de f&#225;cil acesso (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t88">Quadro 88</xref>). Embora os dispositivos intrauterinos estejam classificados na categoria 2 eles n&#227;o t&#234;m sido indicados em portadoras de doen&#231;as valvares mesmo que n&#227;o complicada, pelo presum&#237;vel risco inerente de EI.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t88">
          <label>Quadro 88</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Crit&#233;rios m&#233;dicos de elegibilidade (modificado)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN71">*</xref> e &#237;ndice de efic&#225;cia para o uso de contraceptivo em portadoras de doen&#231;a valvar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220"><sup>220</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B221"><sup>221</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="12%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Contraceptivos dispon&#237;veis</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHCO</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Injet&#225;vel mensal</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">P&#237;lula de progesterona</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Injet&#225;vel de progesterona</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Implante de progesterona</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">DIU de cobre</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">DIU com levonorgestrel</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Doen&#231;a valvar</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">N&#227;o complicada</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">3/4</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">3/4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Fatores complicadores</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">4</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">4</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">4</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Efic&#225;cia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">8</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">0,05</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">0,8</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">0,1</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN71">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Fatores complicador: Efic&#225;cia (&#205;ndice de Pearl) calculada em n&#250;mero de gravidez em 100 mulheres com uso habitual do m&#233;todo. Crit&#233;rios de Elegibilidade: categoria 1- n&#227;o h&#225; restri&#231;&#227;o quanto ao uso do m&#233;todo; categoria 2- vantagens de usar o m&#233;todo geralmente superam os riscos te&#243;ricos ou comprovados; categoria 3- os riscos te&#243;ricos ou comprovados geralmente superam as vantagens de usar o m&#233;todo e categoria 4- condi&#231;&#227;o que representa um risco de sa&#250;de inaceit&#225;vel se o m&#233;todo contraceptivo for usado. AHCO: anticoncepcional hormonal combinado oral; DIU: dispositivo intrauterino.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
        <p><bold>Realiza&#231;&#227;o:</bold> Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (DCC-SBC)</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p><bold>Conselho de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes (2020-2021):</bold> Brivaldo Markman Filho, Antonio Carlos Sobral Sousa, Aurora Felice Castro Issa, Bruno Ramos Nascimento, Harry Correa Filho, Marcelo Luiz Campos Vieira</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <p><bold>Coordenador de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes (2020-2021):</bold> Brivaldo Markman Filho</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
        <p><bold>Nota:</bold> estas Atualiza&#231;&#245;es se prestam a informar e n&#227;o a substituir o julgamento cl&#237;nico do m&#233;dico que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, deve determinar o tratamento apropriado para seus pacientes.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <glossary>
      <def-list>
        <title>Lista de Abreviaturas:</title>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G1">&#946;HCG:</term>
          <def>
            <p>gonadotrofina cori&#244;nica beta</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G2">ACC/AHA:</term>
          <def>
            <p>American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G3">AD:</term>
          <def>
            <p>&#225;trio direito</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G4">AE:</term>
          <def>
            <p>&#225;trio esquerdo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G5">AOE:</term>
          <def>
            <p>&#225;rea efetiva do orif&#237;cio</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G6">AAS:</term>
          <def>
            <p>&#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G7">AHCO:</term>
          <def>
            <p>anticoncepcional hormonal combinado oral</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G8">AVA:</term>
          <def>
            <p>&#225;rea valvar a&#243;rtica</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G9">AVM:</term>
          <def>
            <p>&#225;rea valvar mitral</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G10">BNP:</term>
          <def>
            <p>pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G11">CF:</term>
          <def>
            <p>classe funcional</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G12">DDVE:</term>
          <def>
            <p>di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G13">DIU:</term>
          <def>
            <p>dispositivo intrauterino</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G14">DOACs:</term>
          <def>
            <p>anticoagulantes orais diretos</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G15">DSVE:</term>
          <def>
            <p>di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G16">EAo:</term>
          <def>
            <p>estenose a&#243;rtica</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G17">ECG:</term>
          <def>
            <p>eletrocardiograma</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G18">EI:</term>
          <def>
            <p>endocardite infecciosa</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G19">EM:</term>
          <def>
            <p>estenose mitral</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G20">ERO:</term>
          <def>
            <p>&#225;rea efetiva do orif&#237;cio regurgitante</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G21">ESC/EACTS:</term>
          <def>
            <p>European Society of Cardiology/European Association for CardioThoracic Surgery</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G22">ET:</term>
          <def>
            <p>estenose tric&#250;spide</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G23">FA:</term>
          <def>
            <p>fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G24">FEVE:</term>
          <def>
            <p>fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G25">FR:</term>
          <def>
            <p>febre reum&#225;tica</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G26">HP:</term>
          <def>
            <p>hipertens&#227;o pulmonar</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G27">IAo:</term>
          <def>
            <p>insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G28">IC:</term>
          <def>
            <p>insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G29">IM:</term>
          <def>
            <p>insufici&#234;ncia mitral</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G30">INR:</term>
          <def>
            <p>raz&#227;o normalizada internacional</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G31">IT:</term>
          <def>
            <p>insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G32">NYHA:</term>
          <def>
            <p>New York Heart Association</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G33">PHT:</term>
          <def>
            <p>pressure half time</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G34">PSAP:</term>
          <def>
            <p>press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G35">rTPA:</term>
          <def>
            <p>recombinant tissue plasminogen activator.</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G36">SBC:</term>
          <def>
            <p>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G37">STS:</term>
          <def>
            <p>Society of Thoracic Surgeons</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G38">TAVI:</term>
          <def>
            <p>implante transcateter de biopr&#243;tese a&#243;rtica</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G39">TTPa:</term>
          <def>
            <p>tempo de tromboplastina parcial ativada</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G40">VE:</term>
          <def>
            <p>ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G41">VKA:</term>
          <def>
            <p>antagonistas da vitamina K</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G42">VMCB:</term>
          <def>
            <p>valvoplastia mitral por cateter-bal&#227;o</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G43">VTCB:</term>
          <def>
            <p>valvoplastia tric&#250;spide por cateter-bal&#227;o</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
      </def-list>
    </glossary>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Baumgartner</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Falk</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bax</surname>
              <given-names>JJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>De Bonis</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hamm</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Update of the Brazilian Guidelines for Valvular Heart Disease &#8211; 2020</article-title>
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      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9964-3289</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tarasoutchi</surname>
            <given-names>Flavio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
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        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Montera</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Westerlund</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ramos</surname>
            <given-names>Auristela Isabel de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6524-9614</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sampaio</surname>
            <given-names>Roney Orismar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6521-2870</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Vitor Emer Egypto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8023-3466</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Accorsi</surname>
            <given-names>Tarso Augusto Duenhas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2720-8595</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santis</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Ricardo Cordeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>Lucas Jos&#233; Tachotti</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8876-0180</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Spina</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Luiz Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>de Lara Lavitola</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5686-7058</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>&#193;vila</surname>
            <given-names>Walkiria Samuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paix&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Milena Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3543-754X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bignoto</surname>
            <given-names>Tiago</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Togna</surname>
            <given-names>Dorival J&#250;lio Della</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Esteves</surname>
            <given-names>William Ant&#244;nio de Magalh&#227;es</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3394-9493</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Atik</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0955-9225</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Colafranceschi</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Siciliano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8952-8474</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moises</surname>
            <given-names>Valdir Ambr&#243;sio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0827-9021</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kiyose</surname>
            <given-names>Alberto Takeshi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0566-1038</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pomerantzeff</surname>
            <given-names>Pablo M. A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff28">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6782-750X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lemos</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brito</surname>
            <given-names>Fabio Sandoli de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff30">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9991-3739</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Weksler</surname>
            <given-names>Clara</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff31">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>de Almeida Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Manuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2768-0742</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Poffo</surname>
            <given-names>Robinson</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sim&#245;es</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff32">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7210-6486</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rassi</surname>
            <given-names>Salvador</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff33">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Le&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Ernesto</given-names>
          </name>
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            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2501-302X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mourilhe-Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
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            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
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            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pena</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Luiz Barros</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff32">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
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            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6175-5595</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Jatene</surname>
            <given-names>Fabio Biscegli</given-names>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
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            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
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          <name>
            <surname>Abizaid</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre</given-names>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Henrique Barbosa</given-names>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7603-2752</contrib-id>
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            <surname>Bacal</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4505-3344</contrib-id>
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            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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        <contrib contrib-type="author">
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            <sup>3</sup>
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            <sup>18</sup>
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            <sup>13</sup>
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            <sup>19</sup>
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          <name>
            <surname>Saraiva</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Francisco Kerr</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff40">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff21">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) do Hospital de Cl&#237;nica da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff22">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff23">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff24">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff25">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff26">
          <label>6</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia (FUC), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff27">
          <label>7</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff28">
          <label>8</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff29">
          <label>9</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff30">
          <label>10</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o Zerbini, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff31">
          <label>11</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff32">
          <label>12</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff33">
          <label>13</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff34">
          <label>14</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff35">
          <label>15</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff36">
          <label>16</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Fel&#237;cio Rocho, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff37">
          <label>17</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Socor, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff38">
          <label>18</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Alberto Urquiza Wanderley, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff39">
          <label>19</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Houston</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="US">USA</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Texas Children&#8217;s Hospital, Houston &#8211; USA</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff40">
          <label>20</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Sociedade Campineira de Educa&#231;&#227;o e Instru&#231;&#227;o Mantenedora da Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Corresponding Address:</bold> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; Postal Code: <postal-code>20020-907</postal-code>. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>1. Introduction</title>
        <p>There are currently a wide modalities of interventional strategies - both transcatheter and surgical - which can be indicated for patients with valvular heart diseases (VHD), with the objective of reducing the morbidity and mortality. The correct timing for indication and the type of interventional treatment are linked to the precise anatomical and functional diagnosis of the VHD, and comprehensive global evaluation of the patient. The 2020 Update of the Brazilian Guidelines for VHD, in addition to compiling scientific evidence and expert opinion, continues with the ideal of being useful in supporting decision making for patients with VHD, and has three unique characteristics, namely:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Maintenance of the innovative flowcharts proposed in the 2017 edition, with sequential steps guiding anatomical, etiological, and functional diagnosis, defining conduct aligned with best practices and rational use of resources (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figure 1</xref>);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>The increase of the recommendations number in the attempt to contemplate the diverse possibilities in view of increasing complexity of patients;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Comparison of the recommendations of these guidelines with the leading international ones, the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) 2017 and the European Society of Cardiology/European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (ESC/EACTS) 2017 Guidelines, allowing for individualization of the Brazilian population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <fig id="f12">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart showing steps of anatomical, etiological, and functional diagnosis, in addition to the intervention decision making.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>This 2020 edition considers the evaluation process for patients with non-severe VHD, and it emphasizes the need to weigh the possibility of transcatheter intervention in elderly patients, regardless of surgical risk, in addition patients with native or prosthetic valves with high surgical risk. Notwithstanding great advances and increased availability of imaging exams, these guidelines maintain the recommendation of detailed clinical evaluation, which continues to be indispensable to diagnosis, decisions making, and the doctor-patient relationship.</p>
        <p>Bellow, the 5 recommended steps:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>First step: verify whether the VHD is anatomically severe; if so, proceed to the second step. In the event of non-severe valvular disease, investigate differential diagnoses in symptomatic patients and monitor evolution in asymptomatic patients;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Second step: evaluate etiology, including clinical and past history, beside complementary exams;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Third step: evaluate symptoms; this is fundamental to intervention decision making. Pharmacological treatment is indicated to alleviate symptoms until interventional takes place;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Fourth step: evaluation of anatomical and/or functional prognostic factors (especially pulmonary hypertension [PH], ventricular remodeling, systolic dysfunction, aneurysmatic dilation of the aorta, and atrial fibrillation [AF]). This can be decisive regarding intervention in asymptomatic patients;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Fifth step: type of intervention. The procedure can be surgical or transcatheter, with individualized indication depending on operative risks, comorbidities, and the Heart Team&#8217;s decision.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2. The Heart Team</title>
        <p>The Heart Team is a group of different professionals with experience in valve diseases who share the decision regarding the most appropriate treatment for a given patient. Given the wide variety of interventional strategies available, the Heart Team is fundamental to risk-benefit and cost-effectiveness analyses and decision making. The Heart Team comprises diverse cardiological subspecialties; the members will play different fundamental roles during each step of care, from the clinical cardiologist, who is responsible for patient selection and indication, besides pre- and post-intervention follow-up, to the cardiac surgeon and the hemodynamicist, who will be responsible to perform the procedures indicated by the Heart Team. The radiologist will also be important to data analysis in order to evaluate the technical possibility of each intervention, and the echocardiographer, in addition to evaluating preoperative data, will also monitor the procedure, collaborating for better results.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3. Operative Risk Evaluation</title>
        <p>Indication of intervention for patients with VHD should always be based on the benefits and risks of the proposed procedure. For this purpose, we utilize online scores, including the EuroSCORE II (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.euroscore.org/calc.html">http://www.euroscore.org/calc.html</ext-link>) and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) score (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://riskcalc.sts.org/stswebriskcalc/#/calculate">http://riskcalc.sts.org/stswebriskcalc/#/calculate</ext-link>), which have been validated in different populations regarding their predictive ability of 30-day mortality. Patients with STS &lt; 4% are conventionally considered at low surgical risk, while those with scores between 4% and 8% have intermediate risk, and those with scores &gt; 8% have high risk. Rearding the EuroSCORE II, patients are considered low risk when it is lower than 4%, and, if the score is &gt; 4%, they are considered at high surgical risk. In the event of a discrepancy between the two scores, we must use the one whose estimated higher risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref></p>
        <p>It is important to point that both scores omit some factors related to prognostic outcomes, such as frailty and specific contraindications to procedures, such as porcelain aorta. Furthermore, risk evaluation does not substitute the individual clinical evaluation, and the decision regarding intervention should always be shared with patients and their families.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Frailty</title>
        <p>Frailty is an entity that denotes a state of vulnerability in elderly patients, associated with physical weakness and low physiological reserve. It is extremely relevant to individualized evaluation, mainly due to the following two factors:</p>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>It is a predictor of events, such as mortality, length of hospital stay, and functional decline, after surgical or transcatheter intervention;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>It is not taken into consideration in conventional risk scores.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Several scores and tools are available for evaluating and quantifying frailty, through measurement of data related to functional status, instrumental daily activities, nutrition, cognition, independence for activities, and other factors. It is important that evaluation of frailty is not only subjective (&#8220;eyeball test&#8221;), but rather a set of clinical impression associated with different objective measurements and scores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5. Mitral Stenosis</title>
        <p>Physical examination is the first resource applied for anatomical evaluation of mitral stenosis (MS). Patients with mild to moderate MS may already present an opening snap as well as a decrescendo rumbling diastolic murmur in the mitral area, starting immediately after the click. In patients in sinus rhythm, the murmur shows presystolic reinforcement in the end of diastole. In patients with severe MS, however, these clinical changes become more evident, as electrocardiographic and radiologic changes get evident. The characteristics present in patients with severe MS are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t90">Table 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t90">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 1: Diagnosis of severe mitral stenosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics of severe mitral stenosis</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Physical examination</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <italic>Facies mitralis</italic>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Early opening snap</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hyperphonetic first heart sound</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hyperphonetic second heart sound</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rumbling diastolic murmur, with presystolic reinforcement for patients in sinus rhythm</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Signs of pulmonary congestion and right heart failure</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Presence of TR</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>LA enlargement</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Right chambers overload</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>AF</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest radiography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Normal cardiothoracic index</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Signs of enlarged LA:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Elevated left main bronchus (&#8220;ballerina sign&#8221;)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Double atrial contour on the right</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>4<sup>th</sup> arch in the cardiac silhouette on the left</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Signs of pulmonary congestion</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>MVA &lt; 1.5 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Average diastolic transmitral gradient &#8805; 10 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Resting SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>SPAP &#8805; 60 mmHg during exertion</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemodynamic study</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indicated in the event of discordance between clinical and echocardiographic findings</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Diastolic transmitral gradient &#8805; 10 mmHg</p>
                      <p>(spontaneous or after atropine and volume)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN72">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; LA: left atrium; LV: left ventricle; MVA: mitral valve area; SPAP: systolic pulmonary artery pressure; TR: tricuspid regurgitation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Echocardiography is the main complementary exam for mitral valve anatomical evaluation, and it is fundamental for defining the severity of VHD, hemodynamic repercussions, and parameters regarding intervention success, with evaluation of the components of the valve (valve annulus, valve cusps, and subvalvular apparatus).</p>
        <p>The echocardiographic parameters of severe MS are mitral valve area (MVA), which may be measured by planimetry, pressure half time (PHT), or the continuity equation, and transmitral diastolic gradient.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref></p>
        <p>From the epidemiological point of view (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t91">Table 2</xref>), the main etiology of MS continues to be rheumatic fever (RF), which remains prevalent in developing countries, including Brazil. In these countries, rheumatic valve disease maintains an estimated prevalence of 1 to 7 per 1,000 children in clinical studies; this number is up to 10 times higher when echocardiography is used for population screening. Regarding developed countries, statistics indicate that MS is responsible for 9% of all VHD in Europe, and 0.1% in the United States. In these countries, cases occur predominantly in elderly patients and young immigrants from developing countries.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t91">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: Evaluation of etiology of severe mitral stenosis <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiological characteristics</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rheumatic fever</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&gt; 90% of cases in developing countries</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptoms between the third and fourth decades of life</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Commissural fusion, thickening of cusps</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Compromised subvalvular apparatus</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Dome opening of the anterior cusp and reduced mobility of the posterior cusp</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mitral-aortic involvement</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Degenerative</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>12% to 26% of cases in developed countries</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>More common in elderly patients</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May reach 60% of cases in patients over 80 years</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Calcification of the mitral valve annulus</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Absence of commissural fusion</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Related to aortic and coronary calcification</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rare causes</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Congenital</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rheumatologic diseases (lupus or rheumatoid arthritis)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Medication (methysergide or anorexigenic drugs)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Carcinoid syndrome</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Fabry disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Actinic injury &#8211; post-radiotherapy</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In addition to the rheumatic etiology, there is a proportional increase in the number of patients with mitral annulus calcification (MAC), which may extend to the base of the valve leaflets, leading to restricted cusp movement and restriction of atrial emptying. The estimated prevalence of MAC is around 10% of the elderly population and approximately 1% to 2% of these patients develop MS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Other rare causes of MS include: rheumatologic diseases (systemic lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis), deposit diseases (such as Fabry disease), Whipple disease, therapy with methysergide or anorexigenic drugs, carcinoid syndrome, or congenital anatomical abnormalities of the mitral valve, such as parachute mitral valve or mitral valve hypoplasia.</p>
        <p>In patients with severe MS, it is necessary to pay attention to the symptoms (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t92">Table 3</xref>), the most common being dyspnea (New York Heart Association [NYHA] functional class [FC] II to IV). In particular, dyspnea may appear in situations that lead to increased pulmonary capillary pressure (physical exertion, pregnancy, or AF). Over time, it may also appear at rest, even with orthopnea. Other symptoms that may appear are palpitations, hemoptysis, dysphonia, dysphagia, cough, and embolic events.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t92">
