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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">5cPmRF6Dr7FDmyQhpfqwB9f</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020001200708</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200653</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200653</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Carta Cient&#237;fica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>COVID-19, Sistema Renina-Angiotensina, Enzima Conversora da Angiotensina 2 e Nicotina: Qual a Inter-Rela&#231;&#227;o?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4139-8516</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Scholz</surname>
            <given-names>Jaqueline Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Ant&#244;nio Cartaxo Queiroga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3345-8862</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Saraiva</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Francisco Kerr</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Colombo</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Consolim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Clinicas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Clinicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Alberto Urquiza Wanderley</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Intervencionista</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Alberto Urquiza Wanderley - Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Intervencionista, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Metropolitano Dom Jos&#233; Maria Pires</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Metropolitano Dom Jos&#233; Maria Pires, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas, 5 Campinas, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Jaqueline Ribeiro Scholz</bold> &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Rua Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguair, 44 1&#186; andar, bloco 2. CEP <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>jaquelineincor@yahoo.com.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Scholz JR; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Scholz JR, Consolim F; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Lopes MACQ, Saraiva JFK, Consolim F.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>23</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>115</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>708</fpage>
      <lpage>711</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Coronavirus/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Betacoronavirus, SARS-CoV2</kwd>
        <kwd>Syndrome Respiratory Acute</kwd>
        <kwd>SARS-CoV2</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="29"/>
        <page-count count="4"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>A Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de (OMS) declarou a COVID-19, infec&#231;&#227;o causada pelo novo Coronav&#237;rus (SARS-CoV-2),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> como uma pandemia em 11 de mar&#231;o de 2020. At&#233; o in&#237;cio do m&#234;s de junho, foram contabilizados 7 milh&#245;es de casos positivos e cerca de 400 mil mortes pela doen&#231;a no mundo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> No Brasil, nesse mesmo per&#237;odo, foram aproximadamente 700 mil casos e cerca de 40 mil &#243;bitos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref></p>
    <p>Embora o v&#237;rus possa infectar indiv&#237;duos de qualquer idade, at&#233; o momento, a maioria dos casos graves foi descrita naqueles com mais de 55 anos, com comorbidades associadas, muitas delas cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> Portanto, justifica-se a grande preocupa&#231;&#227;o da comunidade m&#233;dica em saber como atuar frente &#224; COVID-19, em especial nessa popula&#231;&#227;o de maior risco e com muitas comorbidades cardiovasculares, com o objetivo de reduzir as taxas de morbimortalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref></p>
    <p>O SARS-CoV-2 usa como receptor de entrada na c&#233;lula a enzima conversora de angiotensina tipo 2 (ECA-2),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> uma mol&#233;cula expressa em abund&#226;ncia na superf&#237;cie das c&#233;lulas do endot&#233;lio, dos rins, dos pulm&#245;es e de outros &#243;rg&#227;os. Ela &#233; um componente do sistema renina-angiotensina (SRA), cuja sequ&#234;ncia gen&#244;mica foi descoberta em 2000.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> A partir de ent&#227;o, foi poss&#237;vel reconhecer um eixo compensat&#243;rio das a&#231;&#245;es cl&#225;ssicas do SRA (eixo &#8220;protetor&#8221;) para contrapor o eixo delet&#233;rio causado pela produ&#231;&#227;o da angiotensina 2. Do ponto de vista estrutural, a ECA-2 &#233; semelhante &#224; cl&#225;ssica; por&#233;m, do ponto de vista funcional, elas se contrap&#245;em.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Isso porque a ECA converte a angiotensina 1 em angiotensina 2 e provoca efeitos delet&#233;rios decorrentes da estimula&#231;&#227;o dos receptores AT1, como aumento da atividade simp&#225;tica, reabsor&#231;&#227;o de sal e &#225;gua, vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o, inflama&#231;&#227;o, libera&#231;&#227;o de aldosterona e vasopressina, contribuindo para fibrose tecidual, disfun&#231;&#227;o do endot&#233;lio e hipertens&#227;o arterial. A ECA-2 decomp&#245;e a angiotensina 2 em seus metab&#243;litos, incluindo angiotensina (1 a 9) e angiotensina (1 a 7), e ativa receptores mas, que s&#227;o potentes vasodilatadores e, portanto, podem ser um regulador negativo do SRA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> A ECA-2 &#233; expressa em uma variedade de tecidos diferentes, incluindo as vias respirat&#243;rias superiores e inferiores, o mioc&#225;rdio e a mucosa gastrointestinal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> Embora sua fun&#231;&#227;o na sa&#250;de e na doen&#231;a humana n&#227;o tenha sido totalmente elucidado, ela parece ter um importante papel regulador na press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea e na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. O papel fisiol&#243;gico da ECA-2 nas vias respirat&#243;rias &#233; ainda desconhecido; no entanto, em camundongos, foi demonstrado que ela protege de les&#245;es pulmonares graves relacionadas a aspira&#231;&#227;o e sepse.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref></p>
