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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">JshSftLkXZVJ5PKLCJ7SQdP</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020001200701</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200487</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200487</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Carta Cient&#237;fica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Altera&#231;&#245;es da ECA2 e Fatores de Risco para Gravidade da COVID-19 em Pacientes com Idade Avan&#231;ada</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2366-3371</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tavares</surname>
            <given-names>Caio de Assis Moura</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9347-0519</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Avelino-Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Thiago Junqueira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Benard</surname>
            <given-names>Gil</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0701-6593</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cardozo</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Akira Malta</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2127-8493</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana Ruiz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3715-6917</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Girardi</surname>
            <given-names>Adriana Castello Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jacob</surname>
            <given-names>Wilson</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor), Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade Israelita de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de Albert Einstein</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, Faculdade Israelita de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Investiga&#231;&#227;o M&#233;dica em Envelhecimento (LIM-66), Servi&#231;o de Geriatria, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Divis&#227;o de Cl&#237;nica Dermatol&#243;gica</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Investiga&#231;&#227;o M&#233;dica LIM-56, Divis&#227;o de Cl&#237;nica Dermatol&#243;gica Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Medicina Tropical de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Medicina Tropical de S&#227;o Paulo, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Wilson Jacob Filho</bold> &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Av. Dr Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. 2&#186; andar, Bloco ii, Sala 06. CEP Code <postal-code>05403-000</postal-code>, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>wiljac@usp.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos Autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Tavares CAM, Avelino-Silva TJ, Girardi ACC, Jacob Filho W; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Tavares CAM, Avelino-Silva TJ, Benard G, Fernandes JR, Cardozo FAM, Girardi ACC, Jacob Filho W; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Tavares CAM, Avelino-Silva TJ, Benard G, Fernandes JR, Cardozo FAM, Girardi ACC; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Tavares CAM, Avelino-Silva TJ, Benard G, Girardi ACC, Jacob Filho W.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>23</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>115</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>701</fpage>
      <lpage>707</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Envelhecimento</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Imunossenesc&#234;ncia</kwd>
        <kwd>Fragilidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Multimorbidade</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="50"/>
        <page-count count="7"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>O entendimento da rela&#231;&#227;o entre envelhecimento e gravidade da COVID-19 &#233; fundamental sob diversos aspectos: para o manejo cl&#237;nico de pacientes com infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2, forma&#231;&#227;o de pol&#237;ticas em sa&#250;de e para o reposicionamento de f&#225;rmacos e/ou desenvolvimento de poss&#237;veis alvos terap&#234;uticos destinados a esta popula&#231;&#227;o. Com &#234;nfase nos mecanismos moleculares e fisiopatol&#243;gicos subjacentes, discorreremos sobre os potenciais fatores de risco que podem contribuir para a gravidade da COVID-19 em pacientes com idade avan&#231;ada: altera&#231;&#245;es da ECA2 (enzima conversora da angiotensina 2), imunossenesc&#234;ncia e <italic>inflammaging,</italic> e presen&#231;a de multimorbidade e fragilidade.</p>