          <label>Table 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Evaluation of severe mitral stenosis symptoms</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea <break/>(NYHA FC II to IV)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Main symptom</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Initially with situations that increase pulmonary capillary pressure (physical exertion, atrial fibrillation, or pregnancy)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Resting dyspnea and nocturnal paroxysmal dyspnea</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be accompanied by palpitations, hemoptysis, dysphonia, dysphagia, cough</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be accompanied by embolic events (cerebral, mesenteric, or extremities)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN73">
              <p>FC: functional class; NYHA: New York Heart Association.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In parallel to the evaluation of symptoms, possible prognostic factors should be investigated (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t93">Table 4</xref>). With respect to severe MS, relevant signals are the presence of significant PH (systolic pulmonary artery pressure &#8211; SPAP above 50 mmHg when resting or above 60 mmHg during exertion) or recent onset AF (triggered in the recent months).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t93">
          <label>Table 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 4: Evaluation of severe mitral stenosis prognostic factors</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Prognostic Factors</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pulmonary hypertension</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Resting SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>SPAP &#8805; 60 mmHg during exertion (exercise test or echocardiography with pharmacological stress)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Recent onset AF</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Relation to LA enlargement</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Maintain INR between 2.0 and 3.0</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN74">
              <label>AF: atrial fibrillation; LA: left atrium; INR: international normalized ratio; SPAP: systolic pulmonary artery pressure.</label>
              <p/>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Types of intervention and their indications are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t94">Tables 5</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t95">6</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figure 2</xref>. Percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty (PBMV) remains the treatment of choice for patients with MS of rheumatic etiology, wherein calcification and commissural fusion are predominant. There is need for favorable valve anatomy (as evaluated by the Wilkins-Block score [<xref ref-type="table" rid="t96">Table 7</xref>]) and no procedure contraindications (moderate to severe mitral regurgitation [MR] and left atrium [LA] thrombus). The Wilkins-Block score consists of echocardiographic evaluation of the mitral valve, with emphasis on description of structural aspects. The following four parameters are taken into consideration: leaflet mobility, valve thickening, degree of cuspid calcification, and involvement of the subvalvular apparatus. Values from 1 to 4 points for each item result in scores ranging from 4 to 16 points. Patients with Wilkins-Block score less than or equal to 8 are candidates for PBMV, since there are no contraindications. Surgical treatment of the mitral valve is the treatment of choice for patients with unfavorable anatomy or contraindications for PBMV in the presence of symptoms (NYHA FC III or IV) or prognostic factors. Surgery may consist of mitral commissurotomy or, in cases of very significant valve impairment, valve replacement with a biological or mechanical prosthesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t94">
          <label>Table 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 5: Type of mitral stenosis intervention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Type</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Considerations</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Treatment of choice in rheumatic etiology</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indications:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Symptoms (NYHA FC II to IV) and/or prognostic factors</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Wilkins-Block echocardiographic score &#8804; 8 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN75">*</xref></p>
                          <list list-type="simple">
                            <list-item>
                              <p>(subvalvular apparatus and calcification &#8804; 2)</p>
                            </list-item>
                          </list>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>In pregnant women or patients with high surgical risk, consider if:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>echocardiographic score 9 to 10</p>
                          <list list-type="simple">
                            <list-item>
                              <p>(subvalvular apparatus and calcification &#8804; 2)</p>
                            </list-item>
                          </list>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Contraindications:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>LA thrombus</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Moderate or severe MR</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Recent embolic phenomenon</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Surgical treatment (commissurotomy/valve replacement)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rheumatic MS with NYHA FC III to IV and contraindications to PBMV</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rheumatic MS with prognostic factors, not eligible for PBMV</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Degenerative MS, refractory to medical treatment</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Transcatheter mitral valve implantation (valve-in-MAC)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Degenerative MS, refractory to medical treatment, with contraindication or high surgical risk (currently under study)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN75">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Individualize in cases with echocardiographic scores 9 to 10. Patients with calcification and subvalvular apparatus scores below 3 have higher rates of successful PBMV. PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty; FC: functional class; LA: left atrium; MAC: mitral annulus calcification; MR: mitral regurgitation; MS: mitral stenosis.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t95">
          <label>Table 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Mitral stenosis: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rheumatic MS, NYHA FC II to IV, in the absence of contraindications</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic rheumatic MS, with prognostic factors, in the absence of contraindications</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C <break/>(if AF)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C <break/>(if high thromboembolic risk or risk of hemodynamic deterioration)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="4">Surgical treatment (commissurotomy/valve replacement)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Rheumatic MS, NYHA FC III to IV, with contraindications to PBMV</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic rheumatic MS with prognostic factors, not eligible for PBMV</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C <break/>(Recurrent embolism)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Degenerative MS refractory to medical treatment</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN75">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic rheumatic MS with other concomitant heart surgery</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Transcatheter mitral valve implantation (valve-in-MAC)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Degenerative MS refractory to medical treatment, with contraindication or high surgical risk</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN75">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN76">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Consider evaluation of the Heart Team. AHA: American Heart Association; PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; FC: functional class; MAC: mitral annulus calcification; MS: mitral stenosis; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t96">
          <label>Table 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Wilkins-Block echocardiographic score</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Leaflet mobility: <break/> <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>- High valve mobility with restriction only in the extremities of the leaflets</p></list-item><list-item><p>- The medial and basal regions show normal mobility</p></list-item><list-item><p>- The valve continues moving forward in diastole, mainly at the base</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Minimal or no movement of the leaflets in diastole</p></list-item></list></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Subvalvular thickening: <break/> <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>- Minimal subvalvular thickening exactly below the mitral leaflets</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Chordal thickening extending for more than a third of length</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Thickening extending to the distal third of the chordae</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Extensive thickening and shortening of all structures of the chordae extending to the papillary muscles</p></list-item></list></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Leaflet thickness: <break/> <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>- Thickening of the leaflets, with thickness close to normal (4 &#8211; 5 mm)</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Normal medial layers, considerable thickening of margins (5 &#8211; 8 mm)</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Thickening extending throughout all the layer (5 &#8211; 8 mm)</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Considerable thickening of the entire tissue layer (&gt; 8 &#8211; 10 mm)</p></list-item></list></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Valve calcification: <break/> <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>- Single area of increased brightness</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Minimal areas of brightness confined to the leaflet margins</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Brightness extending inside the middle portion of the leaflets</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Extensive brightness, beyond the limits of the leaflets</p></list-item></list></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <fig id="f13">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart for decision making in mitral stenosis. AF: atrial fibrillation; PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>For patients with degenerative MS, on the other hand, PBMV is not a therapeutic option, as there is no commissural fusion or calcification, but rather valve annulus calcification. Furthermore, in these patients, who are usually elderly and often have multiple comorbidities, surgical risk is significantly higher. The surgical procedure is technical difficulty and is more likely to have complications, including atrioventricular disjunction, circumflex artery injury, and ventricular wall bleeding. The initial treatment of choice is, thus, clinical: heart rate control with betablockers, calcium channel blocker or ivabradine (for patients in sinus rhythm who have not tolerated previous medications), associated with diuretics.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> If this strategy works, patients may continue with medical treatment, without indication for further interventions. For patients who are refractory to clinical treatment, however, it is necessary to consider the possibility of surgical intervention, in cases with low to moderate risk, or eventual transcatheter implantation of a mitral prosthesis. In these cases, transcatheter implantation uses the MAC to support the valve prosthesis, in a procedure routinely referred to as valve-in-MAC. There is still limited experience with this procedure, which is most frequently performed in clinical studies via the transeptal or transapical route. It still has a high rate of complications, including paravalvular leak, left ventricle (LV) outflow tract obstruction, and prosthesis embolization, and the mortality rate may reach 25% in 30 days and 54% in 12 months. Further studies are needed in order to broaden its indications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Clinical follow-up of patients, as long as they present non-severe VHD, consists of periodic consultations and echocardiographic reevaluation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t97">Table 8</xref>). In patients with non-severe MS, reevaluation may be performed on a yearly basis. Patients with valve area &#8805; 1.5 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> are not normally expected to develop symptoms or prognostic factors. In the event that these changes occur, before the patient develops anatomically severe VHD, it is imperative to consider the possibility that other differential diagnoses are present. Patients with severe MS, on the other hand, should be reevaluated at shorter intervals, usually every 6 to 12 months.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t97">
          <label>Table 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Mitral stenosis: Individualized follow-up<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Mitral stenosis</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Follow-up</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Severe and asymptomatic, without prognostic factors</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical and echocardiographic evaluation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 6 to 12 months</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 12 months</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 12 months</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Concomitant surgical intervention in patients who will undergo other cardiac surgical procedure (coronary revascularization, ascending aorta, or other valve procedures)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Non-severe (MVA &gt; 1.5 cm&#178; and mean transmitral gradient &lt; 5 mmHg)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical and echocardiographic reevaluation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 1 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 3 to 5 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 2 to 3 years</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN77">
              <p>AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; LA: left atrium; LV: left ventricle; MVA: mitral valve area; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6. Primary Chronic Mitral Regurgitation</title>
        <p>For the clinical decision making in primary chronic MR, it is recommended that the 5 steps of the flowchart for treating VHD are followed, as detailed below and subsequently summarized in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figure 3</xref>.</p>
        <fig id="f14">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart for decision making in primary chronic mitral regurgitation. AF: atrial fibrillation; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LVSD: left ventricular systolic diameter; SPAP: systolic pulmonary artery pressure.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>In addition to confirming the presence of VHD, transthoracic echocardiogram is the main exam used to define the anatomical severity of MR. Diverse parameters may be used for this quantification; detailed, thorough examination is of fundamental importance (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t98">Table 9</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t98">
          <label>Table 9</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 1: Diagnosis of severe primary mitral regurgitation<sup>26-32</sup></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics of severe primary mitral regurgitation</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Physical examination</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Apex beat shifted to the left and downward</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hypophonetic S1 (frequently audible in patients with rheumatic MR and MR due to prolapse, and loss of intensity may be considered a marker of severity of ventricular dysfunction, chordal rupture, among others)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hyperphonetic S2</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Regurgitative systolic murmur &#8805; +++/6+</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical signs of right heart failure</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left ventricular hypertrophy</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left atrial enlargement</p>
                      <p>Arial or ventricular arrhythmias (PVCs, tachycardia) and AF</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest radiography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Enlarged cardiac silhouette with LV and LA dilation</p>
                      <p>Signs of pulmonary congestion</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Jet area &#8805; 40% of LA area</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Regurgitant fraction &#8805; 50%</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Regurgitant volume &#8805; 60 mL/beat</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Vena contracta &#8805; 0.7 cm</p>
                      <p>Effective regurgitant orifice area (EROA) &#8226; &#8805; 0.40 cm&#178;</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemodynamic study</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indicated in cases of disagreement between clinical and echocardiographic findings</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left ventriculography (severe if &gt; 3+)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of intracavitary pressures</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Magnetic resonance</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>In cases of disagreement between clinical and echocardiographic findings or limited quality of echocardiographic image</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Confirmation of degree of MR before scheduled mitral valve intervention</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Degree of MR</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of mitral annulus disjunction in the complex of myxomatous disease and mitral valve prolapse</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN78">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; LA: left atrium; LV: left ventricle; MR: mitral regurgitation; PVCs: premature ventricular contractions.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Patients with anatomically mild or moderate MR should continue with periodic clinical and echocardiographic follow-up, and there is no indication for intervention (medical or surgical) in order to interrupt the natural history of the valve disease. On the other hand, patients with severe MR should proceed as per the flowchart for specific evaluation, investigating symptoms that are secondary to the VHD and/or the presence of prognostic factors.</p>
        <p>In patients with MR, it is necessary to define the etiology of the VHD, given that clinical follow-up and therapeutic planning (timing and type of intervention), when indicated, can be different according to the cause of MR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t99">Table 10</xref>). In spite of advances in diagnostic tests, transthoracic echocardiogram remains the first and main exam indicated for anatomical quantification and etiological evaluation of patients with MR. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t99">
          <label>Table 10</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: Evaluation of severe primary mitral regurgitation etiology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiological characteristics</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rheumatic</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Most prevalent cause in Brazil</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Thickening with cusp retraction</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Commissural involvement</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mitral-aortic involvement</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Frequent in young adults</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mitral valve prolapse and associated diseases (Barlow syndrome)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Second most frequent cause in Brazil</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Cusp protrusion into the LA &#8805; 2 mm</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>More frequent in middle-aged and elderly populations</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Other causes</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Infective endocarditis</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Marfan syndrome</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Systemic lupus erythematosus</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Traumatic lesions</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Congenital deformities</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN79">
              <p>LA: left atrium.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The main symptom in patients with anatomically severe MR is dyspnea, which should be taken in account, even if it does not limit routine activities (NYHA FC II). If there are doubts regarding the presence of symptoms, an exercise test or cardiopulmonary test may be requested (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t100">Table 11</xref>). Once the presence of symptoms has been confirmed, and if they are secondary to MR, patients should be referred for valvular intervention, as described in Step 5 (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t101">Table 12</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t100">
          <label>Table 11</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 3: Evaluation of severe primary mitral regurgitation symptoms</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea (NYHA FC II-IV) and fatigue/weakness</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Pulmonary congestion</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Initially with events that increase pulmonary capillary pressure (physical exertion, AF, pregnancy)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Resting dyspnea and nocturnal paroxysmal dyspnea</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be accompanied by palpitations, coughing, edema</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be accompanied by embolic events</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN80">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; FC: functional class.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t101">
          <label>Table 12</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 5: Type of severe primary mitral regurgitation intervention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Type of intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Considerations</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mitral valve repair</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Treatment of choice</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rheumatic patients: less favorable results.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Prolapse of the posterior cusp of the mitral valve (isolated P2): better results.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mitral valve replacement</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indicated in cases where valve repair is not possible.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Percutaneous mitral valve repair</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Reserved for high-risk patients or patients with surgical contraindication and refractory symptoms</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Degenerative MR due to prolapse</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Favorable anatomical conditions</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indicated following decision by the Heart Team</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN81">
              <p>MR: mitral regurgitation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Patients with severe asymptomatic MR should be periodically reevaluated to determine the development of anatomical and/or functional changes secondary to valve disease (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t102">Table 13</xref>). The following prognostic factors are associated with MR: LV systolic dysfunction (left ventricular ejection fraction [LVEF] &lt; 60%), LV dilation (left ventricular systolic diameter [LVSD] &#8805; 40 mm), PH (SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg at rest or &#8805; 60 mmHg during exertion), and new onset AF (recent months).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> Increased LA volume (especially &#8805; 60 ml/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>) may be considered an anatomical prognostic factor in MR, and it should be taken into consideration for intervention decision, given that it is associated with worse prognosis. In addition, if there is a progressive decline in LVEF or progressive dilation of the LV on serial imaging tests, mitral valve intervention should be considered, even before the previously mentioned limits have been reached.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t102">
          <label>Table 13</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 4: Evaluation of severe primary mitral regurgitation prognostic factors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Prognostic factors</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>LVEF &#8804; 60% or progressive decline in LVEF (within normal range)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Progressive remodeling (LVSD &#8805; 40 mm)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Resting SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg or &#8805; 60 mmHg during exercise</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>LA volume &#8805; 60 ml/m&#178;</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Recent onset AF (&lt; 1 year)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN82">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; LA: left atrium; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LVSD: left ventricular systolic diameter; SPAP: systolic pulmonary artery pressure.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>After confirming the existence of anatomically severe MR, with a defined etiology, and, finally, verifying the presence of symptoms that are secondary to the VHD and/or the presence of prognostic factors, the patient should be referred for valvular intervention, if there is no contraindication (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t102">Table 13</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t103">14</xref>). In these cases, surgical mitral repair is the treatment of choice, provided that the etiology (especially prolapse) and the anatomy are favorable and that the procedure is performed in a qualified hospital with an experienced surgeon. Otherwise, surgical mitral valve replacement is indicated.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t103">
          <label>Table 14</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Primary mitral regurgitation: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="10">Mitral valve repair <break/>(centers with experience)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Rheumatic</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptomatic (NYHA FC &#8805; II)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic, with prognostic factors:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>LVEF between 30% and 60%</p>
                          <p>and/or LVSD &#8805; 40 mm</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">- SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg or AF</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rheumatic, asymptomatic MR without prognostic factors</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Non-rheumatic</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>NYHA FC &#8805; II, with favorable anatom</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic, with favorable anatomy and prognostic factors:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>LVEF between 30% and 60%</p>
                          <p>and/or LVSD &#8805; 40 mm</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B (LVSD &#8805; 45 mm)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">- SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg or AF</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic MR due to prolapse, with favorable anatomy, without prognostic factors</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C (LA &#8805; 60 ml/m&#178; and sinus rhythm)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="10">Mitral valve replacement</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Rheumatic</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptomatic (NYHA FC &#8805; II)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic, with prognostic factors:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>LVEF between 30% and 60%</p>
                          <p>and/or LVSD &#8805; 40 mm</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">- SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg or AF</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rheumatic, asymptomatic MR, without prognostic factors</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Non-rheumatic</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>NYHA FC &#8805; II, with unfavorable anatomy for valve repair</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic, with unfavorable anatomy for valve repair, and prognostic factors:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>LVEF between 30% and 60% and LVSD &#8805; 40 mm</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C (LVSD &#8805; 45 mm)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">- SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg or AF</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic MR due to prolapse, with unfavorable anatomy for valve repair, without prognostic factors</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Percutaneous mitral valve repair</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Non-rheumatic MR, with high risk or contraindication to surgery, with refractory symptoms</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN83">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN83">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>In centers with a Heart Team. AF: atrial fibrillation; AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; FC: functional class; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LVSD: left ventricular systolic diameter; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology); SPAP: systolic pulmonary artery pressure.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Indication of transcatheter interventions is restricted to patients with primary MR, and the decision should be made following discussion with the Heart Team. In the same manner, for patients with contraindication or high risk associated with conventional surgery, prior discussion with the Heart Team needs to take place for the best decision making.</p>
        <p>When patients, notwithstanding the presence of anatomically severe MR, do not show symptoms or have prognostic factors, they should receive individualized follow-up, with biannual clinical follow-up and echocardiographic evaluation at maximum 1-year intervals (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t104">Table 15</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t104">
          <label>Table 15</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Primary mitral regurgitation: Individualized follow-up<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Primary mitral regurgitation</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Follow-up</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Severe and asymptomatic, without prognostic factors</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical and echocardiographic reevaluation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 6 months to 1 year</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 6 months to 1 year</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 6 months</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Concomitant intervention in patients who will undergo another cardiac surgical procedure (coronary revascularization, ascending aorta, or other valve procedures)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Moderate <break/>(Jet area 20% &#8211; 40% of LA area, regurgitant fraction 30% &#8211; 49%, regurgitant volume 30 &#8211; 59 mL/beat, vena contracta 0.3 &#8211; 0.69 cm, EROA 0.2 &#8211; 0.39 cm&#178;)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical and echocardiographic reevaluation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 1 to 2 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 1 to 2 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 1 to 2 years</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Concomitant intervention in patients who will undergo another cardiac surgical procedure (coronary revascularization, ascending aorta, or other valve procedures)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mild <break/>(Jet area &lt; 20% of LA area, regurgitant fraction &lt; 30%, regurgitant volume &lt; 30 mL/beat, vena contracta &lt; 0.3 cm, EROA &lt; 0.2 &#8211; 0.39 cm&#178;)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical and echocardiographic reevaluation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 2 to 3 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 3 to 5 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN84">