    <p>As quest&#245;es envolvendo a rela&#231;&#227;o entre maior disponibilidade de receptores de ECA-2 e, possivelmente, maior susceptibilidade para a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-Cov-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> s&#227;o amplamente debatidas na cardiologia, visto que o uso de medicamentos como inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA) e bloqueadores do receptor de angiotensina 2 (BRA) aumenta a express&#227;o dos receptores da ECA-2 em diferentes tecidos, incluindo o pulm&#227;o,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> embora seja fundamental para o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o arterial e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Houve discuss&#245;es a respeito da substitui&#231;&#227;o desses f&#225;rmacos na vig&#234;ncia da pandemia; por&#233;m, devido &#224; relev&#226;ncia no quesito efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a no tratamento das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e, at&#233; o momento, &#224; aus&#234;ncia de evid&#234;ncias da rela&#231;&#227;o entre o uso deles e o aumento da mortalidade pela COVID-19, h&#225; um consenso<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> quanto &#224; manuten&#231;&#227;o dos mesmos at&#233; haver evid&#234;ncias robustas que possam indicar o contr&#225;rio. Na verdade, a boa not&#237;cia &#233; que os estudos sugerem at&#233; mesmo um efeito protetor dos IECA na redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade durante infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2, e nenhuma comprova&#231;&#227;o de aumento de risco em usu&#225;rios de BRA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
    <p>&#201; interessante observar que outro aspecto muito relevante e pol&#234;mico tamb&#233;m envolve a express&#227;o da ECA-2 e se relaciona ao tabagismo. Alguns autores<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> levantaram a hip&#243;tese de que a observa&#231;&#227;o da baixa preval&#234;ncia de fumantes internados com COVID-19 na China e na Fran&#231;a, em compara&#231;&#227;o com a preval&#234;ncia mais elevada do tabagismo na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, possa ter rela&#231;&#227;o com a menor express&#227;o de ECA-2, provocada pela nicotina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> Oakes et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> fazendo uma revis&#227;o sobre efeitos da nicotina e SRA, demostrou que a nicotina inalada altera a homeostase do SRA pulmonar, por estimular seu eixo cl&#225;ssico (aumento de express&#227;o e concentra&#231;&#227;o de ECA-ANG 2) em detrimento do eixo protetor (redu&#231;&#227;o de express&#227;o e concentra&#231;&#227;o de ECA-2 e angiotensina 1-7), determinando, assim, menor express&#227;o de ECA-2. Desse modo, os defensores da hip&#243;tese<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> do efeito &#8220;protetivo&#8221; da nicotina especulam que isso dificultaria a ades&#227;o do SARS-Cov-2 no epit&#233;lio respirat&#243;rio. Cabe ressaltar que a m&#233;dia de idade dos pacientes internados com COVID-19 &#233; mais elevada,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> e a preval&#234;ncia do tabagismo cai significativamente com o envelhecimento, tanto porque fumantes morrem precocemente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> quanto porque deixam de fumar quando adoecem.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Novamente, esse &#233; um paradoxo envolvendo a express&#227;o dos receptores de ECA-2 e o SRA.</p>
    <p>Nesse contexto, algumas perguntas devem ser respondidas: existem dados epidemiol&#243;gicos que indiquem esse efeito &#8220;protetor&#8221;? Qual &#233; a a&#231;&#227;o da nicotina sobre o SRA no epit&#233;lio br&#244;nquico? A rela&#231;&#227;o entre express&#227;o de ECA-2 no epit&#233;lio pulmonar &#233; semelhante entre fumantes e n&#227;o fumantes? Quais as consequ&#234;ncias da interrup&#231;&#227;o na homeostase do SRA no pulm&#227;o causada pela nicotina?</p>
    <p>Os dados de mortalidade mostram maior risco de morte por COVID-19 em fumantes com ou sem doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica (DPOC),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> e o risco de intuba&#231;&#227;o &#233; dobrado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> comparando-se fumantes com n&#227;o fumantes. Esses dados corroboram o que ocorre em outras infec&#231;&#245;es virais, cujo curso &#233; pior em fumantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Considerando-se a complexidade do SRA, a nicotina pode afetar outros elementos al&#233;m dos discutidos, provocando efeitos ainda n&#227;o elucidados.</p>