    <sec>
      <title>ECA2, Infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV-2 e Envelhecimento</title>
      <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es induzidas pelo envelhecimento em vias metab&#243;licas podem, em parte, explicar a maior taxa de morbimortalidade por COVID-19 em pacientes idosos. Dentre estas, destacam-se aquelas pertencentes ao sistema renina-angiotensina (SRA), haja vista o papel crucial que esse sistema desempenha tanto na transmissibilidade viral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> como na patogenia da les&#227;o pulmonar aguda e de sua forma mais grave, a s&#237;ndrome da ang&#250;stia respirat&#243;ria aguda (SARA).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Sabe-se que a ECA2 age como um receptor para a <italic>prote&#237;na</italic> estrutural <italic>S</italic> (<italic>esp&#237;cula</italic>) do SARS-CoV-2,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> atrav&#233;s da qual o v&#237;rus ganha acesso &#224; c&#233;lula hospedeira. Esse mecanismo envolve a intera&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na S viral com o dom&#237;nio extracelular da ECA2, desencadeando mudan&#231;as conformacionais que desestabilizam a membrana celular, propiciando a internaliza&#231;&#227;o do SARS-CoV-2 e da ECA2, a replica&#231;&#227;o viral, e a transmiss&#227;o c&#233;lula a c&#233;lula.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref></p>
      <p><italic>Com o envelhecimento,</italic> h&#225; redu&#231;&#227;o consider&#225;vel da express&#227;o da ECA2 nos pulm&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> Sabendo que a ECA2 constitui a porta de entrada para o SARS-CoV-2, &#233; plaus&#237;vel postular que quanto maior a express&#227;o da ECA2 na membrana celular, maior a infectividade. Todavia, apesar do decaimento da express&#227;o da ECA2 tecidual com a idade, pacientes idosos apresentam maior gravidade de danos pulmonares e maior taxa de letalidade por COVID-19, quando comparados com indiv&#237;duos jovens.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> Uma hip&#243;tese proposta para explicar essa aparente incoer&#234;ncia entre idade avan&#231;ada, n&#237;vel de ECA2 tecidual e gravidade de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> &#233; a de que pessoas mais jovens, com maior express&#227;o de ECA2, sejam as mais predispostas a terem a infec&#231;&#227;o, ao passo que indiv&#237;duos idosos, com menor express&#227;o de ECA2, possam apresentar quadros mais graves ao serem infectados, devido &#224; exacerba&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos mediados pela angiotensina II (Ang II). Essa hip&#243;tese &#233; respaldada pelo fato de que, com o envelhecimento ocorra, al&#233;m da redu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de ECA2 tecidual, maior ativa&#231;&#227;o de vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias decorrentes da hiperatividade da via ECA/Ang II.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Ademais, alinham-se a essa hip&#243;tese evid&#234;ncias amplas do papel protetor conferido pela ECA2 contra a insufici&#234;ncia pulmonar e a exist&#234;ncia de rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre a via da ECA/Ang II e SARA, estabelecida em modelos animais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> A complexa inter-rela&#231;&#227;o entre ECA2, infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV-2 e envelhecimento est&#225; ilustrada na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