              <p>AHA: American Heart Association; EROA: effective regurgitant orifice area; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; LA: left atrium; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>On the other hand, patients with anatomically moderate MR should receive annual clinical evaluation and undergo echocardiogram every 2 years.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7. Secondary Mitral Regurgitation</title>
        <p>Secondary MR results from ventricular changes (dysfunction and/or dilation), while the mitral valve leaflets and chordae are normal. In this context, additional LV overload occurs due to mitral regurgitation, culminating in worse prognosis. The main etiologies are coronary artery disease (ischemic MR) and dilated cardiomyopathy (annular dilation and/or poor positioning). For these reasons, the ideal treatment is controversial, given that valve correction is not curative. In general, intervention is indicated in patients who remain symptomatic, in spite of optimized medical treatment. Even so, the therapeutic decision must be individualized and, whenever possible, shared with the Heart Team.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref></p>
        <p>As physical examination for diagnosis of secondary MR is often poor, transthoracic echocardiogram is a fundamental test. There is evidence that lower limits of the regurgitant orifice area and the regurgitant volume are associated with worse prognosis, in comparison with primary MR. Nevertheless, for quantification of anatomical severity of secondary MR, the echocardiographic limits applied are the same as those for primary MR. In the event of disagreement between clinical and echocardiographic findings, hemodynamic study with left ventriculography or magnetic resonance may assist in definition (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t105">Table 16</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t105">
          <label>Table 16</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 1: Diagnosis of severe secondary mitral regurgitation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics of severe secondary mitral regurgitation</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Physical examination</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hypophonetic or normophonetic S1</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Protomesosystolic or holosystolic murmur, radiating to the axillary line</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left ventricular hypertrophy</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left atrial enlargement</p>
                      <p>Signs suggestive of the underlying pathology</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest radiography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Enlarged cardiac silhouette due to dilation of left chambers</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Quantification of regurgitation<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN85">*</xref>:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Regurgitant fraction &#8805; 50%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Regurgitant volume &#8805; 60 mL/beat</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>EROA &#8805; 0.40 cm&#178;</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemodynamic study</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Disagreement between clinical and echocardiographic findings</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Degree of MR on left ventriculography</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Magnetic resonance</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Disagreement between clinical and echocardiographic findings or limited quality of echocardiographic image</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Confirmation of the degree of MR before scheduled mitral valve intervention</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Degree of MR</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN85">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Consider the possibility of anatomically severe mitral regurgitation if EROA is between 0.3 and 0.4 cm &#178; when associated with severe systolic dysfunction. EROA: effective regurgitant orifice area; MR: mitral regurgitation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Echocardiogram provides the main information required for establishing the etiology of secondary MR, especially regarding analysis of LV changes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t106">Table 17</xref>). Coronary cineangiography, in turn, plays an important role in diagnosis of obstructive coronary artery disease, which may be the cause of MR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t106">
          <label>Table 17</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: Evaluation of severe secondary mitral regurgitation etiology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiological characteristics</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ischemic</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Segmental changes in contractility</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Inadequate arrangement of the papillary muscles or leaflets (tenting leaflet or with apical traction &#8211; tethering &#8211; and/or due to failed leaflet coaptation)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mitral annular dilation or deformity</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of coronary arteries on coronary cineangiography</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of viability on cardiac magnetic resonance</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dilated</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Valve annulus dilation &#8211; ventricular dilation</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Ventricular systolic dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Inadequate arrangement of the papillary muscles or leaflets (tenting leaflet or with apical traction &#8211; tethering &#8211; and/or due to failed leaflet coaptation)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Ventricular dyssynchrony</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Altered atrioventricular mechanical coupling</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Tests for myocardial viability evaluation (such as nuclear magnetic resonance) may be useful in patients with ischemic MR who are scheduled for myocardial revascularization.</p>
        <p>The main symptom present in patients with secondary MR is dyspnea, which may result from LV dysfunction and/or associated mitral regurgitation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t107">Table 18</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t107">
          <label>Table 18</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 3: Evaluation of severe secondary mitral regurgitation symptoms</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea and fatigue/weakness</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Increased end diastolic pressure</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Pulmonary capillary congestion</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be accompanied by palpitations, cough, ascites, edema, or chest pain</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be accompanied by embolic events</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Patients with important symptoms (NYHA FC III and IV) that persist in spite of optimized treatment for heart failure (including resynchronization therapy, when indicated) should be considered for intervention in an individualized manner.</p>
        <p>There are no specific prognostic factors for patients with secondary MR, given that the origin of the problem lies in ventricular disease (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t108">Table 19</xref>). Nonetheless, in the event that LV dilation and/or dysfunction worsen, without any clear causal factor, the concomitant mitral valve disease may be considered responsible.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t108">
          <label>Table 19</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 4: Evaluation of severe secondary mitral regurgitatio nprognostic factors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Prognostic factors</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Clinical and echocardiographic evaluation</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Worsening of underlying conditions without other attributable causes (increased SPAP, increased ventricular diameters, or decreased LVEF)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptoms refractory to optimized clinical treatment</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN86">
              <p>LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; SPAP: systolic pulmonary artery pressure.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Indication of intervention for patients with secondary MR is controversial (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t109">Tables 20</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t110">21</xref>). In patients with ischemic MR who are candidates for myocardial revascularization surgery, simultaneous approach to the mitral valve disease should be considered. On the other hand, in patients who are not indicated for revascularization, isolated surgical approach to MR is associated with high mortality and high rates of MR recurrence, and there is no evidence of its benefit in terms of survival.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t109">
          <label>Table 20</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 5: Type of severe secondary mitral regurgitatio n intervention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Type</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Considerations</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Surgery (valve repair or replacement)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Valve replacement or repair + myocardial revascularization, when indicated</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Percutaneous mitral valve repair</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be considered after evaluation by the Heart Team, especially in patients with LVEF &#8805; 20% and LVSD &lt; 70 mm</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN87">
              <p>LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LVSD: left ventricular systolic diameter.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t110">
          <label>Table 21</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Secondary mitral regurgitation: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="5">Mitral valve replacement or repair</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Ischemic</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Symptomatic (NYHA FC &#8805; III) <break/> Associated revascularization</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C (LVEF &gt; 30%) <break/>IIa C <break/>(LVEF &lt; 30%)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Dilated</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Symptomatic (NYHA FC &#8805; III)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="4">Percutaneous mitral valve repair</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Ischemic</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Refractory symptoms (NYHA FC &#8805; III), with high risk or contraindication to surgery</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C <break/>(LVEF &lt; 30%)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Dilated</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Refractory symptoms (NYHA FC &#8805; III) with high risk or contraindication to surgery</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C (LVEF &lt; 30%)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN88">
              <p>AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; FC: functional class; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In patients with MR secondary to dilated cardiomyopathy, indication of intervention in mitral valve disease is even more restricted. While isolated mitral valve surgery has not demonstrated a benefit in this scenario, new evidences have shown a benefit to transcatheter intervention in patients with secondary MR and LVEF &#8805; 20%, who remained symptomatic in spite of optimized clinical treatment, provided that the procedure is not indicated in more advanced phases of the natural history of VHD. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref></p>
        <p>For more appropriate indication and more thorough approach, cases of secondary MI should be discussed with the Heart Team before the decision is made (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f15">
          <label>Figure 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart for decision making in secondary mitral regurgitation.FC: functional class.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8. Aortic Stenosis</title>
        <p>Aortic stenosis (AS) shows a growing prevalence due to increased life expectancy and consequent aging of the Brazilian population. The most common cause of AS is aortic calcification/degeneration, which mainly affects elderly patients. Transcatheter treatment has become an alternative to surgical valve replacement, not only in frail and high-risk patients, but also in patients with intermediate or low risk. Therefore, Heart Team is becoming increasingly important and necessary in decision making regarding intervention in these patients.73</p>
        <p>According to current evidence and following the recommendations of the 2017 Brazilian guidelines, the first step for evaluating patients with AS is to define the VHD severity (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t111">Table 22</xref>). To date, only patients with anatomically severe AS benefit from intervention. Severe AS is defined in echocardiography as an aortic valve area (AVA) &#8804; 1.0 cm&#178; and/or indexed AVA &#8804; 0.6 cm&#178;/m&#178; in the presence of mean transaortic gradient &#8805; 40 mmHg or maximum aortic jet velocity &#8805; 4.0 m/s. Patients with low-flow, low-gradient AS (AVA &#8804; 1.0 cm&#178; and mean transaortic gradient &lt; 40 mmHg), once anatomical severity has been confirmed, may also undergo intervention. In cases with low-flow, low-gradient AS and preserved LVEF, it is necessary to measure aortic calcium score (severe AS if over 1,300 AU for women and over 2,000 AU for men).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><sup>82</sup></xref> In patients with low-flow, low-gradient AS and low LVEF, dobutamine stress echocardiogram is indicated. Severe AS is defined when, in the presence of contractile reserve, AVA remains reduced,.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83"><sup>83</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86"><sup>86</sup></xref> In the absence of contractile reserve, it is also necessary to measure valve calcium score in order to define anatomical severity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78"><sup>78</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87"><sup>87</sup></xref> Patients with no contractile reserve also benefit from surgical or transcatheter intervention.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t111">
          <label>Table 22</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 1: Diagnosis of severe aortic stenosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87"><sup>87</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics of severe aortic stenosis</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Physical examination</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Pulsus parvus et tardus</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Ejective systolic murmur with telesystolic peak</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hypophonetic second heart sound</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hypophonetic first heart sound</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Gallavardin phenomenon</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Paradoxical double second heart sound or single second heart sound</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left chamber overload</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Altered ventricular repolarization (strain pattern)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest radiography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Cardiothoracic index may be normal</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Signs of pulmonary congestion</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>AVA &#8804; 1.0 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indexed AVA &#8804; 0.6 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mean transaortic gradient &#8805; 40 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Maximum aortic jet velocity &#8805; 4.0 m/s</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Flow rate ratio between LV outflow tract and aortic valve &lt; 0.25</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dobutamine stress echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indicated for evaluation of anatomical severity in patients with low-flow, low-gradient AS, with low LVEF, defined as AVA &#8804; 1.0 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>, LVEF &lt; 50% and mean transaortic gradient &lt; 40 mmHg<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN89">*</xref></p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>In the presence of contractile reserve (increase of &#8805; 20% in stroke volume and/or increase of &gt; 10 mmHg in mean transaortic gradient), patients with reduction or preservation in peak AVA during stress have severe AS (increase of up to 0.2 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> in AVA is accepted as a criterion of preserved AVA). Patients with increasing in AVA &#8805; 0.3 cm&#178; are defined as moderate AS (pseudo-severe AS)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>In the absence of contractile reserve, it is necessary to corroborate anatomical severity with the aortic calcium score</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Multidetector chest computed tomography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Aortic valve calcium score above 1,300 AU for women and 2,000 AU for men confirms severe AS</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemodynamic study</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Transaortic gradient (peak) &#8805; 50 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Special situation</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Low-flow, low-gradient AS with preserved LVEF (&#8220;paradoxical&#8221;), defined as: AVA &#8804; 1.0 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>, LVEF &gt; 50%, and transaortic mean gradient &lt; 40 mmHg<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN89">*</xref>. In these cases, we must evaluate the following parameters for defining severe AS:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Indexed AVA &#8804; 0.6 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>High aortic valve calcium score</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Systolic arterial pressure &#8804; 140 mmHg</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Indexed stroke volume &lt; 35 mL/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Patients with all of the above parameters, but normal indexed stroke volume (&gt; 35 ml/m&#178;) are defined as having normal-flow, low-gradient AS. This entity has been recently described; evidence is scarce, and these patients appear to benefit from valve intervention when they are symptomatic<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"><sup>88</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref></p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN89">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>In cases of low-flow, low-gradient AS with preserved or low LVEF, we must pay attention to possible errors in echocardiographic measurement. AS: aortic stenosis; AVA: aortic valve area; LV: left ventricle; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The second step is the evaluation of etiology (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t112">Table 23</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"><sup>88</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref> In developed countries, there is greater prevalence of degenerative/calcification etiology in elderly patients, whereas, in developing countries, rheumatic and bicuspid etiologies are predominant in young patients. In Brazil, we may observe a bimodal peak in the prevalence AS. In other words, there are patients with all etiologies in different age ranges due to the transitional age pyramid typical of developing countries. The etiology of AS also reflects in the choice of treatment (Step 5). Patients with rheumatic AS are usually young, and have not been considered in transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) studies. The majority of patients studied had degenerative etiology. There is, however, already evidence regarding the procedure&#8217;s feasibility in patients with bicuspid aortic valve.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t112">
          <label>Table 23</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: Evaluation of severe aortic stenosis etiology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"><sup>88</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiological characteristics</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Atherosclerotic/degenerative</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Associated with old age</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Prevalence: 3% to 5% of the population over 75 years old</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Related to aortic valve calcification</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Presence of risk factors related to atherosclerosis</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rheumatic</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Commissural fusion</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mitral-aortic involvement</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Younger patients</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Associated with a range of aortic regurgitation degrees</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Bicuspid</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Prevalence: 2% of the population</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Associated with aortopathy (70% of cases)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Latero-lateral orientation of the commissural cleft: predictor of the evolution of aortic stenosis</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The third step is the evaluation of symptoms related to the VHD (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t113">Table 24</xref>). Intervention is unequivocally indicated for patients with severe AS and dyspnea, angina, or syncope.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t113">
          <label>Table 24</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 3: Evaluation of severe aortic stenosis symptoms</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Diastolic dysfunction: LV hypertrophy &#10132; reduced compliance &#10132; shifting of the ventricular pressure/volume curve up and to the left &#10132; increased filling pressures &#10132; pulmonary capillary hypertension</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Systolic dysfunction: related to afterload mismatch and low-flow/low-gradient states</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Patients with unclear symptomology (pseudo-asymptomatic) may undergo exercise test (ergometry or ergospirometry) for evaluation of dyspnea during exertion</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Angina</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Imbalance in oxygen supply/consumption in the hypertrophic myocardium</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Reduced myocardial perfusion gradient (elevated end diastolic pressure)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Syncope</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Results from inability to increase cardiac output in situations of significant reduction in total peripheral resistance</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May result from use of vasodilators (common triggering agents)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>50% of cases are associated with cardioinhibitory reflex</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In cases where there are no symptoms, we must evaluate the presence of prognostic factors that justify indication of intervention (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t114">Table 25</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91"><sup>91</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95"><sup>95</sup></xref> The following prognostic factors are currently taken into consideration in the current guidelines:</p>
        <table-wrap id="t114">
          <label>Table 25</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 4: Evaluation of severe aortic stenosis prognostic factors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91"><sup>91</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98"><sup>98</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Prognostic factors</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>LV dysfunction: LVEF &lt; 50%</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Markers of very severe AS: AVA &lt; 0.7 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>, maximum aortic jet velocity &gt; 5.0 m/s, mean transaortic gradient &gt; 60 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ergometry/ergospirometry test</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Limited functional capacity</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Inadequate pressure response: increase in systolic arterial pressure less than 20 mmHg or systolic arterial pressure with a decrease greater than 10 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Arrhythmias: ventricular tachycardia or more than 4 successive ventricular extrasystoles</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>ST segment horizontal or descending depression &#8805; 2 mm</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Contraindicated in symptomatic patients and/or patients with LV dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN90">
              <p>AVA: aortic valve area; LV: left ventricle; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Echocardiogram: LV dysfunction (LVEF &lt; 50%) and/or markers of very severe AS (AVA &lt; 0.7 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>, maximum aortic jet velocity &gt; 5.0 m/s, mean transaortic gradient &gt; 60 mmHg).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96"><sup>96</sup></xref></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Exercise test (ergometry): absence of inotropic reserve and/or low functional capacity, arterial hypotension during exertion (20 mmHg decrease in systolic arterial pressure) and/or presence of symptoms with low loads.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97"><sup>97</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98"><sup>98</sup></xref></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>The fifth and final step is choice of intervention (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t115">Tables 26</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t116">27</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figures 5</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">6</xref>, and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f18">7</xref>). Transfemoral TAVI is preferable in relation to other thoracic access approaches (transaortic and transapical). Transfemoral approach is less invasive, and has a lower rate of complications. For this reason, other approachs are recommended only when there is a technical contraindication to femoral access.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t115">
          <label>Table 26</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 5: Type of severe aortic stenosis intervention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99"><sup>99</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132"><sup>132</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Type</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Considerations</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Aortic valve replacement surgery<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN91">*</xref></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>First choice for patients under 70 years without contraindication or high surgical risk<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN91">*</xref></p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be indicated for patients with intermediate risk or elderly patients with low risk, depending on the Heart Team&#8217;s decision and the availability of the transcatheter procedure</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">TAVI</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Requires evaluation of the institutional Heart Team</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Transfemoral approach is preferred</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>First choice in patients with prohibitive surgical risk, contraindications to surgery, frailty, or intermediate risk</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Expanded indication for patients with low surgical risk (STS &lt; 4%, EuroSCORE II &lt; 4%, logistic EuroSCORE &lt; 10%) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN91">*</xref></p>
                      <p>Transfemoral access appears to be better than surgery in these patients</p>
                      <p>There is a lack of data regarding TAVI in patients &lt; 70 years and prosthesis durability</p>
                      <p>Thus, in patients with low risk, age &lt; 70 years, without other specific indications for TAVI, this procedure should be avoided</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Angiotomography of the aorta is the exam of choice for evaluating which access to use, valve size, type of valve, and feasibility of the procedure, as well as for predicting possible complications.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Contraindicated in patients with estimated life expectancy of less than 12 months</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Percutaneous balloon aortic valvuloplasty</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8220;Bridge&#8221; for definitive procedures (surgery or TAVI) in patients with hemodynamic instability or advanced symptoms</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Palliative in cases with definitive contraindications to conventional surgery or TAVI.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN91">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>All current guidelines consider TAVI the preferred intervention, rather than surgery, for patients who are inoperable or frail and/or patients with high surgical risk (evaluated by the STS and EuroSCORE II scores). However, following the publication of American and European guidelines, 4 studies comparing TAVI and surgery in patients with low surgical risk were published. Meta-analysis of these studies demonstrated reduced 1-year mortality in transfemoral TAVI. These results suggest that transfemoral TAVI should be the preferred treatment in these patients. However, it is relevant to note that the mean age of the studied population was 75.4 years. Thus, in low-risk patients, extending to intermediate risk, we should avoid TAVI in patients under 70 years of age, until more robust data have been published regarding the durability of the prostheses. STS: Society of Thoracic Surgeons; TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve implantation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t116">
          <label>Table 27</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Aortic stenosis: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99"><sup>99</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132"><sup>132</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="8">Surgical aortic valve replacement or TAVI<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN92">*</xref></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptoms (NYHA FC &#8805; 2, syncope and angina)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic, with prognostic factors:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &lt; 50%</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Exercise test +</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Asymptomatic, with very severe AS:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>AVA &lt; 0.7 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Maximum jet velocity &gt; 5.0 m/s</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Mean transaortic gradient &gt; 60 mmHg</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C (Elevated BNP; SPAP &gt; 60 mmHg; maximum jet velocity &gt; 5.5 m/s)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Special situations</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe low-flow, low-gradient AS with low LVEF:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>With contractile reserve</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Without contractile reserve + elevated aortic calcium score</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe symptomatic paradoxical AS</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="10">Choice of intervention, between surgery and TAVI<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN93">**</xref></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Inoperable, prohibitive risk and/or frailty</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>TAVI</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Surgery</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>High surgical risk</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>TAVI</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Surgery</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Intermediate surgical risk</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>TAVI</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Surgery</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Low risk &gt; 70 years</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>TAVI</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Surgery</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Low risk &lt; 70 years</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>TAVI</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Surgery</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Percutaneous balloon aortic valvuloplasty <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN92">*</xref></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptomatic patients with important hemodynamic instability, temporarily impossible to perform definitive intervention (TAVI or conventional surgery) &#8212; &#8220;therapeutic bridge&#8221;</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Palliative treatment in symptomatic patients, with contraindications to surgery and/or TAVI.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN92">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Mandatory prerequisite: evaluation by the institutional Heart Team, evaluating surgical risk, frailty, anatomical conditions, and comorbidities.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN93">