    <p>Estudos recentes demonstraram aumento da express&#227;o da ECA-2 no epit&#233;lio de pequenas vias respirat&#243;rias de tabagistas e portadores de DPOC com COVID-19. Brake et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> por meio da imuno-histoqu&#237;mica, identificaram pela primeira vez uma express&#227;o aumentada de ECA-2 no tecido pulmonar de pacientes com COVID-19. Por&#233;m ela foi maior nos pacientes com DPOC, fumantes ou n&#227;o, e em menor propor&#231;&#227;o em fumantes sem DPOC. N&#227;o se encontrou aumento da express&#227;o de ECA-2 em indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o fumantes. Leung et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> tamb&#233;m observaram maior express&#227;o da ECA-2 no epit&#233;lio das pequenas vias respirat&#243;rias de pacientes com DPOC e fumantes com COVID-19, analisando material de lavado br&#244;nquico e correlacionando isso &#224; gravidade da doen&#231;a. Russo et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> investigaram <italic>in vitro</italic> o mecanismo pelo qual a nicotina poderia levar ao aumento da ECA-2 nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Diferentes c&#233;lulas das vias respirat&#243;rias, como epiteliais br&#244;nquicas, epiteliais alveolares tipo 2 e fibroblastos intersticiais, expressam receptores nicot&#237;nicos de acetilcolina (nAChR), especificamente o subtipo &#945;7-nAChR, e tamb&#233;m os componentes do SRA. Quantificando-se a express&#227;o de ECA-2 em c&#233;lulas epiteliais br&#244;nquicas em cultura, foi poss&#237;vel demonstrar que a nicotina promove regula&#231;&#227;o positiva (aumento da express&#227;o de ECA-2) mediada especificamente pela sua liga&#231;&#227;o com os receptores &#945;7-nAChR. Assim, o tabagismo poderia provocar um aumento no mecanismo de capta&#231;&#227;o celular para o SARS-Cov-2 por meio da sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da via &#945;7-nAChR.</p>
    <p>Com esses dados, o racioc&#237;nio seria de que os pacientes tabagistas e com DPOC teriam, na verdade, mais susceptibilidade &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-Cov-2. Esse mecanismo, inclusive, foi formulado e representado em modelo esquem&#225;tico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>) por Olds e Kabbani<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> e explica como a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; nicotina aumenta o risco de entrada do v&#237;rus nas c&#233;lulas pulmonares e, consequentemente, como o ato de fumar pode ter impacto negativo na fisiopatologia da COVID-19.</p>
    <fig id="f1">
      <label>Figura 1</label>
      <caption>
        <title>Modelo esquem&#225;tico de como a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; nicotina aumenta o risco de entrada do SARS-CoV-2 no pulm&#227;o do hospedeiro humano. A. Respostas pulmonares e imunes &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o pelo v&#237;rus em c&#233;lulas epiteliais de fumantes (&#224; direita) e n&#227;o fumantes (&#224; esquerda). B. Mecanismos celulares desencadeados pela atividade de receptores nicot&#237;nicos promovem a entrada e prolifera&#231;&#227;o do SARS-CoV-2 nas c&#233;lulas epiteliais por meio da coexpress&#227;o da ECA-2. A ativa&#231;&#227;o de receptores nicot&#237;nicos pela nicotina pode causar maior ativa&#231;&#227;o de proteases, morte celular (apoptose) e sinaliza&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria por meio de mecanismos que convergem nas vias de regula&#231;&#227;o e sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da ECA-2.</title>
      </caption>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0708-00653-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    <p>Nesse contexto, pode-se interpretar que o papel do SRA na gravidade da infe&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV-2 depende menos da express&#227;o da ECA-2 no aparelho cardiovascular e mais da express&#227;o dele no epit&#233;lio respirat&#243;rio. Isso pode justificar a n&#227;o interfer&#234;ncia na morbimortalidade por COVID-19 em usu&#225;rios de IECA e BRA, bem como a falta de prote&#231;&#227;o para essa doen&#231;a em tabagistas e pacientes com DPOC.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m de as orienta&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas serem parar de fumar e manter a medica&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, o conhecimento da inter-rela&#231;&#227;o da nicotina com a express&#227;o de ECA-2 nas c&#233;lulas do epit&#233;lio respirat&#243;rio e sua interface com receptores de &#945;7-nAChR sugere a possibilidade de a&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas para tratamento da COVID 19. O uso de antagonistas seletivos de &#945;7-nAChR, como metilglicaconitina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> e &#945;-conotoxina,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> pode alterar significativamente a express&#227;o de ECA-2, podendo ser uma op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica para impedir a entrada de SARS-CoV-2 no epit&#233;lio das vias respirat&#243;rias. Futuros estudos dever&#227;o confirmar ou n&#227;o essas hip&#243;teses.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Research Letter</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>COVID-19, Renin-Angiotensin System, Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2, and Nicotine: What is the Interrelation?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4139-8516</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Scholz</surname>
            <given-names>Jaqueline Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Ant&#244;nio Cartaxo Queiroga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3345-8862</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Saraiva</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Francisco Kerr</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Colombo</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Consolim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Clinicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Alberto Urquiza Wanderley - Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Intervencionista, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Metropolitano Dom Jos&#233; Maria Pires, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas, Campinas, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Jaqueline Ribeiro Scholz</bold> &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Rua Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguair, 44 1&#186; andar, bloco 2. Postal Code <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: <email>jaquelineincor@yahoo.com.br</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Coronavirus/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Betacoronavirus, SARS-CoV2</kwd>