      <fig id="f1">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Associa&#231;&#227;o entre idade, express&#227;o de ECA2 e gravidade da COVID-19. A redu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o da ECA2 na membrana das c&#233;lulas epiteliais pulmonares (pneum&#243;citos tipo II), com o envelhecimento, aumenta os n&#237;veis de angiotensina II (Ang II) em detrimento da forma&#231;&#227;o de Ang-(1-7), deflagrando, exageradamente, vias pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, e predispondo pacientes idosos a maior gravidade de les&#227;o pulmonar aguda e de mortalidade por COVID-19. Tal predisposi&#231;&#227;o &#233; potencializada pelo fato de que a liga&#231;&#227;o do SARS-CoV-2 a ECA2 leva &#224; internaliza&#231;&#227;o de ambos, reduzindo ainda mais a express&#227;o desta enzima na membrana celular. Em pacientes jovens, a express&#227;o da ECA2 na membrana celular &#233; maior do que em idosos, possibilitando a manuten&#231;&#227;o do equil&#237;brio entre as a&#231;&#245;es da Ang II e da Ang-1-7. A maior express&#227;o de ECA2 pode causar aumento da infectividade por SARS-CoV-2, mas a gera&#231;&#227;o de Ang-1-7 deflagra efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios que se contrap&#245;em aos da Ang II, protegendo os indiv&#237;duos jovens contra o desenvolvimento/progress&#227;o da les&#227;o pulmonar aguda. Este modelo &#233; hipot&#233;tico e n&#227;o foi validado experimentalmente.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0701-00487-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Imunossenesc&#234;ncia, <italic>Inflammaging</italic> e COVID-19</title>
      <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es significativas no sistema imune, que afetam tanto a imunidade inata quanto a imunidade adaptativa, t&#234;m sido associadas ao envelhecimento. Esse conjunto de altera&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o agrupadas em um termo amplo denominado imunossenesc&#234;ncia, caracterizado pelo decl&#237;nio na responsividade do sistema imune, levando a desfechos mais graves de infec&#231;&#245;es virais e bacterianas, e aumento da incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as autoimunes, neoplasias, entre outras.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Com base no conhecimento atual das altera&#231;&#245;es causadas pela senesc&#234;ncia no sistema imune, assim como pelos estudos publicados relacionados &#224; fisiopatologia da COVID-19, &#233; poss&#237;vel levantar hip&#243;teses para explicar a elevada frequ&#234;ncia de casos graves em idosos ou pacientes com doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas. Indiv&#237;duos h&#237;gidos em geral, ao contr&#225;rio de idosos e imunodeprimidos, apresentam eficiente imunidade inata que, associada &#224; imunidade celular e humoral intactas, permitem limitar a progress&#227;o da infec&#231;&#227;o e recupera&#231;&#227;o em algumas semanas. Essa resposta imune controlada supostamente atua na fase inicial do processo infeccioso, limitando replica&#231;&#227;o e dissemina&#231;&#227;o viral, eventos que, infelizmente, ocorrem frequentemente nos idosos em estado cr&#237;tico pela COVID-19.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Em idosos, os sistemas imune inato e adaptativo, enfraquecidos, permitiriam cargas virais mais elevadas e persistentes &#8212; hip&#243;tese que est&#225; de acordo com descri&#231;&#227;o recente de pacientes com COVID-19, em que a carga viral detectada na orofaringe posterior se correlaciona com a idade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Essa carga viral aumentada representa est&#237;mulo antig&#234;nico intenso e persistente nos idosos, concomitantemente a uma menor regula&#231;&#227;o do sistema imune. A rela&#231;&#227;o entre altera&#231;&#245;es no sistema imune, idade avan&#231;ada e gravidade da COVID-19 est&#225; ilustrada na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>. Para sua melhor compreens&#227;o, faz-se necess&#225;rio definir e descrever os processos de imunossenesc&#234;ncia e <italic>inflammaging</italic>.</p>
      <fig id="f2">
        <label>Figura 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Rela&#231;&#227;o entre imunossenesc&#234;ncia, inflammaging e gravidade de infec&#231;&#227;o pela COVID-19. Note que as altera&#231;&#245;es do sistema imune e o estado inflamat&#243;rio podem contribuir para a gravidade da infec&#231;&#227;o tanto por impactarem a replica&#231;&#227;o viral como pelo aumento de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0701-00487-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      <p>As c&#233;lulas dendr&#237;ticas (CD) s&#227;o c&#233;lulas do sistema imune inato que fazem a conex&#227;o entre os sistemas imunol&#243;gicos inato e adaptativo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> &#8212; esse subtipo de c&#233;lula aparenta ser importante na defesa do hospedeiro contra o SARS-CoV-2, dada a localiza&#231;&#227;o deste tipo celular (presente na pele, cavidade nasal, pulm&#245;es, sangue perif&#233;rico, s&#237;tios