              <label>**</label>
              <p>Other aspects, such as the technical feasibility, risks and benefits of each procedure, patient choice, local experience, and availability of procedures, should also be taken into consideration when choosing the technique. The American and European guidelines were published before the studies on TAVI in low surgical risk patients. We should take these data into consideration when comparing the evidence of the 3 guidelines (SBC, AHA, and ESC). AHA: American Heart Association; AS: aortic stenosis; AVA: aortic valve &#225;rea; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; FC: functional class; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology); TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve implantation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <fig id="f16">
          <label>Figure 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart for decision making in aortic stenosis. BAV: balloon aortic valvuloplasty; ET: exercise test; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve implantation.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
        <fig id="f17">
          <label>Figure 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart for confirming anatomical severity of low-flow, low-gradient aortic stenosis with low ejection fraction. CT: computerized tomography; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
        <fig id="f18">
          <label>Figura 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart for decision making in paradoxical aortic stenosis. BAV: balloon aortic valvuloplasty; BP: blood pressure; ET: exercise test; iAVA: indexed aortic valve area; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve implantation.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf07-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>All current guidelines consider TAVI the preferred intervention, rather than surgery, for patients who are inoperable or frail and/or patients with high surgical risk (evaluated by the STS and EuroSCORE II scores).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99"><sup>99</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113"><sup>113</sup></xref> However, following the publication of American and European guidelines, 4 studies comparing TAVI and surgery in patients with low surgical risk were published. Meta-analysis of these studies demonstrated reduced 1-year mortality in transfemoral TAVI. These results suggest that transfemoral TAVI should be the preferred treatment in these patients. However, it is relevant to note that the mean age of the studied population was 75.4 years. Thus, in low-risk patients, extending to intermediate risk, we should avoid TAVI in patients under 70 years of age, until more robust data have been published regarding the durability of the prostheses. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100"><sup>100</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114"><sup>114</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120"><sup>120</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Another relevant aspect which is unanimous in Brazilian and international guidelines is the need for a Heart Team to evaluate each case. Other aspects, such as technical feasibility, risks and benefits of each procedure, patient choice, local experience, and availability of procedures, should also be taken into consideration when choosing the type of intervention.</p>
        <p>The following groups of patients should be monitored frequently, due to the risk of progression of the VHD (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t117">Table 28</xref>):</p>
        <table-wrap id="t117">
          <label>Table 28</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Aortic stenosis: Individualized follow-up<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Aortic stenosis</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Follow-up</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Severe and asymptomatic, without prognostic factors</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical and echocardiographic evaluation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 6 months</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 0.5 to 1 year</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 6 months</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Concomitant intervention in patients who will undergo another cardiac surgical procedure (coronary revascularization, ascending aorta, or other valve procedures)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Moderate (AVA between 1.0 and 1.5 cm&#178; and mean transaortic gradient 25 &#8211; 39 mmHg)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical and echocardiographic evaluation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every year</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 1 to 2 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every year</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Concomitant intervention in patients who will undergo another cardiac surgical procedure (coronary revascularization, ascending aorta, or other valve procedures)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mild (AVA &gt; 1.5 cm&#178; and mean transaortic gradient &lt; 25 mmHg)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical and echocardiographic evaluation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 2 to 3 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 3 to 5 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 2 to 3 years</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN94">
              <p>AHA: American Heart Association; AVA: aortic valve area; LV: left ventricle; SC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Severe asymptomatic AS, without prognostic factors: To date, these patients are indicated for valve surgery only if other invasive cardiovascular procedures are indicated (coronary revascularization, ascending aorta, or other valve procedures). Studies are underway to evaluate the benefit of early intervention in this group of patients.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Moderate AS, defined as AVA between 1.0 and 1.5 cm&#178; and mean transaortic gradient 25 to 39 mmHg: These patients are indicated for valve surgery only if other invasive cardiovascular procedures are indicated (coronary revascularization, ascending aorta, or other valve procedures).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Mild AS, defined as AVA &gt; 1.5 cm&#178; and mean transaortic gradient &lt; 25 mmHg: Clinical and echocardiographic follow-up.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9. Chronic Aortic Regurgitation</title>
        <p>The five-step clinical approach (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">Figure 8</xref>) is also recommended for management of chronic aortic regurgitation (AR). The first step consists of charactering AR anatomical severity, especially identifying patients with anatomically severe AR. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t118">Table 29</xref> shows the main findings of clinical examination and complementary methods for defining severe AR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133"><sup>133</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134"><sup>134</sup></xref> In general, transthoracic echocardiogram continues to be the main tool for diagnosing and scoring the severity of AR. Three-dimensional echocardiography has been increasingly incorporated into complementary evaluation, especially in cases where two-dimensional analysis is limited (eccentric jets or anatomical determination, for example, in bicuspid valve disease). Furthermore, there has recently been an increase of studies on cardiac magnetic resonance for evaluation of AR, making it possible to acquire new diagnostic and prognostic parameters, such as regurgitant fraction and estimated LV end diastolic volume.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134"><sup>134</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t118">
          <label>Table 29</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 1: Diagnosis of severe aortic regurgitation <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133"><sup>133</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134"><sup>134</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics of severe aortic regurgitation</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Physical examination</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Decrescendo blowing diastolic murmur with hypophonetic second heart sound</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hyperflow midsystolic murmur</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Austin-Flint murmur (AR jet does not allow mitral valve opening, generating a rumbling diastolic murmur)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Water hammer pulse or Corrigan&#8217;s pulse: rapid increase and high amplitude</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Divergence between systolic and diastolic pressures</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical signs of increased pulse pressure: Musset&#8217;s sign, Becker&#8217;s sign, carotid dance, Muller&#8217;s sign, Quincke&#8217;s sign, Rosenbach&#8217;s sign, Gerhard&#8217;s sign, Traube&#8217;s sign, Duroziez&#8217;s sign, Mayne&#8217;s sign, and Hill&#8217;s sign</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Signs of left chamber overload</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest radiography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Enlarged cardiac silhouette due to LV dilation</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Signs of aortic dilation or ectasia</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of the valve disease etiology, ascending aorta diameter, ventricular diameters, and ventricular function.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Quantification of regurgitation:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Vena contracta &gt; 0.6 cm</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Jet width &gt; 0.65 cm</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Jet area &#8805; 60%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Regurgitant fraction &#8805; 50%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Regurgitant volume &#8805; 60 mL/beat</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>EROA &#8805; 0.30 cm&#178;</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemodynamic study</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Necessary in cases of discordance between clinical and echocardiographic findings (elevated left ventricular end diastolic pressure, aortic regurgitation during aortography)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Magnetic resonance</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of the aorta</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of ventricular function in borderline cases</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of valve function in cases of disagreement between clinical and echocardiographic findings</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>New prognostic factors: regurgitant fraction and LV end diastolic volume</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Angiotomography of the aorta</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of the aorta</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN95">
              <p>AR: aortic regurgitation; EROA: effective regurgitant orifice area; LV: left ventricle.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <fig id="f19">
          <label>Figure 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart for decision making in chronic aortic regurgitation. LVDD: left ventricular diastolic diameter; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LVSD: left ventricular systolic diameter.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf08-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>For the second step (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t119">Table 30</xref>), it is necessary to verify the etiology of AR. From the etiopathogenic point of view, chronic AR is related to anatomical abnormalities related to the valve leaflets and/or pathologies of the aortic valve annulus. The following causes are related to dysfunction of the valve leaflets: rheumatic fever (still one of the main etiologies in Brazil), infective endocarditis (IE), degenerative causes, congenital malformations such as bicuspid valve disease, and myxomatous degeneration. With respect to abnormalities related to the aortic valve annulus, it is worth underscoring dissection of the ascending aorta, aneurysmatic dilatation (mainly provoked by systemic arterial hypertension and collagen diseases such as Marfan and Ehlers-Danlos syndromes), seronegative spondyloarthropathies (ankylosing spondylitis and Reiter&#8217;s disease), syphilitic aortitis, and Takayasu arteritis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135"><sup>135</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136"><sup>136</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t119">
          <label>Table 30</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: Evaluation of severe aortic regurgitation etiology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135"><sup>135</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136"><sup>136</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiological characteristics</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rheumatic</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>High prevalence in Brazil</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Generally associated with mitral lesion</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Frequent in young adults</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Atherosclerotic</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Generally associated with AS</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Frequent in the elderly population</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Bicuspid</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Associated with abnormalities in the aorta (40% of cases &#8211; aneurysm, dissection, coarctation)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Frequent in young adults</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Diseases related to altered geometry of the aortic root</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Systemic arterial hypertension, dissection of the ascending aorta, Marfan syndrome, ankylosing spondylitis, syphilitic aortitis, osteogenesis imperfecta, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Reiter&#8217;s syndrome, subaortic stenosis, and interventricular septal defect with prolapse of the aortic cusp</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Others</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Infective endocarditis, myxomatous degeneration, traumatic lesions, rheumatoid arthritis</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN96">
              <p>AS: aortic stenosis.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The third step (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t120">Table 31</xref>) is characterized by evaluation of symptoms related to AR. Identification of symptoms may be a difficult task during routine healthcare, especially in elderly patients who frequently have physical self-limitation. In these cases, provocative functional tests, such as ergospirometry, can assist in identification of these &#8220;pseudo-asymptomatic&#8221; patients. Given the high morbidity and mortality related to symptoms, once they are identified, patients should be referred for surgical intervention.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t120">
          <label>Table 31</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 3: Evaluation of severe aortic regurgitation symptoms</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Occurs due to increased end diastolic pressure secondary to blood volume overload in the LV and consequent pulmonary capillary congestion.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Angina</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Occurs due to reduced myocardial reserve. Nocturnal angina may occur due to increased valve regurgitation resulting from bradycardia during sleep.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Syncope</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Low effective cardiac output</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN97">
              <p>LV: left ventricle.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The fourth step (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t121">Table 32</xref>) focuses on evaluation of prognostic factors. This step is especially relevant for asymptomatic patients. The main prognostic factor of AR is low LV systolic function, related to systolic stress and ventricular dilation. In a retrospective study, Chaliki et al. found reduced survival in patients who had AR with LVEF below 50%. Postoperative mortality rates were also influenced by ventricular function (14% for patients with LVEF below 35%, 6.7% for LVEF between 35% and 50%, and 3.7% for patients with LVEF above 50%, p = 0.02). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137"><sup>137</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t121">
          <label>Table 32</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 4: Evaluation of severe aortic regurgitation prognostic factors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134"><sup>134</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137"><sup>137</sup></xref><sup>,</sup> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137"><sup>137</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139"><sup>139</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141"><sup>141</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Prognostic factors</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>LVEF &lt; 50%</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>LVDD &gt; 70 mm (non-rheumatic) and &gt; 75 mm (rheumatic)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>LVSD &gt; 50 mm (non-rheumatic) and &gt; 55 mm (rheumatic)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indexed LVSD &gt; 25 mm/m&#178;</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Magnetic resonance</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Presence of late Gadolinium enhancement images</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Regurgitant fraction &gt; 33%</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>LV end diastolic volume &gt; 246 mL</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Angiotomography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Bicuspid valve with indication of intervention + aortic root &gt; 45 mm</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN98">
              <p>LV: left ventricle; LVDD: left ventricular diastolic diameter; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LVSD: left ventricular systolic diameter.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Ventricular remodeling continues to show clinical ambivalence: on one hand, increased ventricular diameters is an adaptive mechanism to volume overload; on the other hand, ventricular remodeling may determine worse prognosis, especially in non-rheumatic populations. In a Brazilian study carried out with 75 asymptomatic patients with rheumatic severe AR, the strategy of indicating surgical treatment based on the appearance of symptoms, even in patients with LV diastolic diameter (LVDD) greater than 75 mm and LVSD greater than 55 mm, with normal LVEF, was capable of promoting improvement in quality of life and reversal of dilation, with a 10-year survival rate of 90.6%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138"><sup>138</sup></xref> On the other hand, prospective studies with predominant non-rheumatic AR patients found that LVSD above 50 mm was associated with composite clinical outcomes (death, symptoms, and/or ventricular dysfunction) of up to 19% yearly. There is also evidence that it would be more appropriate to used diameters indexed by body surface area, especially in women. A study of 246 patients with asymptomatic AR found that indexed LVSD values equal to or greater than 25 mm/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> were associated with outcomes (mortality, symptoms, and ventricular dysfunction).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139"><sup>139</sup></xref> More recently, studies have evaluated the role of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) in AR. Cutoff values of 130 pg/mL for BNP and 602 pg/mL for NT-pro-BNP have been associated with adverse clinical outcomes. The combination of these values of BNP with echocardiographic parameters may improve the ability to stratify asymptomatic patients. Persistent elevations in BNP during clinical follow-up have also been related to adverse clinical events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140"><sup>140</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Echocardiographic parameters such as longitudinal stress are also predictors of evolution in asymptomatic AR, and they also influence postoperative results. The limitation to the clinical use of longitudinal stress in AR lies in the divergence regarding cutoff points.</p>
        <p>Another prognostic factor related to AR is late enhancement myocardial fibrosis. Cardiac magnetic resonance with late enhancement is the main imaging method capable of quantification. Studies have demonstrated that the presence of myocardial fibrosis influences the postoperative period, and it is associated with persistence of symptoms, failure to recover ventricular function, and higher mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141"><sup>141</sup></xref> Also with respect to magnetic resonance, new studies have demonstrated that regurgitant fraction above 33% and LV end diastolic volume above 246 ml were associated with lower surgery-free survival. These new parameters may improve stratification of asymptomatic patients, thus ensuring more precise surgical indications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134"><sup>134</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Finally, the fifth step is to define the intervention in AR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t122">Tables 33</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t123">34</xref>). Surgical aortic valve replacement remains the first choice.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142"><sup>142</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143"><sup>143</sup></xref> Surgical mortality rates range from 1% (valve replacement procedure alone) to 7% (combined procedures). The presence of symptoms, reduced LVEF, and excessive LV remodeling entail worse prognosis, and they are, therefore, the main indications for surgical treatment. As previously stated, new prognostic factors related to myocardial fibrosis, left ventricular remodeling, and biomarkers may represent potential future parameters for intervention. The clinical follow-up of patients without indication of intervention is described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t124">Table 35</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t122">
          <label>Table 33</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 5: Type of severe aortic regurgitation intervention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142"><sup>142</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143"><sup>143</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Type of intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Considerations</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Surgery (aortic valve replacement)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Treatment of choice <break/>Valve replacement combined with correction of the ascending aorta, when indicated</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">TAVI</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Requires further studies</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN99">
              <p>TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve implantation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t123">
          <label>Table 34</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Aortic regurgitation: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142"><sup>142</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143"><sup>143</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Aortic valve replacement surgery</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptoms</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>LVEF &lt; 50%</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Ventricular diameters</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B <break/>Rheumatic <break/>LVDD &gt; 75 mm or LVSD &gt; 55 mm <break/>IIa B <break/>Non-rheumatic <break/>LVDD &gt; 70 mm or LVSD &gt; 50 mm or indexed LVSD &gt;25 mm/m&#178;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C <break/>LVDD &gt; 70 mm or LVSD &gt; 50 mm or indexed LVSD &gt; 25 mm/m&#178;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B <break/>LVDD &gt; 70 mm or LVSD &gt; 50 mm or indexed LVSD &gt; 25 mm/m&#178;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Transcatheter aortic valve implantation &#8211; TAVI <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN100">*</xref></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptomatic, with life expectancy &gt; 1 year and contraindications/prohibitive risk of conventional surgery</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN100">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN100">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Consider discussion in the Heart Team. AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; LVDD: left ventricular diastolic diameter; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LVSD: left ventricular systolic diameter; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t124">
          <label>Table 35</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Aortic regurgitation: Individualized follow-up<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Aortic regurgitation</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Follow-up</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Severe and asymptomatic, without prognostic factors</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical and echocardiographic evaluation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 0.5 to 1 year</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 0.5 to 1 year</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 3 to 6 months</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Concomitant intervention in patients who will undergo another cardiac surgical procedure (coronary revascularization, ascending aorta, or other valve procedures)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Moderate <break/>(Vena contracta 0.3 &#8211; 0.6 cm, jet width 0.25 &#8211; 0.64 cm, regurgitant fraction 30% &#8211; 49%, regurgitant volume 30 &#8211; 59 mL/beat, EROA 0.10 &#8211; 0.29 cm&#178;)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Clinical and echocardiographic evaluation</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 1 to 2 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 1 to 2 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 1 to 2 years</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Concomitant intervention in patients who will undergo another cardiac surgical procedure (coronary revascularization, ascending aorta, or other valve procedures)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mild <break/>(Vena contracta &lt; 0.3 cm, jet width &lt; 0.25 cm, regurgitant fraction &lt; 30%, regurgitant volume &lt; 30 ml/beat, EROA &lt; 0.10 cm&#178;)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Clinical and echocardiographic evaluation</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 3 to 5 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 3 to 5 years</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Every 1 to 2 years</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN101">
              <p>AHA: American Heart Association; EROA: effective regurgitant orifice area; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10. Tricuspid Stenosis</title>
        <p>Tricuspid stenosis (TS) is a rare VHD, usually associated with tricuspid regurgitation (TR). Echocardiography remains the main tool to define anatomical severity (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t125">Table 36</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144"><sup>144</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t125">
          <label>Table 36</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 1: Diagnosis of severe tricuspid stenosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144"><sup>144</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics of severe tricuspid stenosis</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Physical examination</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Early opening snap</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hyperphonetic first heart sound</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rumbling diastolic murmur, with presystolic reinforcement in patients in sinus rhythm in the left sternal border, increasing with inspiration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Systemic congestion: hepatomegaly, ascites, lower limbs edema, jugular venous stasis, Kussmaul&#8217;s sign</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Overload of the RA</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>AF</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest radiography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>RA enlargement</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Tricuspid valve area &#8804; 1.0 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mean diastolic RA/right ventricle gradient &#8805; 5mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Isolated RA enlargement</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Tricuspid PHT &#8805; 190 ms</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemodynamic study</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Cases of clinical and echocardiographic discordance</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Diastolic RA/right ventricle gradient &#8805; 5 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Magnetic resonance</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Cases of clinical and echocardiographic discordance or limited quality of echocardiographic image</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN102">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; PHT: pressure half time; RA: right atrium.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The most common etiology of TS is rheumatic disease. It generally occurs concomitantly to mitral valve and/or aortic valve disease. Thickening and cusp retraction occur with commissural involvement. Other possible causes of TS, which are even rare, are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t126">Table 37</xref>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145"><sup>145</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147"><sup>147</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t126">
          <label>Table 37</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: Evaluation of severe tricuspid stenosis etiology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145"><sup>145</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147"><sup>147</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiological characteristics</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rheumatic</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Most prevalent cause</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Associated with other valvular heart diseases</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Thickening with cusp retraction</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Commissural involvement</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Frequent in young adults</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Other</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Infective endocarditis</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Systemic lupus erythematosus</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Carcinoid syndrome</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Congenital deformities</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Atrial myxoma</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Actinic injury (post-radiotherapy)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Deposit disease: amyloidosis, Fabry disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Whipple disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Both symptoms and physical examination are usually limited to patients with anatomically severe TS. The most commonly found symptom is fatigue, which may be associated with symptoms of right-sided heart failure (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t127">Table 38</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t127">
          <label>Table 38</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 3: Evaluation of severe tricuspid stenosis symptoms</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Fatigue</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Main symptom</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Associated with lower limbs pain and edema</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Absence of dyspnea</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be associated with palpitations, ascites, or signs of hepatic dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>When asymptomatic patients have severe TS, it is necessary to evaluate whether or not there present prognostic factors (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t128">Table 39</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t128">