        <kwd>Syndrome Respiratory Acute</kwd>
        <kwd>SARS-CoV2</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>The World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19, an infection caused by the new Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> as a pandemic on March 11, 2020. By the beginning of June, 7 million positive cases and around 400 thousand deaths from the disease had been reported worldwide.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> In the same period, Brazil accounted for approximately 700 thousand cases and 40 thousand deaths.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Although the virus can infect individuals of any age, so far the most serious cases have been described in people aged 55 and over, with associated comorbidities&#8212;many of them related to the cardiovascular system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> Therefore, the medical community&#8217;s great concern about knowing how to act against COVID-19 is justifiable, especially in this population at higher risk and with many cardiovascular comorbidities, and the aim is reducing morbidity and mortality rates.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref></p>
      <p>SARS-CoV-2 uses as a cell receptor the angiotensin-converting enzyme type 2 (ACE-2),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> a molecule abundantly expressed on the surface of cells in the endothelium, kidneys, lungs, and other organs. It is a component of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), whose genomic sequence was discovered in 2000.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> Since then, a compensatory axis of the classic actions of the RAS (&#8220;protective&#8221; axis) was recognized to counteract the harmful axis caused by production angiotensin 2. From a structural point of view, ACE-2 is similar to the classic one; but, from the functional point of view, they are opposed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> This is because ACE converts angiotensin 1 into angiotensin 2 and causes deleterious effects resulting from the stimulation of AT1 receptors, such as increased sympathetic activity, salt and water reabsorption, vasoconstriction, inflammation, aldosterone and vasopressin release, all contributing to tissue fibrosis, endothelial dysfunction, and arterial hypertension.</p>
      <p>ACE-2 breaks down angiotensin 2 into its metabolites, including angiotensin (1 to 9) and angiotensin (1 to 7), and activates MAS receptors (MasR), which are potent vasodilators and therefore can be a negative regulator of SARS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> ACE-2 is expressed in a variety of different tissues, including the upper and lower airways, the myocardium and the gastrointestinal mucosa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> Although its function in human health and disease has not been fully elucidated, it appears to have an important regulatory role in blood pressure and cardiac function. The physiological role of ACE-2 in the airways is still unclear, but, in mice, it was shown to protect against severe lung injury related to aspiration and sepsis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref></p>
      <p>The issues underlying the relationship between increased availability of ACE-2 receptors and possibly greater susceptibility to SARS-Cov-2<sup>2</sup> infection are widely debated in cardiology, as the use of drugs as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin 2 receptor blockers (ARB) increases the expression of ACE-2 receptors in different tissues such as the lung,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> although it is fundamental for the treatment of arterial hypertension and heart failure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Discussions about the replacement of these drugs have taken place during the pandemic; however, due to their relevance in terms of efficacy and safety in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and, to date, the absence of evidence of a relationship between their use and the increase in mortality by COVID-19, there is a consensus<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> regarding their maintenance until there is reliable evidence that indicate otherwise. In fact, the good news is that studies even suggest a protective effect of ACE inhibitors in reducing mortality during SARS-CoV-2 infection, and no evidence of increased risk in ARB users.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
      <p>It is interesting to note that another very relevant and controversial aspect also involves the expression of ACE-2 and is related to smoking. Some authors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> have raised the hypothesis that the low prevalence of smokers hospitalized with COVID-19 in China and France, in comparison with the higher prevalence of smoking in the general population, may be related to the lower expression of ACE-2 caused by nicotine.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> Oakes et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> reviewing the effects of nicotine and RAS, demonstrated that inhaled nicotine alters the SARS pulmonary homeostasis by stimulating its classic axis (increased expression and concentration of ACE-2) to the detriment of the protective axis (reduced expression and concentration of ACE-2 and angiotensin 1-7), thus determining less expression of ACE-2. Thus, supporters of the hypothesis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> of a &#8220;protective&#8221; effect of nicotine speculate that this would make it difficult for SARS-Cov-2 to adhere to the respiratory epithelium. It should be noted that the average age of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 is higher,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> and the prevalence of smoking drops significantly with aging, because smokers either die early<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> or stop smoking when they get sick.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Again, this is a paradox involving the expression of ACE-2 receptors and RAS.</p>