nos quais podemos encontrar o v&#237;rus). Em idosos, as CDs: 1) apresentam menor capacidade fagoc&#237;tica &#8212; podendo resultar n&#227;o somente em menor efici&#234;ncia de resposta do sistema imune, mas tamb&#233;m na redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade fisiol&#243;gica de remover componentes pr&#243;prios (incluindo c&#233;lulas apopt&#243;ticas); 2) ficam menos capazes de instruir uma resposta imune adaptativa atrav&#233;s de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o coordenada; 3) permanecem capazes de secretar citocinas inflamat&#243;rias sob condi&#231;&#245;es de estresse<italic>,</italic> contribuindo para um estado inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Al&#233;m das CDs, mon&#243;citos e macrof&#225;gos atuam na imunidade inata atrav&#233;s da produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias e pelo processamento e apresenta&#231;&#227;o de ant&#237;genos para linf&#243;citos T. Com o envelhecimento, pode haver uma redu&#231;&#227;o tanto na gera&#231;&#227;o de precursores de macr&#243;fagos como na sua fun&#231;&#227;o fagoc&#237;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> Tamb&#233;m j&#225; foi descrita a desregula&#231;&#227;o da sinaliza&#231;&#227;o por receptores do tipo <italic>Toll</italic> (<italic>toll-like receptors</italic> &#8212; TLR), gerando produ&#231;&#227;o insuficiente de fator de necrose tumoral-<italic>&#945;</italic> (<italic>tumor necrosis factor-alpha</italic> &#8212; TNF-<italic>&#945;</italic>) e interleucina 6 (IL-6), e contribuindo para menor ativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas imunes essenciais na resposta imunol&#243;gica, como os linf&#243;citos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A senesc&#234;ncia causa, tamb&#233;m, um desequil&#237;brio nas popula&#231;&#245;es de c&#233;lulas <italic>Natural Killer</italic> (NK) &#8211; que tem participa&#231;&#227;o precoce na resposta imune a processos infecciosos e contribuem para orquestrar os passos subsequentes da resposta imune adaptativa. H&#225; um aumento do subtipo CD56<italic>dim</italic> (alta capacidade citot&#243;xica) e diminui&#231;&#227;o do subtipo CD56<italic>bright</italic> (baixa capacidade citot&#243;xica, mas com elevada atividade imunorregulat&#243;ria por meio de secre&#231;&#227;o de citocinas e quimiocinas), impactando tanto a resposta imune adaptativa quanto a capacidade de regula&#231;&#227;o do sistema imune.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Al&#233;m das altera&#231;&#245;es na imunidade inata, o envelhecimento impacta diretamente a resposta imune adaptativa mediada por linf&#243;citos T e B. Idosos sabidamente apresentam produ&#231;&#227;o atenuada de anticorpos e resposta vacinal reduzida. Diversos mecanismos contribuem para essa defici&#234;ncia: 1) o balan&#231;o entre diferentes subtipos de linf&#243;citos B &#233; alterado, com maior propor&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas B de mem&#243;ria, que produzem grandes quantidades de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias e que contribuem para o status de inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica nesta popula&#231;&#227;o (estas c&#233;lulas possivelmente tem um papel na gera&#231;&#227;o e manuten&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, conhecida como <italic>inflammaging</italic>);<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> 2) Linf&#243;citos B <italic>na&#239;ve</italic> de idosos s&#227;o capazes de produzir IL-10 e TNF-<italic>&#945;</italic> frente a um est&#237;mulo fisiol&#243;gico, enquanto linf&#243;citos B <italic>na&#239;ve</italic> de indiv&#237;duos jovens requerem est&#237;mulos mais potentes; 3) plasm&#243;citos apresentam redu&#231;&#227;o de sua expans&#227;o clonal com o envelhecimento, culminando na produ&#231;&#227;o de anticorpos com menor afinidade antig&#234;nica;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> 4) a diminui&#231;&#227;o do repert&#243;rio de linf&#243;citos B causada pelo aumento do compartimento de c&#233;lulas de mem&#243;ria impacta a capacidade de responder a novos est&#237;mulos antig&#234;nicos. A redu&#231;&#227;o na capacidade da resposta humoral prim&#225;ria, por sua vez, associa-se a perturba&#231;&#245;es tanto no <italic>switch</italic> de classe de imunoglobulinas quanto na gera&#231;&#227;o de anticorpos espec&#237;ficos com diferentes