          <label>Table 39</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 4: Evaluation of severe tricuspid stenosis prognostic factors</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Prognostic factors</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>AF</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Systemic congestion</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of hepatic impairment (altered enzymes or coagulogram)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN103">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In the presence of these symptoms or prognostic factors, intervention is indicated. In spite of the rarity of cases and the scarcity of data in the literature, percutaneous balloon tricuspid valvuloplasty (PBTV) remains the treatment of choice (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t129">Tables 40</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t130">41</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f20">Figure 9</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148"><sup>148</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t129">
          <label>Table 40</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 5: Type of severe tricuspid stenosis intervention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148"><sup>148</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Type</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Considerations</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Percutaneous balloon tricuspid valvuloplasty</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Treatment of choice</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Moderate TR is not a contraindication</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Contraindicated in the presence of atrial thrombus despite anticoagulation and/or vegetation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Tricuspid valve replacement</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Option when balloon valvuloplasty is contraindicated</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Bioprosthesis is preferable</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Preferable if associated with surgery for treatment of mitral valve disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t130">
          <label>Table 41</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Tricuspid stenosis: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148"><sup>148</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Percutaneous balloon tricuspid valvuloplasty</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe symptomatic TS alone, without contraindications</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Concomitant PBMV</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>PBTV with severe TR</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Tricuspid valve replacement or repair (commissurotomy)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe, symptomatic TS with contraindication to PBTV</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe, symptomatic TS alone</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Bioprosthesis is preferable, when valve replacement is indicated</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN104">
              <p>AHA: American Heart Association; PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty; PBTV: percutaneous balloon tricuspid valvuloplasty; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology); TR: tricuspid regurgitation; TS: tricuspid stenosis.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <fig id="f20">
          <label>Figure 9</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart for decision making in tricuspid stenosis. AF: atrial fibrillation; PBTV: percutaneous balloon tricuspid valvuloplasty.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf09-en.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>11. Tricuspid Regurgitation</title>
        <p>Patients with mild TR usually do not require any type of treatment. Patients with moderate to severe TR will need specific follow-up, especially in order to identify the etiology of the VHD and the repercussions associated (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t131">Table 42</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149"><sup>149</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t131">
          <label>Table 42</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 1: Diagnosis of severe tricuspid regurgitation<sup>149</sup></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics of severe tricuspid regurgitation</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Physical examination</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Pathological jugular venous stasis</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hyperphonetic second heart sound (pulmonary arterial hypertension)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Regurgitative systolic murmur in the left sternal border associated with Rivero-Carvallo sign</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hepatomegaly</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Right chamber overload</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>AF</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest radiography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Signs of enlarged right chambers</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Pulmonary congestion, only when associated with left side valvular disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Enlargement pulmonary trunk</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>EROA &#8805; 0.40 cm&#178;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Reverse flow in hepatic veins</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Regurgitant volume &gt; 45 ml/beat</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Dense, triangular regurgitant volume, with early peak on continuous Doppler.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Vena contracta &#8805; 0.7 cm</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Annulus diameter &#8805; 40 mm</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Failed cusp coaptation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemodynamic study</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Case of clinical and echocardiographic discordance</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Measures SPAP in cases with failed cusp coaptation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Magnetic resonance</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Case of clinical and echocardiographic discordance or limited quality of echocardiographic image</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN105">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; EROA: effective regurgitant orifice area; SPAP: systolic pulmonary artery pressure.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>TR is usually functional, secondary to dilation of the tricuspid valve annulus, mainly secondary the left heart chambers valve diseases or cardiomyopathies and/or PH. Cases of primary TR are generally related to rheumatic disease, interventions (repeated endomyocardial biopsies, presence of pacemaker electrodes, or implanTable cardioverter defibrillator), consequence of IE or other rare causes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t132">Table 43</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150"><sup>150</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t132">
          <label>Table 43</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: Evaluation of severe tricuspid regurgitation etiology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150"><sup>150</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiological characteristics</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Primary</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rheumatic fever</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Prolapse and myxomatous degeneration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Actinic injury due to radiation (post-radiotherapy)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Closed chest trauma</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Infective endocarditis</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Repeated endomyocardial biopsies</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Carcinoid syndrome</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Congenital (Ebstein)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Pacemaker electrodes or defibrillator</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Secondary</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Dilation of the tricuspid annulus (&gt; 40 mm or &gt; 21 mm/m&#178;)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left heart valve disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Long-duration AF</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Primary PH</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ischemic, arrhythmogenic dysplasia, non-compacted myocardium, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy)</p>
                      <p>Constrictive pericarditis</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rare causes</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rheumatologic diseases</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Medication (methysergide or anorexigenic drugs)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Fabry disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN106">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; PH: pulmonary hypertension.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>During severe TR natural history, symptoms may arise which will have a significant impact on decision making (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t133">Table 44</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t133">
          <label>Table 44</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 3: Evaluation of severe tricuspid regurgitation symptoms</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea <break/>(NYHA FC II to IV)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Secondary to left heart disease (pulmonary capillary congestion, pulmonary arterial hypertension).</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Dyspnea during exertion and nocturnal paroxysmal</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Fatigue</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Main symptom</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Associated with lower limbs pain and edema</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>More common in right heart failure</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN107">
              <p>FC: functional class; NYHA: New York Heart Association.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>On the other hand, even in asymptomatic patients, right ventricular remodeling can develop, which may justify valve intervention. Thus, right ventricular dilation or dysfunction (except for severe right ventricular dysfunction) should be considered as a prognostic factor (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t134">Table 45</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t134">
          <label>Table 45</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 4: Evaluation of severe tricuspid regurgitation prognostic factors</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Prognostic factors</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Primary TR: progressive right ventricular dilation or dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN108">
              <p>TR: tricuspid regurgitation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>New data have shown the prognostic importance of TR. A recently published study found a prevalence of moderate to severe TR of 0.55%, where 72% of cases were secondary to left VHD (49.5%) or PH (23%). Only 8% of cases were isolated TR. Patients with moderate to severe TR alone show a higher mortality rate (relative risk 1.68, with 95% CI 1.04 to 2.6, p = 0.03), confirming data from the same group published in 2014.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151"><sup>151</sup></xref> The increase in mortality has also been shown in a recent meta-analysis, including 70 studies, which found almost two-fold mortality in patients with moderate to severe TR (relative risk 1.95, 95% CI 1.75 to 2.17). TR was an independent mortality predictor even after adjusting for the presence of right ventricular dysfunction, PH, AF, MR, or LV dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152"><sup>152</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The interventional treatment of choice, when indicated, is tricuspid valve repair, with a prosthetic ring capable of reducing the tricuspid annulus diameter, improving valve leaflet coaptation, and correcting regurgitation. Valve replacement is reserved for patients who do not have anatomical conditions for repair. It should be noted that the isolated surgical approach to the tricuspid valve currently continues to be rarely indicated, and has surgical mortality rates varying from 8.8% to 9.7%. However, there are still no data showing improved survival with TR surgical treatment alone, despite the increased mortality rate in patients with moderate to severe TR in clinical treatment. For this reason, the main reason for surgical indication, in this population, is still to improve symptoms and prevent severe right ventricular dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153"><sup>153</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155"><sup>155</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The number of studies on percutaneous interventional treatment of TR has increased. Several devices have been developed, with strategies based on reducing the tricuspid valve annulus, improving coaptation between the leaflets, or even on transcatheter valve implantation. Further data will be available soon (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t135">Tables 46</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t136">47</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">Figure 10</xref>) <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149"><sup>149</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><sup/><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156"><sup>156</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158"><sup>158</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t135">
          <label>Table 46</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 5: Type of severe tricuspid regurgitation intervention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149"><sup>149</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151"><sup>151</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158"><sup>158</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Type</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Considerations</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Tricuspid repair with a prosthetic ring</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Treatment of choice</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indications:</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>Left valvular heart disease intervention in the presence of tricuspid annulus &#8805; 40 mm and/or moderate to severe tricuspid regurgitation</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>tricuspid regurgitation alone, refractory to clinical treatment, low surgical risk, without contraindications.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Contraindications: severe right ventricular systolic dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Surgical valve replacement</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>If repair is possible</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Bioprosthesis is preferable</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Transcatheter tricuspid valve implantation</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Refractory symptoms, with contraindication or high surgical risk (currently under study)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t136">
          <label>Table 47</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Tricuspid regurgitation: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149"><sup>149</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151"><sup>151</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158"><sup>158</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="6">Tricuspid repair with a prosthetic ring</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left valvular heart disease intervention and severe TR</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left valvular heart disease intervention and tricuspid annulus &#8805; 40 mm</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left valvular heart disease intervention, severe TR, and signs of right ventricular dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left valvular heart disease intervention, moderate to severe TR, and/or annulus &#8805; 40 mm and SPAP &#8805; 70 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe TR alone, refractory to clinical treatment</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe primary asymptomatic TR alone, with right ventricular dilation or progressive dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Surgical valve replacement</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Repair not possible</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Bioprosthesis preferable</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Transcatheter tricuspid valve implantation</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Refractory to clinical treatment, with contraindication or high surgical risk (currently under study)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN109">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN109">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Consider discussion in the Heart Team. AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology); TR: tricuspid regurgitation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <fig id="f21">
          <label>Figure 10</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart for decision making in tricuspid regurgitation. RV: right ventricular.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf10-en.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>12. Prosthetic Valve Dysfunction</title>
        <p>After valve replacement surgery, periodical clinical and echocardiographic follow-up is needed for early detection of prosthesis dysfunction, as well as identification of anatomical and functional symptoms or prognostic factors.</p>
        <p>The main test for diagnosis of prosthesis dysfunction is transthoracic echocardiogram. Nonetheless, transesophageal echocardiogram and aorta angiotomography triggered with electrocardiogram (EKG) are useful especially in the evaluation of bioprosthesis thrombosis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t137">Tables 48</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t138">49</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t137">
          <label>Table 48</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 1: Diagnosis of severe prosthetic valve dysfunction</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics of severe prosthetic valve dysfunction</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Physical examination</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical signs according to the predominant type of prosthesis dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Abnormalities according to the predominant type of prosthesis dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest radiography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Abnormalities according to with the predominant prosthesis dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Transthoracic echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation the type of valve dysfunction and confirmation severity of the dysfunction</p>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>thickening of leaflets</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>calcification and mobility of leaflets</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>reduced EOA</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>transvalvular gradient</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <label>&#8211;</label>
                          <p>valve regurgitation</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of ventricular systolic dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Progressive evaluation of the cardiac chambers diameters</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Transesophageal echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Inadequate window for transthoracic echocardiogram</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe paravalvular regurgitation with favorable anatomy for percutaneous intervention</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indicated to improve anatomical evaluation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemodynamic study with manometry</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Cases of clinical and echocardiographic discordance</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Angiotomography of the aorta triggered with EKG</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of the aorta</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evaluation of bioprosthesis thrombosis and TAVI</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN110">
              <p>EOA: effective orifice area; EKG: electrocardiogram; TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve implantation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t138">
          <label>Table 49</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: Evaluation of severe prosthetic valve dysfunction etiology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiological characteristics</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Prosthesis stenosis</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>Mechanical prosthesis:</bold>
                      </p>
                      <p>thrombosis</p>
                      <p>pannus</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>Biological prosthesis:</bold>
                      </p>
                      <p>leaflets degeneration</p>
                      <p>leaflets calcification</p>
                      <p>prosthesis-patient mismatch (indexed EOA &#8804; 0.85 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Prosthesis regurgitation</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>Central:</bold>
                      </p>
                      <p>leaflets degeneration (rupture, perforation)</p>
                      <p>leaflets calcification</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>Paravalvular:</bold>
                      </p>
                      <p>infective endocarditis</p>
                      <p>annulus degeneration</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN111">
              <p>EOA: effective orifice area.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The most frequently symptom is dyspnea, resulting from pulmonary capillary congestion (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t139">Table 50</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t139">
          <label>Table 50</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 3: Evaluation of severe prosthetic valve dysfunction symptoms</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea <break/>(NYHA FC II to IV)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Pulmonary capillary congestion according to predominant dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN112">
              <p>FC: functional class; NYHA: New York Heart Association. FC: functional class; NYHA: New York Heart Association.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The definition of prognostic factors in prosthesis dysfunction is complex. Patient usually already has PH, ventricular dilation, or ventricular dysfunction as a result of prior VHD. Accordingly, the progression of these abnormalities should be taken into consideration for indication of intervention (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t140">Table 51</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t140">
          <label>Table 51</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 4: Evaluation of severe prosthetic valve dysfunction prognostic factors</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Prognostic factors</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Progression of ventricular systolic dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Progression of LV remodeling (in the event that initial diameters are elevated)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>PH</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe bioprosthesis calcification</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemolytic anemia</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Occurs in cases of severe prosthetic valve regurgitation, especially if it is paravalvular</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN113">
              <p>LV: left ventricle; PH: pulmonary hypertension.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>New procedures, such as percutaneous treatment of paravalvular regurgitation and valve-in-valve, are already included in recent guidelines (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t141">Tables 52</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t142">53</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162"><sup>162</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t141">
          <label>Table 52</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 5: Type of severe prosthetic valve dysfunction intervention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162"><sup>162</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Type</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Considerations</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Surgery (valve re-replacement)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Treatment of choice</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indications: severe prosthetic valve dysfunction, with symptoms and/or severe hemolytic anemia</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Transcatheter intervention &#8211; valve-in-valve</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mitral or aortic bioprosthesis dysfunction in symptomatic high surgical risk or inoperable patients (before Heart Team evaluation)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Percutaneous occlusion of paravalvular regurgitation</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe paravalvular regurgitation associated with hemolytic anemia or heart failure symptoms (NYHA FC III/IV), in patients with high surgical risk and favorable anatomy for the procedure</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN114">
              <p>FC: functional class.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t142">
          <label>Table 53</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Prosthetic valve dysfunction: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162"><sup>162</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Prosthesis replacement surgery</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptomatic severe prosthetic valve dysfunction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hemolytic anemia</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IB</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe asymptomatic prosthetic valve dysfunction, with low surgical risk</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN115">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Percutaneous occlusion of paravalvular regurgitation</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hemolysis or symptoms, with favorable anatomy and high surgical risk, before Heart Team evaluation.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Valve-in-valve</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe bioprosthesis dysfunction, in high surgical risk or inoperable symptomatic patients, before Heart Team evaluation.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN115">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Aortic bioprosthesis with regurgitation. AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>13. Multivalvular Disease</title>
        <p>Multivalvular disease is a primary involvement of two or more valves. This classification excludes valve involvement secondary to a primary VHD, which is the case with functional TR as a consequence of mitral valve disease and MR secondary to LV remodeling as a consequence of aortic VHD (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t143">Table 54</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t143">
          <label>Table 54</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 1: Diagnosis of severe multivalvular disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics of severe multivalvular disease</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Physical examination</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Presence of murmurs distinctly characterized as mitral and aortic &#8211; regurgitation, stenosis, or double lesion.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rule out the possibility of murmur caused by hemodynamic interference (for example, Austin-Flint murmur)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rule out the possibility of valve involvement secondary to a primary valvular heart disease (for example, TR secondary to mitral disease)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Physical examination is especially important for defining predominance of one of the valvular heart diseases</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Left ventricular hypertrophy and/or left atrial enlargement, depending on the predominant valvular heart disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>AF in severe mitral valvular heart diseases</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest radiography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Increased cardiothoracic index, especially in association with regurgitant valvular diseases</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Signs of pulmonary congestion</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Signs of right ventricular overload in associated mitral stenotic lesion</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Echocardiographic findings vary by valvular heart disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemodynamic study</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indicated when there is disagreement between clinical and echocardiographic findings</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN116">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; LV: left ventricle; TR: tricuspid regurgitation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In Brazil, multivalvular disease is the result of rheumatic involvement in most cases; there has been, however, a progressive increase in degenerative calcific mitral-aortic disease (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t144">Table 55</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t144">
          <label>Table 55</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: Evaluation of severe multivalvular disease etiology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159"><sup>159</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiological characteristics</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rheumatic fever</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&gt; 95% of cases</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Typical in young patients</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Frequent extemporaneous evolution</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptoms between 20 and 40 years</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Commissural fusion, thickening of leaflets, frequent double dysfunction &#8211; complex pathophysiology</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Impaired subvalvular apparatus</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Infective endocarditis</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Valve regurgitation due to destruction of the mitral and/or aortic apparatus</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Aortic-mitral metastatic infection</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Valvular apparatus calcification</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Elderly patients</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Associated with degenerative aortic valvular disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Calcification of the mitral valve annulus with caseous calcification</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Absence of commissural fusion</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Related to aortic and coronary calcification</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Marfan or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mitral and aortic valve regurgitation</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Investigate involvement of the ascending aorta</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Symptoms are generally associated with the most severe valvular disease, and, in cases where both are equally severe, the most proximal valvular disease tends to prevail (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t145">Table 56</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t145">
          <label>Table 56</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 3: Evaluation of symptoms</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea <break/>(NYHA FC II to IV)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Main symptom</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Initially with events that increase pulmonary capillary pressure</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be accompanied by palpitations, hemoptysis, dysphonia, dysphagia, or cough</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Associated right heart failure in patients with pulmonary hypertension</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Precordial pain</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Especially when associated with regurgitant or stenotic aortic valvular heart disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>May be caused by PH</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Low output or syncope</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Especially present with associated AS and MR</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN117">
              <p>AS: aortic stenosis; MR: mitral regurgitation; PH: pulmonary hypertension.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Prognostic factors, when present, result from the most severe valvular disease (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t146">Table 57</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t146">