      <p>In this context, some questions remain unanswered: are there epidemiological data that indicate this &#8220;protective&#8221; effect? What is the action of nicotine on the RAS in the bronchial epithelium? Is the relationship between ACE-2 expression in the pulmonary epithelium similar between smokers and non-smokers? What are the consequences of the interruption in RAS homeostasis by nicotine in the lung?</p>
      <p>Data on mortality show a higher risk of death from COVID-19 among smokers with or without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> and the risk of intubation is doubled<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> when comparing smokers with non-smokers. These data corroborate what occurs in other viral infections, with a worse course in smokers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Considering the complexity of RAS, nicotine can affect elements other than those discussed, causing effects not yet elucidated.</p>
      <p>Recent studies have shown increased expression of ECA-2 in the epithelium of small airways in smokers and COPD patients with COVID-19. Brake et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> using immunohistochemistry, identified for the first time an increased expression of ACE-2 in the lung tissue of patients with COVID-19. However, it was higher in COPD patients, whether they were smokers or not, and was present in a lesser extent in smokers without COPD. There was no increase in the expression of ACE-2 in nonsmokers. Leung et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> also reported a greater expression of ACE-2 in the epithelium of the small airways of patients with COPD and smokers with COVID-19, analyzing bronchial lavage material and correlating this with the severity of the disease. Russo et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> investigated <italic>in vitro</italic> the mechanism by which nicotine could lead to an increase in ACE-2 in this population. Different airway cells, such as bronchial epithelial cells, type 2 alveolar epithelial cells, and interstitial fibroblasts express nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR), specifically the &#945;7-nAChR subtype, and also the components of the RAS. By quantifying the expression of ECA-2 in cultured bronchial epithelial cells, they demonstrated that nicotine promotes a positive regulation (increased expression of ACE-2) mediated specifically by its binding with &#945;7-nAChR receptors. Thus, smoking could cause an increase in the cellular uptake mechanism for SARS-Cov-2 by signaling the &#945;7-nAChR pathway.</p>
      <p>With these data, the reasoning would be that patients who smoke and have COPD would, in fact, be more susceptible to SARS-Cov-2 infection. This mechanism was formulated and represented in a schematic model (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>) by Olds and Kabbani<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> and explains how exposure to nicotine increases the risk of the virus entering the lung cells and, consequently, how smoking can have a negative impact in the pathophysiology of COVID-19.</p>
      <fig id="f2">
        <label>Figure 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Schematic model of how exposure to nicotine increases the risk of SARS-CoV-2 entering the lung of the human host. A. Pulmonary and immune responses to virus infection in smokers&#8217; (right) and nonsmokers&#8217; (left) epithelial cells. B. Cellular mechanisms triggered by the activity of nicotinic receptors promote the entry and proliferation of SARS-CoV-2 in epithelial cells through the co-expression of ACE-2. The activation of nicotinic receptors by nicotine can cause greater activation of proteases, cell death (apoptosis) and inflammatory signaling through mechanisms that converge in ACE-2 regulation and pathways signaling.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0708-00653-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      <p>In this context, we can interpret that the role of the RAS in the severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection depends less on the expression of ACE-2 in the cardiovascular system and more on its expression in the respiratory epithelium. This may justify the non-interference in COVID-19 morbidity and mortality in ACEI and ARB users, as well as the lack of protection for this disease in smokers and COPD patients.</p>
      <p>In addition to the therapeutic guidelines being to quit smoking and maintain cardiovascular medication, knowledge about the interrelation of nicotine with the expression of ACE-2 in the cells of the respiratory epithelium and its interface with &#945;7-nAChR receptors suggests the possibility of therapeutic actions for the treatment of COVID 19. The use of selective &#945;7-nAChR antagonists such as methylglycaconitin<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> and &#945;-conotoxin<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> can significantly alter the expression of ACE-2, and may be a therapeutic option to prevent the entry of SARS-CoV-2 in the respiratory tract epithelium. Further studies should confirm or not these hypotheses.</p>
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