fun&#231;&#245;es. Decorre, portanto, maior susceptibilidade a infec&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Em pacientes acometidos pela forma grave da COVID-19, o dano presente no par&#234;nquima pulmonar seria causado principalmente pela resposta inflamat&#243;ria grave e menos pela a&#231;&#227;o direta do v&#237;rus. A resposta imune exacerbada (ou imunopatog&#234;nica) &#233; respons&#225;vel, ao menos em parte, pela pneumonia grave, insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria destes indiv&#237;duos, e eventualmente pelas altera&#231;&#245;es em outros &#243;rg&#227;os e sistemas. Um dos problemas relacionados ao envelhecimento &#233; que alguns idosos ou pacientes com doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas s&#227;o incapazes de modular a resposta imune inflamat&#243;ria, levando a um transbordamento de c&#233;lulas do sistema imunol&#243;gico e de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias nos pulm&#245;es, um evento denominado &#8220;<italic>cytokine storm</italic>&#8221; (tempestade de citocinas).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> Diversas das citocinas descritas no contexto de <italic>inflammaging</italic> como IL-6, TNF-<italic>&#945;</italic> e interferon gama (IFN-<italic>&#947;</italic>) participam desta tempestade de citocinas. IL-6 tamb&#233;m se relaciona &#224; fragilidade, perda de massa muscular, decl&#237;nio cognitivo e risco de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por pneumonia, manifesta&#231;&#245;es frequentes em idosos fr&#225;geis. Esta citocina &#233; desencadeadora de inflama&#231;&#227;o e inj&#250;ria tecidual, que pode por sua vez facilitar a invas&#227;o de pat&#243;genos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> Idosos apresentam n&#237;veis elevados de TNF-<italic>&#945;</italic> ap&#243;s estimula&#231;&#227;o com lipopolissacar&#237;deos (LPS) e IFN-<italic>&#947;</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Esta citocina atua reduzindo a express&#227;o de CD28 atrav&#233;s da inibi&#231;&#227;o de sua transcri&#231;&#227;o (no qual os mecanismos moleculares ainda n&#227;o s&#227;o bem conhecidos).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> Em pacientes com COVID-19, reportou-se aumento dos n&#237;veis de TNF-<italic>&#945;</italic>, IL-6, IFN-<italic>&#947;</italic> e IL-10, ao passo que redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis destas citocinas se relacionou &#224; resolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> Achados semelhantes foram descritos por Huang e colegas, por&#233;m um painel ainda maior de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias foi analisado e incluiu interleucina 1 beta (IL-1<italic>&#946;</italic>), IL-12 e prote&#237;na de quimioatra&#231;&#227;o de mon&#243;citos 1 (MCP1).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Multimorbidade</title>
      <p>A intera&#231;&#227;o indiv&#237;duo-multimorbidade &#233; complexa e interfere no gerenciamento cl&#237;nico de pacientes com COVID-19. Se no seguimento rotineiro de pessoas com multimorbidade j&#225; devem ser consideradas as intera&#231;&#245;es doen&#231;a-doen&#231;a, doen&#231;a-tratamento, e tratamento-tratamento, no contexto da infec&#231;&#227;o pelo novo coronav&#237;rus &#233; introduzida uma vari&#225;vel adicional,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> frequentemente acompanhada de novas disfun&#231;&#245;es org&#226;nicas e efeitos pouco compreendidos.</p>
      <p>Em um exemplo te&#243;rico, pode-se imaginar um paciente de 72 anos com HAS, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida, doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica (DPOC), dislipidemia, depress&#227;o e transtorno cognitivo leve em uso de estatina, bloqueador do receptor tipo 1 de angiotensina II (BRA), betabloqueador, dispositivo inalat&#243;rio com beta-2-agonista de longa dura&#231;&#227;o/corticoide inalat&#243;rio e inibidor seletivo da recapta&#231;&#227;o de serotonina (ISRS). O paciente, ao ser hospitalizado com COVID-19, evolui com insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria aguda hipox&#234;mica e necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o em Unidade de Terapia Intensiva (UTI), com suporte de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica. S&#227;o iniciadas cloroquina e azitromicina e, ao longo da interna&#231;&#227;o, o paciente apresenta estado confusional agudo, insufici&#234;ncia renal aguda e arritmia ventricular. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref> exemplifica as diversas poss&#237;veis intera&#231;&#245;es neste cen&#225;rio: intera&#231;&#227;o entre doen&#231;as (linhas azuis), intera&#231;&#227;o entre o tratamento para uma doen&#231;a impactando em outra doen&#231;a (linhas pretas) e intera&#231;&#245;es entre os tratamentos (linhas vermelhas). A complexidade do cen&#225;rio ilustra a import&#226;ncia do cuidado centrado no paciente para defini&#231;&#227;o do plano terap&#234;utico, dado que intera&#231;&#245;es entre doen&#231;as tratamentos podem ser delet&#233;rias ao doente com multimorbidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
      <fig id="f3">
        <label>Figura 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Modelo te&#243;rico de paciente com multimorbidade com COVID-19. Bal&#245;es azuis representam doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas; bal&#245;es verdes, complica&#231;&#245;es da COVID-19; ret&#226;ngulos amarelos tratamento para doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas; e ret&#226;ngulos vermelhos terap&#234;utica nova, iniciada na interna&#231;&#227;o. Linhas cinzas representam tratamento usual com base na doen&#231;a; linhas azuis, poss&#237;veis intera&#231;&#245;es entre as doen&#231;as; linhas vermelhas, poss&#237;veis intera&#231;&#245;es entre os tratamentos propostos; e linhas pretas, poss&#237;veis intera&#231;&#245;es entre o tratamento proposto para duas doen&#231;as diferentes. DPOC: doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica; HAS: hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; IRA: insufici&#234;ncia renal aguda; ISRS: inibidor seletivo da recapta&#231;&#227;o de serotonina; UTI: unidade de terapia intensiva. Adaptado de.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0701-00487-gf03.tif"/></fig>
      <p>Apesar das informa&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis sugerirem uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre multimorbidade e gravidade da COVID-19, n&#227;o &#233; claro ainda se existem situa&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas em que o tratamento de doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas possa ter um efeito ben&#233;fico no controle da infec&#231;&#227;o (ex.: HIV em uso de antirretroviral, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial permanente em uso de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral). Assim, enquanto n&#227;o houver mais informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2, deve-se ter cuidado antes de suspender intempestivamente medicamentos aos quais o paciente est&#225; habituado. Cabe &#224; equipe assistencial ponderar caso a caso os riscos e benef&#237;cios de cada medicamento em uso frente &#224;s poss&#237;veis interven&#231;&#245;es contra a COVID-19. Evita-se, assim, a indesejada cascata em que a doen&#231;a n&#250;mero 1 (COVID-19) seja controlada hoje, apenas para que as doen&#231;as n&#250;mero 2, 3, 4&#8230; (doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas) se tornem problemas ainda maiores amanh&#227;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Fragilidade</title>
      <p>Apesar de todo idoso ter algum risco de desenvolver fragilidade, ela &#233; mais comum entre aqueles que sofrem de multimorbidades, sedentarismo e alimenta&#231;&#227;o inadequada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> A fragilidade est&#225; associada a um estado pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico, caracterizado pelo aumento de citocinas como a interleucina 6 (IL-6) e fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-<italic>&#945;</italic>), cujos n&#237;veis podem predizer perda de funcionalidade e outros desfechos adversos em sa&#250;de.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> Levando essas informa&#231;&#245;es em considera&#231;&#227;o, e sabendo que j&#225; existem resultados sugerindo a associa&#231;&#227;o entre n&#237;veis elevados de IL-6 e maior mortalidade em indiv&#237;duos com COVID-19,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> &#233; poss&#237;vel que a fragilidade seja um marcador progn&#243;stico mais robusto do que idade, na doen&#231;a.</p>