          <label>Table 57</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 4: Evaluation of severe multivalvular disease prognostic factors</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Prognostic factors</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pulmonary hypertension</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Resting SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Most often present with associated MS</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptoms of right heart failure</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Related to increased surgical risk</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Recent onset AF</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Related to LA remodeling</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Increased ventricular diameters</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Consider diameters depending on the type of valve lesion</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN118">
              <p>LA: left atrium; MS: mitral stenosis; SPAP: systolic pulmonary artery pressure.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The standard treatment of mitral-aortic diseases with symptoms and/or prognostic factors is surgical; nonetheless, transcatheter strategies may be indicated in select cases, especially in patients assumed to be at high risk for conventional surgery (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t147">Tables 58</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t148">59</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t147">
          <label>Table 58</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 5: Type of severe multivalvular disease intervention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Type</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Considerations</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Cases of severe MS with favorable anatomy and moderate aortic valvular heart disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Surgical treatment (commissurotomy or valve replacement)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Conservative mitral valve surgery when stenosis is predominant</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Avoid aortic valve repair &#8211; frequent recurrence of valvular heart disease and symptoms, even with good immediate results</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Treatment of anatomically moderate valvular heart disease concomitant to intervention for severe valvular disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Transcatheter treatment &#8211; valve-in-valve</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mitral and aortic bioprosthesis dysfunction, in symptomatic patients who have high surgical risk or are inoperable (following evaluation by the Heart Team)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Transcatheter treatment &#8211; TAVI and percutaneous mitral repair</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe AS and severe primary MR, in patients with symptoms and/or prognostic factors, when there is a high surgical risk or contraindication to surgery (following evaluation by the Heart Team)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN119">
              <p>MR: mitral regurgitation; MS: mitral stenosis; TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve implantation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t148">
          <label>Table 59</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Multivalvular disease: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163"><sup>163</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165"><sup>165</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe symptomatic MS with favorable anatomy and aortic moderate lesion</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Surgical treatment/valve replacement</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptomatic multivalvular disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Multivalvular disease with prognostic factors</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Treatment of moderate valve lesion concomitant to treatment of severe valvular disease or other cardiac or ascending aorta surgery</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Transcatheter treatment &#8211; valve-in-valve</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mitral and aortic biological prosthesis dysfunction with symptoms and high surgical risk</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mitral and aortic biological prosthesis dysfunction with prognostic factors and high surgical risk</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Transcatheter treatment &#8211; TAVI and percutaneous mitral repair</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe AS and severe primary MR with symptoms and high surgical risk</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Severe AS and severe primary MR with prognostic factors and high surgical risk</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN120">
              <p>AHA: American Heart Association; AS: aortic stenosis; MR: mitral regurgitation; MS: mitral stenosis; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology); TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve implantation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>14. Evaluation of Coronary Artery Disease</title>
        <p>Before cardiac valve surgery or transcatheter intervention for VHD, patients must undergo evaluation of coronary artery disease with coronary angiography if they meet any of the following criteria: 40 years of age or older, suspected coronary artery disease (risk factors for atherosclerosis [diabetes, dyslipidemia, arterial hypertension, and others], prior events, or angina), LV dysfunction, or in order to evaluate the etiology in secondary MR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166"><sup>166</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168"><sup>168</sup></xref> Coronary tomography angiography may be used in patients with low or intermediate probability of coronary artery disease. If coronary tomography shows significant or unclear lesions, the patient should undergo coronary angiography (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t149">Table 60</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169"><sup>169</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171"><sup>171</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t149">
          <label>Table 60</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Intervention in coronary artery disease concomitant to valve Intervention: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166"><sup>166</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171"><sup>171</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Myocardial revascularization surgery</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Indication of valve surgery and coronary lesion &#8805; 70%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Coronary angioplasty</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Indication of transcatheter valve intervention and coronary lesion &#8805; 70% in a proximal segment</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN121">
              <p>AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>15. Anticoagulation</title>
        <p>The two prognostic factors with the greatest impact on the natural history of valve disease are hemodynamic repercussions and thromboembolism. Stroke is the most clinically significant thromboembolic event, affecting up to 20% of individuals with AF associated with valve disease. The CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc score is recommended for decision making regarding anticoagulation, except for patients with rheumatic MS or those with mechanical prostheses. The criteria for anticoagulation are the same for patients with paroxysmal, persistent, or permanent AF. The main indications for anticoagulation are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t150">Table 61</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t150">
          <label>Table 61</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Indications for oral anticoagulation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172"><sup>172</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183"><sup>183</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Medication</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="5">Native valve</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>MS with AF and/or LA thrombus<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN122">*</xref></p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Warfarin</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other valvular heart diseases with AF</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Previous embolic event without AF</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="5">
                  <bold>Biological prosthesis</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>AF</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Sinus rhythm &#8211; mitral bioprosthesis</p>
                      <p>(first 3 to 6 months)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Sinus rhythm &#8211; aortic bioprosthesis</p>
                      <p>(first 3 to 6 months)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="5">
                  <bold>TAVI</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="4">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>AF</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA + clopidogrel</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="4">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Sinus rhythm</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B (3 months)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C (3 months)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA or clopidogrel, indefinitely</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA + clopidogrel, 3 to 6 months</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Sinus rhythm + angioplasty with stent (chronic coronary artery disease)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ASA + clopidogrel up to 12 months, according to stent type</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>AF + angioplasty with stent (chronic coronary artery disease)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOAC + clopidogrel</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin + ASA + clopidogrel 1 month, followed by warfarin + clopidogrel up to 12 months</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIb C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="5">
                  <bold>Mechanical prosthesis</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="4"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I A</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOACs</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin + routine ASA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">III C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Warfarin + ASA after a thromboembolic event within therapeutic INR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN122">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Consider anticoagulation with warfarin in individuals with MS and episodes of sustained atrial tachycardia or enlarged LA (&#8805; 50 mm anteroposterior diameter or &#8805; 50 ml/m&#178; LA volume) and spontaneous contrast. AF: atrial fibrillation; AHA: American Heart Association; ASA: acetylsalicylic acid; DOACs: direct oral anticoagulants; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; INR: international normalized ratio; LA: left atrium; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology); TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve implantation.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Oral anticoagulation, as a means of preventing thromboembolic events in patients with valve disease, is still predominantly carried out with vitamin K antagonists (VKA); warfarin currently represents this class of drugs in Brazil. It is a safe strategy to start warfarin at a dose of 5 mg/day in individuals under 65 years of age and 2.5 mg/day in individuals over 65 years. Prothrombin time should be measured on the third day to evaluate hyper-responsiveness to the medication and again on the fifth day, after which the dose proceeds to be adjusted. During this phase, exams should be carried out at 5-day intervals until the therapeutic level has been reached. The international normalized ratio (INR) should remain between 2.0 and 3.0, except in patients who have mechanical prostheses in the mitral position, aortic mechanical prosthesis associated with AF, hypercoagulable states, and cardioembolic events while INR is between 2.0 and 3.0. In these cases, the target becomes 2.5 to 3.5. INR control is usually performed on a monthly basis; in patients whose doses have been sTable for a long time and who have not been exposed to any new factors that interact with warfarin (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t151">Table 62</xref>), the control may be done every two months. In the event that INR is above the target, a new exam should be performed on an earlier basis, in 1 to 2 weeks. Dose adjustments should be, on average, 10% to 15% of the weekly dose, and it is necessary to investigate which factors caused the oscillation in INR. Monitoring of prothrombin time with point of care devices provides quick and reliable information; its availability, however, is still limited due to the high cost of the device and the strips.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t151">
          <label>Table 62</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Warfarin dose adjustments</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">INR value</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Dose adjustment</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8804; 1.5</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Increase weekly dose by 15%</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">1.51 &#8211; 1.99</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Increase weekly dose by 10%</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">2 &#8211; 3<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN123">*</xref></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Maintain dose</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3.01 &#8211; 4.0</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Reduce weekly dose by 15%</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">4.01 &#8211; 4.99</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Suspend 1 dose and reduce weekly dose by 10%</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">5.0 &#8211; 8.99</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Suspend warfarin until INR is 2 to 3 then start again with weekly dose reduced by 15%</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8805; 9.00</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hospitalization, suspend warfarin for an average of 4 days, prescribe vitamin K at a dose of 1 to 2.5 mg orally, repeating 24 to 48 hours later if INR does not decrease to &lt; 5.0, and restart anticoagulation once INR is close to target value (below 4)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN123">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Consider maintaining the weekly dose of warfarin with INR up to 3.5, provided that the medication has not been initiated recently, and perform new measurement in 1 to 2 weeks. In case of the therapeutic INR goal is between 2.5 and 3.5, dose adjustments should occur adding 0.5 to the above values, with the exception of INR &#8805; 9.0. INR: international normalized ratio.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>It is known that greater time in therapeutic range (TTR) is associated with lower risk of thromboembolic events and bleeding. In a study including 119 patients with mitral valve disease and AF, 78.2% of individuals had INR &lt; 2.0 at the time of the thromboembolic event. For INR values &lt; 1.7 the likelihood doubled, and it tripled for values &lt; 1.5. The difficulties of managing VKA are result of the wide variability in individual dose and interactions with foods and medications, in addition to the need for frequent monitoring. Patients should be advised to avoid alcohol consumption and to maintain a balanced diet, especially in relation to foods that are rich in vitamin K, such as greens and vegetables. These foods should not be excluded from the dietary routine.</p>
        <p>Over the past years, the role of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) has progressively increased. Dosages of medications available in Brazil can be found in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t152">Table 63</xref>. Multiple clinical trials involving patients with VHD are underway. Most of the current information is from analyses of subgroups of the main studies on DOACs, as well as retrospective cohort studies.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t152">
          <label>Table 63</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Dose of direct oral anticoagulants for prophylaxis of thromboembolic events in atrial fibrillation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177"><sup>177</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180"><sup>180</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Anticoagulant</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Usual dose</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Dose adjustment</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Contraindications</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dabigatran</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">150 mg twice daily</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805; 80 years of age and/or high risk of bleeding: 110 mg twice daily</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Creatinine clearance &lt; 30 mL/min, concomitant use of ketoconazole</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rivaroxaban</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">20 mg once daily</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">15 mg once daily if creatinine clearance is &lt; 50 mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Creatinine clearance &lt; 15 mL/min, hepatic disease associated with coagulopathy</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Apixaban</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">5 mg twice daily</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">2.5 mg twice daily in patients with at least 2 of the following criteria: age &#8805; 80 years, body weight &#8804; 60 kg, or serum creatinine &#8805; 1.5 mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Creatinine clearance &lt; 15 mL/min, hepatic disease associated with coagulopathy</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Edoxaban</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">60 mg once daily</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">30 mg once daily</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Creatinine clearance &gt; 95 mL/min or &lt; 15 mL/min</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In patients with mechanical prostheses, pre-clinical trials involving animals have suggested that the use of DOACs could be as safe as warfarin. However, the clinical Dabigatran versus Warfarin in Patients with Mechanical Heart Valves (RE-ALIGN) study, which compared dabigatran and warfarin, was prematurely terminated due to greater occurrence of the combined outcome of stroke, transient ischemic attack, systemic embolism, myocardial infarction, and death (9% versus 5%; hazard ratio 1.94, 95% CI 0.64 to 5.86) and bleeding (27% versus 12%, p &lt; 0.05) in the first group. The study included 252 patients, and it used dabigatran at doses of 150, 220, and 300 mg, administered every 12 hours, according to creatinine clearance, with dose adjustments for serum level above 50 ng/mL. For this reason, we do not indicate the use of DOACs in patients with mechanical prostheses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176"><sup>176</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Although the large clinical trials that have validated the use of DOACs in AF excluded individuals with severe MS and mechanical valve prostheses, these studies did include individuals with other VHD. In the Apixaban versus Warfarin in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation (ARISTOTLE) study, 26.4% of participants had moderate or severe VHD; in the Dabigatran versus Warfarin in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation (RE-LY) study, 21.8%; in the Rivaroxaban versus Warfarin in Nonvalvular Atrial Fibrillation (ROCKET AF) study, 14.1%; and, finally, in the Edoxaban versus Warfarin in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation (ENGAGE AF) study, 13%. Subanalyses of these studies suggest the efficacy of DOACs in comparison with warfarin in individuals with AF and valve disease, excluding patients with mechanical prostheses and severe MS. The ARISTOTLE and ENGAGE-AF studies included individuals with bioprostheses. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177"><sup>177</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180"><sup>180</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Notwithstanding the negative results in individuals with mechanical valve prostheses, dabigatran has been shown to be effective in preventing intracardiac thrombus formation in individuals with aortic and/or mitral biological prosthesis in a Brazilian single-center study, Dabigatran Versus Warfarin After Bioprosthesis Valve Replacement for the Management of Atrial Fibrillation Postoperatively (DAWA).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175"><sup>175</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A South Korean cohort with 2,230 patients evaluated individuals with AF and MS of different etiologies and degrees of anatomical severity, comparing off-label use of DOACs in relation to warfarin. Ischemic events occurred in 2.22% yearly in the DOAC group versus 4.19% yearly in the warfarin group (hazard ratio 0.28; 95% CI 0.18 to 0.45), and intracranial bleeding occurred in 0.49% in the DOAC group versus 0.93% in the warfarin group (hazard ratio 0.53; 95% CI 0.22 to 1.26). This study reinforces the hypothesis of the efficacy of DOACs in MS. Attention should be paid to the fact that TTR of INR was not evaluated in this cohort. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B181"><sup>181</sup></xref> In a multi-center observational study, Korean patients had only 31% of INR values within the therapeutic target.</p>
        <p>The first antithrombotic regimen adopted for individuals undergoing TAVI in sinus rhythm was dual antiplatelet therapy with ASA and clopidogrel for 6 months, inferring from experience with stents and based on the expected period for endothelialization of the prosthesis to occur. In a meta-analysis of three recent small clinical trials, antiplatelet therapy with ASA or clopidogrel alone did not show an increase in 30-day mortality (odds ratio 5.2 versus 3.2%, p = 0.447) or ischemic events (3.8 versus 3.8%, p = 0.999), when compared with dual antiplatelet therapy; furthermore, there was a higher chance of bleeding in the dual antiplatelet therapy group (odds ratio 2.24; 95% CI 1.12 to 4.46; p = 0.022). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173"><sup>173</sup></xref></p>
        <p>There is evidence, from transesophageal echocardiogram and computed tomography angiography, of the occurrence of thickening of the leaflets after TAVI in up to 13% of patients, which may correspond to the formation of thrombi, and it has been associated with increased incidence of transient ischemic attack and stroke.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174"><sup>174</sup></xref> Observational cohort studies where individuals received VKA or DOACs have indicated that the use of these medications could be safe for prevention of events. However, the recently published multi-center Global Study Comparing a Rivaroxaban-based Antithrombotic Strategy to an Antiplatelet-based Strategy After Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement to Optimize Clinical Outcomes (GALILEO) study, which included 1,644 patients without established indication for dual antiplatelet therapy or anticoagulation, comparing the use of rivaroxaban 10 mg/day (associated with ASA 75 &#8211; 100 mg/day during the first 3 months) versus ASA 75 &#8211; 100 mg (associated with clopidogrel 75 mg/day during the first 3 months). The study was prematurely terminated due to greater occurrence of thrombotic events (9.8 and 7.2 per 100 person-years; hazard ratio 1.35, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.81; p = 0.04), bleeding (4.3 and 2.8 per 100 person-years; hazard ratio 1.5, 95% CI 0.95 to 2.37; p = 0.08), and death (5.8 and 3.4 per 100 person-years; hazard ratio 1.69, 95% CI 1.13 to 2.53) in the rivaroxaban group. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172"><sup>172</sup></xref></p>
        <sec>
          <title>15.1. Surgical Procedures</title>
          <p>In surgical procedures with low risk of bleeding, where hemostasis is possible, such as cataract surgery, glaucoma surgery, small dermatological surgeries, dental or gum surgeries, periodontal scraping and simultaneous extraction of up to 3 teeth, it is suggested to maintain oral anticoagulation. In the case of warfarin, INR should be within the therapeutic range, as measured 24 to 48 hours before the procedure. In the case of DOACs, ideally, the procedure should not be performed during the hours following use of these medications, in order to avoid their peak plasma concentrations.</p>
          <p>With respect to procedures that imply higher risk of bleeding due to the size of the surgery or difficulty in achieving hemostasis, heparin bridging is indicated in individuals using VKA. These procedures include coronary angiography, endoscopy or colonoscopy with polypectomy, postectomy, vasectomy, internal organ biopsies, and larger surgeries. In these cases, warfarin should be suspended during the 5 days preceding the procedure, starting heparin 3 days before the procedure. In the case of low molecular weight heparin, the last dose should be administered 24 hours before the procedure, and unfractionated heparin should be suspended 4 to 6 hours before the surgery. Heparin is generally reintroduced 12 hours later, provided that hemostasis is adequate. Warfarin is, generally, restarted on the following day. INR should be measured in 5 days, and heparin should be suspended as soon as the therapeutic target has been reached. In emergency surgeries, 50 IU/kg prothrombinic complex should, ideally, be administered intravenously.</p>
          <p>The rapid onset of action of DOACs (2 to 4 hours) and their short elimination half-life dispense with the need of using a heparin bridge. For elective procedures with low risk of bleeding, suspension is recommended 24 hours before surgery, and, in cases with elevated risk of bleeding or sites with difficult hemostasis, the recommendation is to suspend 48 hours before. In emergency surgery, use of the antidote idarucizumab is recommended in individuals using dabigatran, with a total dose of 5 g endovenously (two 2.5-g aliquots). Andexanet alfa (Andexxa), an antidote to factor Xa inhibitors, is not yet available in Brazil.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>16. Prosthetic Valve Thrombosis</title>
        <p>Prosthetic valve thrombosis is an uncommon event; it is more frequent in mechanical prostheses, especially in the mitral position, and it is associated with high morbimortality. It may be asymptomatic or it may manifest with heart failure syndrome, low output, and even death. Diagnosis and suspicion are usually made after transthoracic echocardiogram, and they may be confirmed by the transesophageal method (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t153">Tables 64</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t154">65</xref>, and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t155">66</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t153">
          <label>Table 64</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 1: Diagnosis of prosthetic valve thrombosis</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics of prosthesis thrombosis</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Clinical evaluation</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Symptoms and signs suggestive of acute or exacerbated heart failure (dyspnea, chest pain, low output, or syncope)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Murmur compatible with stenotic valvular heart disease</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Muffled clicking sound</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Possibility of ineffective anticoagulation (INR outside therapeutic range)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Compatible with the baseline disease that was the reason for valve surgery</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rarely shows acute alteration</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest radiography</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Compatible with the baseline disease that was the reason for valve surgery</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rarely shows acute alteration of the cardiac silhouette</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Pulmonary congestion may be present</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Key test for diagnosis</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Ideally transesophageal</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Documentation of thrombus adhering to the prosthesis, identification of location and size of the thrombosis</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemodynamic study (fluoroscopy)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Inadequate mobility of one or more leaflets of the mechanical prosthesis</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN124">
              <p>INR: international normalized ratio.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t154">
          <label>Table 65</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: Evaluation of prosthetic valve thrombosis etiology</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiological characteristics</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ineffective anticoagulation</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Interruption of anticoagulation</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Drug/behavioral interaction</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>INR below therapeutic target</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN125">
              <p>INR: international normalized ratio.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t155">
          <label>Table 66</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 3: Evaluation of prosthetic valve thrombosis symptoms</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Main symptom</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Distinguish between mild worsening (NYHA FC I) and more evident symptoms (NYHA FC II to IV)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Precordial pain</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Possibility of coronary embolism</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Low output or syncope</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Indicative of a severe obstruction</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN126">
              <p>FC: functional class.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The main prognostic factor of thrombosis is thrombus size, due to the risk of embolism and valve obstruction (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t156">Table 67</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t156">
          <label>Table 67</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 4: Evaluation of prosthetic valve thrombosis prognostic factors</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Prognostic factors</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">High risk of embolization associated with thrombolysis</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Thrombus &gt; 8 mm</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mobile thrombus (pedunculated)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pulmonary hypertension</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Resting SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>More frequent when there is associated MS</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinically &#8211; symptoms of right heart failure</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Related to increased surgical risk</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Recent onset AF</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Related to significant LA remodeling</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN127">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; LA: left atrium; MS: mitral stenosis; SPAP: systolic pulmonary artery pressure.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The recommendations of international guidelines are heterogeneous in relation to treatment, and there is a lack of randomized studies in this area (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t157">Tables 68</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t158">69</xref>). In prosthesis thrombosis without significant hemodynamic repercussion (NYHA FC I and II), without valve obstruction on complementary tests, oral anticoagulation and outpatient monitoring with imaging are indicated. In the event of a large (especially greater than 8 mm) and/or mobile thrombus, which has an elevated risk of embolization, hospitalization with parenteral anticoagulation is indicated. In the event that the thrombus is not reduced on imaging tests, performed every 5 to 7 days, fibrinolysis and/or surgery may be considered.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184"><sup>184</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185"><sup>185</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t157">
          <label>Table 68</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 5: Type of prosthetic valve thrombosis intervention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184"><sup>184</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185"><sup>185</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Type</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Considerations</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Thrombolysis</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Priority therapy</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>rTPA 10 mg (bolus), followed by 90 mg in 2 hours OR Streptokinase 500,000 IU in 20 minutes, followed by 1,500,000 IU in 10 hours</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Valve surgery</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Reserved for cases with high risk of hemorrhagic or embolic complications associated with thrombolysis</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN128">
              <p>rTPA: recombinant tissue plasminogen activator.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t158">
          <label>Table 69</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Prosthesis thrombosis: Recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184"><sup>184</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185"><sup>185</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">SBC</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">AHA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">ESC</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Thrombolysis</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Valve thrombosis in a right chamber</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Small thrombus (&lt; 0.8 cm&#178;), NYHA FC I to III, left chambers if the thrombus persists after parenteral anticoagulation</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Valve surgery</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>NYHA FC IV, left chambers</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IB</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I B</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">I C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Mobile or large (&gt; 0.8 cm&#178;) thrombus, left chambers</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa C <break/>(thrombus &gt; 10 mm)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN129">
              <p>AHA: American Heart Association; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; FC: functional class; NYHA: New York Heart Association; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In cases where there is a more significant hemodynamic impairment (NYHA FC III and IV), fibrinolytic therapy or valve surgery is usually indicated. Recently, there has been a trend to prioritize fibrinolysis over surgery, based on data from a meta-analysis of 48 studies. When deciding on these two strategies, discussion with the Heart Team is recommended, and the risks of fibrinolysis (preferred procedure) and surgery should be weighed individually. The following factors make fibrinolysis favorable: high surgical risk, low risk of bleeding, involvement of the right valves, first episode of valve thrombosis, and thrombus smaller than 1 cm&#178;. If there is hemodynamic instability, the treatment of choice is surgery, and fibrinolysis may be considered in individuals with elevated surgical risk. The following factors make surgical procedure favorable: contraindication to fibrinolysis, high risk of bleeding, low surgical risk, suspicion of pannus associated with thrombosis, and need for other concomitant cardiac surgical procedures (for example, myocardial revascularization).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184"><sup>184</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185"><sup>185</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>17. Prophylaxis of Rheumatic Fever</title>
        <p>RF and consequent chronic rheumatic heart disease remain the most important cause of acquired VHD in Brazil. Rheumatic disease is one of the most costly diseases for the Brazilian Unified Health System and the community in general, because it affects very young individuals, and it frequently leads to multiple hospitalizations and surgeries. It continues to be the main cause of acquired VHD in Brazil. The goal of decreasing its incidence is of the utmost importance, considering that it is certainly the most easily prevenTable cardiovascular disease.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>17.1. Primary Prophylaxis of Rheumatic Fever</title>
          <p>In order to decrease the incidence of RF, the measure with the greatest impact is primary prophylaxis, preventing susceptible individuals from contracting the disease (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t159">Tables 70</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t160">71</xref>). We have recently encountered serious difficulties in carrying out primary prophylaxis; supplies of benzathine penicillin G are unreliable, with frequent shortages of the medication. Furthermore, restrictions on locations where the medication may be administered, due to concerns regarding allergic reactions and lack of familiarity with intramuscular application on the part of primary healthcare professionals, have made it increasingly difficult to perform primary prophylaxis via the intramuscular route. This fact will certainly contribute to increased incidence of the disease in the coming years.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t159">
            <label>Table 70</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Medications and posology indicated for streptococcal pharyngotonsillitis &#8211; primary prophylaxis of rheumatic fever<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186"><sup>186</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193"><sup>193</sup></xref></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="20%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Medication</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Dose</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Route of administration / <break/>Duration</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Comments</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Penicillins and derivatives</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Benzathine benzylpenicillin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">600,000 IU up to 25 kg, 1,200,000 IU over 25 kg</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Intramuscular <break/>Single dose</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Medication of choice: single dose, high efficacy and low cost</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Amoxicillin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">50 mg/kg for children and 1.5g daily for adults, divided in 2 to 3 doses</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Oral <break/>10 days</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Low adherence to complete treatment</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Phenoxymethylpenicillin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">250 mg 2 to 3 times daily up to 25 kg, 500 mg 3 times daily &gt; 25 kg</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Oral <break/>10 days</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Low adherence to complete treatment</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="5">For patients who have allergy to penicillin</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Clindamycin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">20 mg/kg divided 3 times daily, adults: 300 to 600 mg 3 times daily</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Oral 10 days</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Frequent gastrointestinal intolerance</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Azithromycin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">12 mg/kg in a single daily dose. For adults, 500 mg once daily</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Oral <break/>5 days</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">The only oral antibiotic therapy that may eradicate streptococcus in less than 10 days</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Clarithromycin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">15 mg/kg twice daily or, for adults, 250 mg twice daily</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Oral <break/>10 days</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t160">
            <label>Table 71</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for primary prophylaxis of rheumatic fever<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186"><sup>186</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193"><sup>193</sup></xref></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Class I</bold>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Benzathine benzylpenicillin in patients with streptococcal tonsillitis</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Benzathine benzylpenicillin in patients with suspected streptococcal tonsillitis, even without diagnostic confirmation</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Oral antibiotic therapy in patients with streptococcal tonsillitis who are allergic to penicillin</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Class IIa</bold>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Use of oral antibiotics for treatment of streptococcal pharyngotonsillitis in patients who are not allergic to penicillin</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Rapid tests to detect streptococci in the oropharynx in order to make the decision regarding treatment with penicillin.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Class III</bold>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Oropharynx culture in patients with suspected tonsillitis in order to make the decision regarding treatment with penicillin.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Oral therapies should not be used routinely, because 10 days of therapy are generally necessary in order to completely eradicate streptococci from the oropharynx. For this reason, there is a very high risk of non-adherence to the complete treatment, placing patients at the risk of developing a rheumatic attack. Treatments based on 5 days of azithromycin have been proposed, but there are still no clinical studies validating its use in pharyngotonsillitis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186"><sup>186</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193"><sup>193</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>17.2. Secondary Prophylaxis of Rheumatic Fever</title>
          <p>For patients who have already been diagnosed with RF, secondary prophylaxis is indicated in order to prevent new attacks of acute RF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t161">Tables 72</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t162">73</xref>). The drug of choice is benzathine benzylpenicillin, at the same doses of 600,000 IU for children weighing up to 27 kg and 1,200,000 IU above this weight, at a maximum interval of three weeks. Monthly applications of benzathine penicillin do not promote adequate protection in patients with rheumatic disease in countries with high endemicity of the disease, like Brazil.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194"><sup>194</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198"><sup>198</sup></xref> For patients who are allergic to penicillin, sulfadiazine is indicated at a dose of 1 g daily, and it is necessary to control possible leukopenic conditions.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t161">
            <label>Table 72</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Secondary prophylaxis of rheumatic fever: Recommended medications and posology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194"><sup>194</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200"><sup>200</sup></xref></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Medication</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Dose and frequency</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Recurrence / <break/>Notes</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Benzathine benzylpenicillin G</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 25 kg &#8211; 600,000 IU <break/><break/>&gt; 25 kg &#8211; 1,200,000 IU <break/>Every 15 days during the first two years after the attack <break/>Every 21 days during subsequent years</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Recurrence of 0.3% yearly <break/>Medication of choice</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Phenoxymethylpenicillin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">250 mg orally twice daily</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Recurrence of 5%/year <break/>Should not be used as an alternative to benzathine penicillin G</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">For patients who have allergy to penicillin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Sulfadiazine</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 25 kg &#8211; 500 mg daily <break/>&gt; 25 kg &#8211; 1 g daily</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Recurrence of 1.3% yearly <break/>May be used until penicillin desensitization is concluded</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">For patients who have allergy to penicillin and sulfadiazine</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Erythromycin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">250 mg twice daily</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Empirical regimen of prophylaxis, has not been the subject of studies on secondary prophylaxis of RF &#8211; should only be used in exceptional cases</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN130">
                <p>RF: rheumatic fever.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t162">
            <label>Table 73</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for secondary prophylaxis of rheumatic fever<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194"><sup>194</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200"><sup>200</sup></xref></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Class I</bold>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Benzathine benzylpenicillin G for secondary prophylaxis of RF, every 15 days during the first two years after the attack and every 21 days during the following years.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Use of benzathine benzylpenicillin G until 18 years of age, or 5 years after the last attack in patients with RF without carditis.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Use of benzathine benzylpenicillin G until 25 years of age, or 10 years after the last attack in patients with RF and carditis, without cardiac sequelae or mild sequelae, provided that there are no stenotic lesions.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Use of benzathine benzylpenicillin G until 40 years of age in patients with RF and carditis, with severe sequelae or cardiac surgery to correct valvular heart disease.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Use of benzathine benzylpenicillin G after 40 years of age in patients who are occupationally exposed to streptococci.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Sulfadiazine for antibiotic prophylaxis of RF in patients who are allergic to penicillin</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Class IIa</bold>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Use of oral antibiotic prophylaxis for patients with RF who are not allergic to penicillin</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Class IIb</bold>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Use of erythromycin for antibiotic prophylaxis for patients with RF who are allergic to penicillin and sulfa medications</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Class III</bold>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Suspension of antibiotic prophylaxis for RF after cardiac surgery with implantation of valve prosthesis, even when other valves do not have apparent lesions.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN131">
                <p>RF: rheumatic fever.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Considering the recent shortage of benzathine penicillin G, the alternative is sulfadiazine, which is frequently available for rheumatologic diseases in the public health system and is listed in high-cost medication regimens. We must also remember that only benzathine penicillin G and sulfadiazine have proven efficacy for secondary prophylaxis of RF, based on controlled studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199"><sup>199</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200"><sup>200</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>17.3. Criteria for Suspending Prophylaxis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t163">Table 74</xref>)</title>
          <table-wrap id="t163">
            <label>Table 74</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Duration of secondary prophylaxis of rheumatic fever</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Category</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Duration</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">RF without carditis: clinical of pure arthritis or chorea</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Until 18 years of age or 5 years after the last attack of RF, whichever is longer</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">RF with carditis, without sequelae or with very mild valvular sequelae (excluding stenotic lesions, even if they are very mild)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Until 25 years of age or 10 years after the last attack</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">RF with carditis and severe sequelae; patients undergoing cardiac surgery</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Until 40 years of age, at least; lifelong if occupationally exposed</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN132">
                <p>RF: rheumatic fever.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Patients without cardiac involvement, with only joint manifestation or &#8220;pure&#8221; chorea &#8211; suspend at 18 years of age or 5 years after the last rheumatic attack;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Patients with carditis during the acute attack who do not have late sequelae or who have very mild sequelae &#8211; suspend at 25 years of age or 10 years after the last rheumatic attack;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>In patients whose prophylaxis is suspended and symptoms recur, prophylaxis should be maintained for 5 more years.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Patients with even mild cardiac involvement should receive prolonged prophylaxis, preferably lifelong; when this is not possible, until the fourth decade life. When deciding to suspend the prophylaxis, we must always investigate occupational exposure to sources of streptococci.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>18. Prophylaxis of Infective Endocarditis in VHD</title>
        <p>IE is a severe complication of VHD, and it is frequently fatal. For this reason, when prophylaxis is possible, it should be applied. For this purpose, several antibiotic regimens have been utilized, with little evidence from controlled studies, mainly due to the difficulty of conducting large controlled studies with medications that are already in the public domain.</p>
        <p>Streptococci are part of the normal oropharynx and gastrointestinal tract flora, and they cause at least 50% of acquired IE cases in the Brazilian community. Bacteremia due to viridans streptococci has been demonstrated in up to 61% of patients following tooth extraction and periodontal surgery (36% to 88%), and experimental studies in animals have shown that antibiotic prophylaxis was capable of avoiding IE due to viridans streptococci and enterococci.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B201"><sup>201</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202"><sup>202</sup></xref></p>
        <p>More recently, it has been observed that spontaneous bacteremia, especially originating in the teeth and gums, occurs in everyday situations. Thus, ordinary routine activities, such as tooth brushing (0% to 50%), use of dental floss (20% to 68%), use of toothpicks, and even chewing during meals (7% to 51%), are associated with bacteremia. In this manner, the burden of spontaneous bacteremia, not caused by dental intervention, would be higher than that caused by dental treatments. A theoretical study of cumulative bacteremia, lasting approximately one year, calculated that everyday bacteremia is six times greater than bacteremia caused by isolated tooth extraction. Considering that dental prophylaxis indications recommend two annual visits to the dentist, everyday activities have a greater impact on the generation of bacteremia than dental intervention itself. Recent epidemiological studies have not shown a relation between dental treatment two weeks before and episodes of IE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B203"><sup>203</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208"><sup>208</sup></xref></p>
        <p>For this reason, maintenance of optimal oral health in patients with VHD is more important than prophylaxis before dental procedures. Patients with good oral health have lower chances of bacteremia from everyday activities. We must, thus, focus more on non-pharmacological prevention than on pharmacological prophylaxis. Part of non-pharmacological prophylaxis of IE is to reinforce, during all consultations, the need to maintain excellent oral health and to increase the frequency of dental consultations, from two (recommendation for the general population) to four times a year. It is necessary to underline that many of the dental conditions that most frequently cause IE are oligosymptomatic, such as gingivitis and periapical endodontic lesions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209"><sup>209</sup></xref></p>
        <p>For patients undergoing dental interventions, there is growing evidence that antibiotic prophylaxis prevents only a very small number of cases of IE. There is, however, recent evidence that completely abolishing antibiotic prophylaxis could lead to increased incidence of IE. The British National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) proposed that prophylaxis of IE should not be applied on any occasion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210"><sup>210</sup></xref> As a consequence, a decrease was observed in the prescription of antibiotic prophylaxis before dental treatments, followed by an increase in the number of cases of IE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211"><sup>211</sup></xref> We thus have empirical evidence that completely abolishing antibiotic prophylaxis could lead to an increase in cases of IE. We accordingly recommend maintaining antibiotic prophylaxis before dental, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary procedures.</p>
        <p>All patients with moderate to severe VHD, whether of rheumatic or degenerative etiology, and patients with prosthetic valves should receive non-pharmacological and pharmacological prophylaxis for IE, once all patients with IE have high morbimortality.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>18.1. Non-pharmacological Prophylaxis of Infective Endocarditis</title>
          <p>Non-pharmacological prophylaxis of IE may be more effective than pharmacological prophylaxis, as it acts toward primary prevention of proven sources of bacteremia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t164">Table 75</xref>). As priority measures for patients with VHD, we highlight maintaining excellent oral health and avoiding invasive body art procedures, such as piercings and tattoos.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t164">
            <label>Table 75</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Non-pharmacological prophylaxis of infective endocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">During medical consultations, reinforce the need to maintain good oral health and appropriate hygiene habits</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Quarterly dental consultations</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Tattoo</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Skin piercings</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Piercings of the tongue and mucous membranes</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Body art (procedures such as tattoos and piercings) should be contraindicated. Piercings lead to the formation of a tract that needs to be epithelialized, and until that process is complete, it is a source of continuous bacteremia, with many reports of IE related to piercings in the literature, some of them with fatal outcomes. It is important for patients to be informed regarding the risks of this procedure, in the same manner that physicians should always cover this issue when treating patients who have or intend to have body art.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B212"><sup>212</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>18.2. Prophylaxis of Infective Endocarditis for Dental Procedures (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t165">Tables 76</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t166">77</xref>, and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t167">78</xref>)</title>
          <table-wrap id="t165">
            <label>Table 76</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Indications of prophylaxis for dental procedures</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">High likelihood of significant bacteremia</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Without high likelihood of significant bacteremia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="7">Procedures that involve manipulation of gum or periodontal tissue or perforation of oral mucosa.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Local anesthesia in non-infected tissue</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Dental radiography</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Placement or removal of orthodontic appliances</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Adjustment of orthodontic appliances</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Placement of parts in orthodontic appliances</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Natural loss of deciduous teeth</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Bleeding due to trauma of the oral mucosa or the lips</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t166">
            <label>Table 77</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Antibiotic prophylaxis of IE in VHD</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Indication</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients with moderate and severe valvular heart disease, or patients with prosthetic valves, who will undergo dental procedures with high likelihood of significant bacteremia.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients with an elevated risk of severe infective endocarditis<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN133">*</xref> who will undergo genitourinary or gastrointestinal procedures associated with lesion of the mucosa.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients with elevated risk of severe infective endocarditis<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN133">*</xref> who will undergo esophagus or respiratory tract procedures associated with lesion of the mucosa.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients with MVP without regurgitation, patients after myocardial revascularization surgery or stent placement, patients with functional heart murmur, patients with pacemaker or defibrillator, patients with Kawasaki disease or RF without valvular dysfunction, who will undergo dental, respiratory tract, genitourinary, or gastrointestinal procedures.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients undergoing procedures that do not involve risk of bacteremia.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN133">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Elevated risk of severe IE: prosthetic heart valve; prior IE; congenital heart disease that is unrepaired, partially corrected, or corrected with prosthetic material; heart transplant with VHD. MVP: mitral valve prolapse.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t167">
            <label>Table 78</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Regimens for prophylaxis of infective endocarditis before dental procedures</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Route of administration</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Medication</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Single dose 1 hour before the procedure</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Children</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Adults</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Oral</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Amoxicillin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">50 mg/kg</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2 g</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Oral (penicillin allergy)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Clindamycin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">20 mg/kg</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">600 mg</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Azithromycin or clarithromycin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">15 mg/kg</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">500 mg</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Parenteral (endovenous or intramuscular)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Ampicillin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">50 mg/kg</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2 g</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Cefazolin or ceftriaxone</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">50 mg/kg</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1 g</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Parenteral (endovenous or intramuscular) (penicillin allergy)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Clindamycin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">20 mg/kg</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">600 mg</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>The antibiotic should be administered one hour before the procedure. The regimen used should prevent bacteremia due to streptococci viridans, whenever tissue from the gums or the periapical region of the tooth is to be manipulated. The antibiotic of choice, if the patient is not allergic, is amoxicillin, due to its adequate absorption and to the susceptibility of the infectious agent. However, resistance to the antibiotic has been reported in several strains of the microorganism. For patients who are allergic to penicillin, the following may be used: clindamycin, azithromycin, or clarithromycin.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>18.3. Prophylaxis of Infective Endocarditis for Respiratory Tract Procedures</title>
          <p>Patients who will undergo incision or biopsy of the mucosa of the respiratory tract, such as otorhinolaryngological surgery, should receive antibiotic regimens similar to those used for conditions affecting the mouth.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>18.4. Prophylaxis of Infective Endocarditis for Genitourinary or Gastrointestinal Tract Procedures</title>
          <p>Enterococci are part of the the gastrointestinal tract flora, and they can cause IE. Thus, considering the lack of adequate scientific evidence, American and European guidelines no longer indicate antibiotic prophylaxis before interventions in these locations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213"><sup>213</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214"><sup>214</sup></xref> Though, considering the severity of an eventual occurrence of IE by these sources, in the current document, we have chosen to consider prophylaxis for patients with high risk of severe IE who will undergo genitourinary or gastrointestinal procedures associated with mucosal injury. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t168">Table 79</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215"><sup>215</sup></xref> In the presence of infections that have installed in the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, treatment should include antibiotics that act against enterococcus.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t168">
            <label>Table 79</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Parenteral antibiotic prophylaxis for procedures in the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="20%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Route of administration</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Medication</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">Single dose 1 hour before the procedure</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Children</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Adults</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Parenteral (intravenous)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Ampicillin +</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">50 mg/kg</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2 g</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Gentamicin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">1.5 mg/kg</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Parenteral (intravenous) - penicillin allergy</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Vancomycin +</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">20 mg/kg</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1 g</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Gentamicin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">1.5 mg/kg</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>19. Pregnancy, Family Planning, and Contraception</title>
        <sec>
          <title>19.1. Pre-Pregnancy Counseling</title>
          <p>Risk stratification of valve diseases during pregnancy planning must be based on anatomical diagnosis of the valve lesion in order to classify the risks of pregnancy as high, intermediate, or accepTable (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t169">Table 80</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t169">
            <label>Table 80</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Classification of risks of valve diseases to pregnancy</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">High risk</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Intermediate risk</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">AccepTable risk</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Severe MS</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Biological prosthesis with moderate dysfunction</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Mild valve disease</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Severe AS <break/>Stenotic/calcified biological prosthesis <break/>Mechanical prosthesis with dysfunction</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Pulmonary valve stenosis</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Biological prosthesis without dysfunction</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Mitral mechanical prosthesis &gt; Aortic mechanical prosthesis</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">No prognostic factors</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN134">
                <p>AS: aortic stenosis; MS: mitral stenosis.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Concomitance of prognostic factors should be considered as worsening maternal and fetal prognosis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t170">Table 81</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216"><sup>216</sup></xref></p>
          <table-wrap id="t170">
            <label>Table 81</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Conditions that worsen prognosis of pregnancy in patients with valve disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216"><sup>216</sup></xref></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Prognostic factors: AF, PH, ventricular dysfunction, previous events (heart failure, thromboembolism, or infective endocarditis)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Moderate to severe left-sided obstructive lesions</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Aortic diseases associated with increased diameters of the ascending aorta</p>
                        <list list-type="bullet">
                          <list-item>
                            <p>Marfan syndrome (diameter of the aorta &gt; 40 mm)</p>
                          </list-item>
                          <list-item>
                            <p>Bicuspid aortic valve (diameter of the aorta &gt; 45 mm)</p>
                          </list-item>
                        </list>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NYHA FC III/IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Valve disease with indication of surgical or percutaneous intervention</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Need to anticoagulant use (transitory or permanent)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN135">
                <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; FC: functional class; NYHA: New York Heart Association; PH: pulmonary hypertension.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>During pregnancy planning, keep in mind that percutaneous or surgical valve intervention should be indicated in patients with severe valve disease, even in asymptomatic patients, because NYHA FC I/II does not mean good maternal evolution in severe obstructive lesions (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t171">Table 82</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217"><sup>217</sup></xref></p>
          <table-wrap id="t171">
            <label>Table 82</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for treatment in acquired native VHD, during family planning and pregnancy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217"><sup>217</sup></xref></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="20%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Valve disease</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Family planning <break/>Intervention</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">Pregnancy</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Maternal risk</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Fetal risk</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Severe mitral stenosis <break/>MVA &lt; 1.5 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Consider PBMV or surgery: <break/>NYHA FC III/IV <break/>or <break/>NYHA FC I/II + SPAP &gt; 50 mmHg <break/>or <break/>Recent onset AF</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Increased risk: <break/>NYHA FC III/IV and/or AF</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Prematurity <break/>Restricted intrauterine growth <break/>Fetal loss <break/>Increased if NYHA FC III/IV</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Betablocker <break/>Diuretic <break/>Anticoagulation if AF <break/>If refractory maternal NYHA FC III/IV consider PBMV or surgery</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Severe aortic stenosis <break/>AVA &#8804; 1 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Consider balloon valvuloplasty or surgery: <break/>Symptomatic <break/>or <break/>Asymptomatic + <break/>Altered ergometry test <break/>or <break/>LVEF &lt; 50% <break/>or <break/>AVA &lt; 0.7 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> <break/>mean gradient &gt; 60 mmHg <break/>or <break/>Bicuspid valve + diameter of the aorta &gt; 45mm</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Increased risk <break/>Heart failure <break/>Arrhythmia <break/>Syncope <break/>Sudden death <break/>Aortic dissection</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Complications <break/>Prematurity <break/>Restricted intrauterine growth <break/>Fetal loss</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Rest <break/>Use of diuretics is controversial <break/>Consider betablocker or calcium channel blocker + Anticoagulation if AF <break/>Consider balloon valvuloplasty or surgery if heart failure or syncope</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Severe <break/>mitral regurgitation</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Consider surgery (repair/prosthesis): <break/>NYHA FC &#8805; II <break/>or <break/>Asymptomatic + LVEF &#8804; 60% <break/>+ SPAP &#8805; 50 mmHg <break/>+ LVSD &#8805; 40 mm</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Heart failure <break/>AF <break/>Increased risk if LVEF &lt; 35%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Low risk</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Diuretic, vasodilator <break/>Digoxin, betablocker <break/>Consider surgery or percutaneous mitral repair if refractory heart failure</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Severe <break/>aortic regurgitation</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Consider surgery: <break/>Symptomatic NYHA FC &#8805; II <break/>or <break/>Prognostic factors <break/>LVEF &lt; 50% <break/>LVDD &gt; 70 mm (75 if rheumatic) <break/>LVSD &gt; 50 mm (55 if rheumatic) <break/>Consider intervention in proximal aorta: <break/>Isolated bicuspid valve and diameter of the aorta &gt; 45 mm</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Low risk if asymptomatic and normal LVEF <break/>Risk of <break/>heart failure if NYHA FC &gt; II and/or AF or LVEF &lt; 35%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Low risk</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Diuretic, vasodilator, Digoxin <break/>Consider surgery if refractory heart failure <break/>Consider intervention in proximal aorta: <break/>Isolated bicuspid valve and diameter of the aorta &gt; 45 mm</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN136">
                <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; AVA: aortic valve &#225;rea; PBMV: percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty; FC: functional class; LVDD: left ventricular diastolic diameter; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LVSD: left ventricular systolic diameter; MVA: mitral valve area; SPAP: systolic pulmonary artery pressure.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>In contrast, regurgitation lesions have better prognosis when LVEF fraction is preserved, and the rare cases with complications are those that already had surgical indication prior to pregnancy.</p>
          <p>During pregnancy, the basic principle for prevention and treatment of complications is to prioritize general measures and to choose non-teratogenic drugs with doses adjusted to gestational age. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t172">Table 83</xref> lists the drugs and daily doses most frequently used to control complications of valve disease during pregnancy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218"><sup>218</sup></xref></p>
          <table-wrap id="t172">
            <label>Table 83</label>
            <caption>
              <title>General and pharmacological recommendations during pregnancy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218"><sup>218</sup></xref></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Restricted physical activities and low-sodium diet (4 g/day)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Prophylaxis of rheumatic disease should be maintained (except sulfadiazine)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>If pharmacological treatment is indicated, consider:</p>
                        <list list-type="simple">
                          <list-item>
                            <label>&#9675;</label>
                            <p>Diuretic: furosemide (&lt; 80 mg/day)</p>
                          </list-item>
                          <list-item>
                            <label>&#9675;</label>
                            <p>Betablockers: propranolol (&lt;80 mg/day) or metoprolol succinate (&lt; 100 mg/day), carvedilol &lt; 50 mg</p>
                          </list-item>
                          <list-item>
                            <label>&#9675;</label>
                            <p>Non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers: verapamil (&lt; 240 mg/day)</p>
                          </list-item>
                          <list-item>
                            <label>&#9675;</label>
                            <p>Vasodilator: hydralazine (&lt; 100 mg/day)</p>
                          </list-item>
                          <list-item>
                            <label>&#9675;</label>
                            <p>Digitalis: digoxin (0.25 mg/day)</p>
                          </list-item>
                        </list>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Interventional measures in valve diseases during pregnancy are reserved for cases that are refractory to clinical treatment. Percutaneous procedures should be given preference over surgery, and the proposed treatments should be discussed with the Heart Team and shared with the Obstetric Team. Balloon valvuloplasty in AS has been indicated when etiology is congenital or as an attempt to save the mother&#8217;s life in extremely severe cases. In contrast, PBMV is safe, with results equivalent to those of surgery; it nevertheless requires the classical indication criteria, such as absence of thrombus in the LA, no more than mild MR, and Wilkins-Block echocardiographic score &#8804; 8.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>19.2. Valve Prostheses</title>
          <p>From the hemodynamic point of view, both mechanical and biological prostheses improve functional capacity, and they promote similar clinical evolution during pregnancy; nevertheless, biological prostheses appear to be more advantageous because they do not require anticoagulation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t173">Table 84</xref>). Their limited durability, with the possibility of short-term reoperation, including during pregnancy, are the main restrictions to implantation of biological prostheses in young women.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t173">
            <label>Table 84</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Prosthetic valve with normal function and risks to pregnancy</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Biological prosthesis with normal LVEF</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Mechanical prosthesis with normal LVEF</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Maternal risk</th>
                  <th style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Fetal risk</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Maternal risk</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Fetal results</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Low risk</td>
                  <td style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Low risk</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Intermediate risk <break/>Requires anticoagulation</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">High risk</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Does not require anticoagulation</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Systemic embolism <break/>Prosthesis thrombosis <break/>Hemorrhage</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Warfarin embryopathy <break/>Fetal loss <break/>Prematurity <break/>Perinatal hemorrhage</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN137">
                <p>LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>The management in cases of prosthesis dysfunction during pregnancy should always prioritize the mother&#8217;s life, and the proposed treatments should be discussed with the Heart Team and shared with the Obstetric Team (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t174">Table 85</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t174">
            <label>Table 85</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Treatment in prosthesis dysfunction during pregnancy</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Biological prosthesis</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Mechanical prosthesis</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Maternal risk</th>
                  <th style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Fetal risk</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Maternal risk</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Fetal risk</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="left" valign="middle">Dysfunction with predominant regurgitation, NYHA FC I/II and normal LVEF <break/>Consider pharmacological measures</td>
                  <td style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Low risk</td>
                  <td style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Dysfunction with mild to moderate &#8220;paravalvular&#8221; regurgitation, without significant hemolysis or severe heart failure <break/>Consider pharmacological measures for heart failure and anemia <break/>Severe MR or significant hemolysis <break/>Consider intervention <break/>Heart failure and/or symptomatic hemolysis <break/>Consider percutaneous closure of the paravalvular leak or surgery (high risk of relapse)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">High fetal risk, if surgery</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="left" valign="middle">Dysfunction with predominant valve stenosis and calcification (mitral, aortic, or tricuspid) <break/>Risks of severe heart failure, shock, sudden death <break/>Always consider percutaneous or transapical (valve-in-valve) implantation or surgery</td>
                  <td style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">High fetal risk <break/>Fetal loss <break/>Prematurity</td>
                  <td style="border-right: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Mechanical prosthesis thrombosis <break/>Consider emergency intervention (thrombolysis or surgery) <break/>Mechanical prosthesis stenosis due to intravalvular endothelial growth &#8211; pannus or mismatch <break/>Need for intervention is rare <break/>If necessary, consider surgery</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">High fetal risk, if surgery</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN138">
                <p>FC: functional class; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; MR: mitral regurgitation.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Anticoagulation regimens for patients with mechanical prosthesis remain controversial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218"><sup>218</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219"><sup>219</sup></xref> To date, there are no uniform guidelines that have been widely accepted. Factors that must be considered include the following: patient preference, expertise of the attending doctor, local resources, and availability of adequate coagulation control.</p>
          <p>The recommendations for preventing thromboembolism in mechanical prostheses are intended to meet the ideal requirements of a position based on the literature and on the authors&#8217; experience, and they should be effective for the reality of diverse healthcare services. It is understood that the dynamics of permanent anticoagulation in patients with mechanical prostheses is multidisciplinary, and it is divided into five phases: pre-conception, each trimester, delivery, and postpartum, shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t175">Table 86</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f22">Figure 11</xref>. Vigilant control of anticoagulation and doses of anticoagulants should be adjusted according to conventional targets.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t175">
            <label>Table 86</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Anticoagulation control in patients with mechanical prosthesis during pregnancy</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Gestational age <break/>(weeks)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Anticoagulant</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Control</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Between 6 and 12</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin 1.0 mg/kg every 12 hours or <break/>Intravenous unfractionated heparin 18 IU/kg/hour in an infusion pump (&lt; 30,000 IU)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Anti-Xa: 0.8 to 1.2 U/ml <break/>aPTT 1.5 to 2.0 times control value</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">12 to 36</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Warfarin, dose according to INR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Aortic INR between 2.5 and 3.0 <break/>Mitral INR between 3.0 and 3.5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">After 36, until delivery</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Low-molecular-weight heparin 1.0 mg/kg subcutaneous every 12 hours or <break/>Intravenous unfractionated heparin 18 IU/kg/hour in an infusion pump (&lt; 30,000 IU)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Anti-Xa: 0.8-1.2 U/ml <break/>aPTT 1.5 to 2.0 times control value</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Postpartum</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin 1.0 mg/kg every 12 hours <break/>Intravenous unfractionated heparin 18 IU/kg/hour in an infusion pump (&lt; 30,000 IU) <break/>Warfarin must reach target INR before hospital discharge</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Anti-Xa: 0.8 &#8211; 1.2 U/ml <break/>aPTT 1.5 to 2.0 times control value <break/>INR between 2.0 and 2.5</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN139">
                <p>aPTT: activated partial thromboplastin time; INR: international normalized ratio.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <fig id="f22">
            <label>Figura 11</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Flowchart with recommendations for anticoagulation in patients with mechanical prostheses during pregnancy, delivery, and postpartum. &#946;HCG: beta-human chorionic gonadotropin; IV UFH: intravenous unfractionated heparin; SC LMWH: subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin; VKA: vitamin K antagonist.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0720-01047-gf11-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Phase 1 - <italic>orientations regarding early diagnosis of pregnancy:</italic> Clarify that it is mandatory to maintain anticoagulation and discuss the availability of anticoagulants and their risks during all phases of pregnancy, delivery, and postpartum. Advice includes information regarding the importance of early diagnosis of pregnancy in order to reduce the occurrence of embryopathy, which occurs between the sixth and ninth week of pregnancy. During this consultation, the patient receives a request for beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (&#946;HCG) measurement, which should take place as soon as there are doubts regarding late menstruation.</p>
          <p>Phase 2 - <italic>first trimester:</italic> Once pregnancy has been confirmed (&#946;HCG and obstetric ultrasound), warfarin should be substituted by heparin which makes it possible to balance between the benefit of preventing maternal thrombosis and the harm of embryopathy. In patients whose first medical consultation occurs after the sixth week of gestation, warfarin should not be suspended. The couple should be informed that there is a possibility of embryopathy and that the risks of substituting warfarin for heparin are no longer justified.</p>
          <p>Phase 3 - <italic>second trimester:</italic> Return to oral anticoagulant. The return to warfarin is based on the benefit of shortening the use of heparin and lowering the risk of embryopathy. The proposal is to maintain the warfarin dosage in accordance with pre-pregnancy goals, with weekly or biweekly INR control. Reintroduction of warfarin should take place simultaneously with the use of subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin or intravenous unfractionated heparin until the target INR has been reached.</p>
          <p>Phase 4 - <italic>third trimester:</italic> Consider hospitalization, return to parenteral anticoagulation and schedule delivery. Hospitalization should be scheduled at week 36 of pregnancy for use of subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin or intravenous unfractionated heparin.</p>
          <p>Phase 5 - <italic>postpartum:</italic> Reintroduction of oral anticoagulation and hospital discharge. Six hours after delivery, if there are not maternal complications, intravenous unfractionated heparin or subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin should be reintroduced in therapeutic doses. Warfarin should be prescribed 48 hours after delivery, following the transition dynamic in conjunction with heparin until the INR value of 2.0 has been reached, at which point the patient is discharged from the hospital.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>19.3. Delivery and Postpartum</title>
          <p>Delivery planning should be multidisciplinary, starting at week 34 of pregnancy. Vaginal delivery is considered to be more advantageous because it is associated with less blood loss and lower risks of thrombosis and infection. Sequential anesthesia techniques, with neuraxial anesthesia, have hemodynamic advantages because they allow a gradual form of sympathetic block. In general, cases of maternal indication for cesarean delivery require general anesthesia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t176">Table 87</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t176">
            <label>Table 87</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for route of delivery and anesthesia in patients with valve disease</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Vaginal birth and spinal epidural anesthesia are preferable in cases with low- and intermediate-risk valve disease</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Cesarean delivery should be considered in the event of:</p>
                        <list list-type="simple">
                          <list-item>
                            <p>High-risk valve disease (severe obstructive lesions)</p>
                          </list-item>
                          <list-item>
                            <p>Diseases of the thoracic ascending aorta</p>
                          </list-item>
                          <list-item>
                            <p>Delivery under anticoagulation</p>
                          </list-item>
                          <list-item>
                            <p>History of aortic dissection</p>
                          </list-item>
                        </list>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Antibiotic prophylaxis at the moment of delivery is no longer routine. Nevertheless, it may be considered in patients with valve prostheses or history of infective endocarditis:</p>
                        <list list-type="simple">
                          <list-item>
                            <p>Ampicillin 2.0 g intravenous + gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg/day intramuscular, one hour before delivery</p>
                          </list-item>
                        </list>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>There are no restrictions with respect to breastfeeding</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>19.4. Contraception</title>
          <p>The choice of contraceptive method for women with valve diseases requires multidisciplinary effort, involving the gynecologist and the cardiologist, in order to seek safety, efficacy, tolerance, and easy access. Accordingly, guidelines for prescription should be based on the Contraceptive Eligibility Criteria, which classify contraceptives in four risk categories, and on the Pearl index, which calculates the effectiveness of a method considering the number of pregnancies per 100 women during the first year of use.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220"><sup>220</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B221"><sup>221</sup></xref> For patients with valve disease, the current tendency is to indicate methods that contain only progesterone or combinations of progesterone and natural estrogen in monthly injecTable forms, because they are safe, effective, and easily accessible (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t177">Table 88</xref>). Although intrauterine devices are classified as category 2, they have not been indicated in patients with valve diseases, due to the presumed inherent risk of IE.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t177">
            <label>Table 88</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Medical eligibility criteria (modified)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN140">*</xref> and index of effectiveness for contraceptive use in patients with valve disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220"><sup>220</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B221"><sup>221</sup></xref></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="12%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Available contraceptives</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Oral CHC</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Monthly injection</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Progesterone pills</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">InjecTable progesterone</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Implantation of progesterone</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Copper IUD</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Levonorgestrel IUD</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Valve disease</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Not complicated</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3/4</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3/4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Prognostic factors</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">4</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">4</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">4</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Effectiveness</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">8</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">0.05</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">0.8</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">0.1</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN140">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Prognostic factors: Effectiveness (Pearl Index) calculated as the number of pregnancies per 100 women who routinely use the method. Eligibility criteria: category 1: there are no restrictions to using the method; category 2: the advantages of using the method generally outweigh the theoretical or proven risks; category 3: the theoretical or generally proven risks outweigh the advantages of using the method; category 4: condition that represents an unaccepTable health risk of using the contraceptive method. CHC: combined hormonal contraceptive; IUD: intrauterine device.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
          <p><bold>Development:</bold> Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (DCC-SBC)</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <p><bold>Norms and Guidelines Council (2020-2021):</bold> Brivaldo Markman Filho, Antonio Carlos Sobral Sousa, Aurora Felice Castro Issa, Bruno Ramos Nascimento, Harry Correa Filho, Marcelo Luiz Campos Vieira</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
          <p><bold>Norms and Guidelines Coordinator (2020-2021):</bold> Brivaldo Markman Filho</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
          <p><bold>Note:</bold> These updates are for information purposes and are not to replace the clinical judgment of a physician, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for each patient.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <glossary>
        <def-list>
          <title>List of Abbreviations:</title>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G44">&#946;HCG:</term>
            <def>
              <p>beta-human chorionic gonadotropin</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G45">ACC/AHA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G46">AF:</term>
            <def>
              <p>atrial fibrillation</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G47">AR:</term>
            <def>
              <p>aortic regurgitation</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G48">aPTT:</term>
            <def>
              <p>activated partial thromboplastin time</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G49">AS:</term>
            <def>
              <p>aortic stenosis</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G50">ASA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>acetylsalicylic acid</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G51">AVA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>aortic valve area</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G52">PBMV:</term>
            <def>
              <p>percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G53">BNP:</term>
            <def>
              <p>brain natriuretic peptide</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G54">PBTV:</term>
            <def>
              <p>percutaneous balloon tricuspid valvuloplasty</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G55">CHC:</term>
            <def>
              <p>combined hormonal contraceptive</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G56">DOACs:</term>
            <def>
              <p>direct oral anticoagulants</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G57">ECG:</term>
            <def>
              <p>electrocardiogram</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G58">EOA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>effective orifice area</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G59">EROA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>effective regurgitant orifice area</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G60">ESC/EACTS:</term>
            <def>
              <p>European Society of Cardiology/European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G61">FC:</term>
            <def>
              <p>functional class</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G62">IE:</term>
            <def>
              <p>infective endocarditis</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G63">INR:</term>
            <def>
              <p>international normalized ratio</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G64">IUD:</term>
            <def>
              <p>intrauterine device</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G65">LA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>left atrium</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G66">LV:</term>
            <def>
              <p>left ventricle</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G67">LVDD:</term>
            <def>
              <p>left ventricular diastolic diameter</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G68">LVEF:</term>
            <def>
              <p>left ventricular ejection fraction</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G69">LVSD:</term>
            <def>
              <p>left ventricular systolic diameter</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G70">MAC:</term>
            <def>
              <p>mitral annulus calcification</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G71">MR:</term>
            <def>
              <p>mitral regurgitation</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G72">MS:</term>
            <def>
              <p>mitral stenosis</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G73">MVA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>mitral valve area</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G74">NYHA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>New York Heart Association</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G75">PH:</term>
            <def>
              <p>pulmonary hypertension</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G76">PHT:</term>
            <def>
              <p>pressure half time</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G77">RA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>right atrium</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G78">RF:</term>
            <def>
              <p>rheumatic fever</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G79">rTPA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>recombinant tissue plasminogen activator</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G80">SBC:</term>
            <def>
              <p>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (Brazilian Society of Cardiology)</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G81">SPAP:</term>
            <def>
              <p>systolic pulmonary artery pressure</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G82">STS:</term>
            <def>
              <p>Society of Thoracic Surgeons</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G83">TAVI:</term>
            <def>
              <p>transcatheter aortic valve implantation</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G84">TR:</term>
            <def>
              <p>tricuspid regurgitation</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G85">TS:</term>
            <def>
              <p>tricuspid stenosis</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G86">TTR:</term>
            <def>
              <p>time in therapeutic range</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G87">VHD:</term>
            <def>
              <p>valvular heart disease</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G88">VKA:</term>
            <def>
              <p>vitamin K antagonists</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
        </def-list>
      </glossary>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