      <p>Infelizmente, no cen&#225;rio de uma pandemia, durante a qual decis&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e aloca&#231;&#245;es de recursos limitados precisam ser realizadas rapidamente, &#233; comum que crit&#233;rios puramente et&#225;rios sejam empregados para definir os melhores candidatos para determinadas condutas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> No entanto, &#233; essencial entender que a popula&#231;&#227;o geri&#225;trica &#233; muito mais heterog&#234;nea que outros grupos et&#225;rios, e que, assim, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel determinar uma correla&#231;&#227;o autom&#225;tica entre idade e o potencial para benef&#237;cios de um tratamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> Essa ressalva &#233; particularmente verdadeira quando, por tratamento, entendem-se medidas de suporte cl&#237;nico gerais e assist&#234;ncia m&#233;dico-hospitalar adequada, como no caso da COVID-19.</p>
      <p>Por outro lado, fragilidade ao classificar pessoas da mesma faixa et&#225;ria, em diferentes n&#237;veis de risco para desfechos adversos, pode auxiliar na avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica de infectados pela COVID-19. Sua identifica&#231;&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel atrav&#233;s de escalas simples, como a escala FRAIL e o &#205;ndice de Fragilidade, instrumentos de rastreio j&#225; validados para preenchimento com informa&#231;&#245;es obtidas com pacientes, familiares ou dados de prontu&#225;rio, flexibiliza&#231;&#227;o interessante em um cen&#225;rio em que medidas de isolamento s&#227;o necess&#225;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o da fragilidade j&#225; a partir da unidade de pronto atendimento pode auxiliar na compreens&#227;o da doen&#231;a aguda no contexto das condi&#231;&#245;es basais de sa&#250;de do indiv&#237;duo, instrumentando a equipe para predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos adversos. Com isso, &#233; poss&#237;vel implementar interven&#231;&#245;es voltadas &#224; preven&#231;&#227;o desses eventos adversos e guiar as decis&#245;es sobre disposi&#231;&#227;o de recursos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> Tal trabalho se integra &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o global do idoso, base fundamental da atua&#231;&#227;o de equipes multidisciplinares no gerenciamento de medicamentos, preven&#231;&#227;o de quedas e delirium, e implementa&#231;&#227;o de transi&#231;&#245;es de cuidado.</p>
      <p>A s&#237;ndrome de fragilidade ainda n&#227;o foi suficientemente estudada no contexto da COVID-19. Explorar sua utilidade para avalia&#231;&#227;o de progn&#243;stico e defini&#231;&#227;o da proporcionalidade de medidas de suporte pode ser passo fundamental para que profissionais da sa&#250;de possam agir com justi&#231;a e seguran&#231;a, sem omiss&#227;o ou neglig&#234;ncia na aplica&#231;&#227;o dos recursos em sa&#250;de.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Perspectivas</title>
      <p>Est&#225; claro que os idosos ser&#227;o aqueles mais impactados em morbimortalidade e, atuam aqui diferentes processos discutidos nesse artigo - ora conectados ora atuando sinergicamente: as altera&#231;&#245;es da ECA2 e do sistema renina-angiotensina, imunossenesc&#234;ncia, <italic>inflammaging</italic>, multimorbidade e fragilidade, resumidas na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>.</p>
      <p>O SARS-CoV-2 imp&#245;e uma s&#233;rie de desafios aos gestores do sistema de sa&#250;de, governantes, profissionais de sa&#250;de e a sociedade em geral. Em um cen&#225;rio com recursos finitos e satura&#231;&#227;o dos servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de, uma aloca&#231;&#227;o racional do sistema de sa&#250;de se far&#225; necess&#225;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> A tomada de decis&#227;o, no entanto, nunca dever&#225; ser baseada &#250;nica e exclusivamente na idade cronol&#243;gica de um indiv&#237;duo &#8212; profissionais de sa&#250;de realocados para atendimento de pacientes com COVID-19 devem estar familiarizados com aplica&#231;&#227;o de <italic>scores</italic> de fragilidade determinados pela sua pr&#225;tica institucional e englobar parte do seu treinamento obrigat&#243;rio. Cardiologistas sabem o impacto da fragilidade no tratamento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O conhecimento gerado durante essa pandemia pode ser fundamental para fornecer respostas sobre peculiaridades do envelhecimento em diversos outros contextos. Possivelmente, o engajamento humano, tecnol&#243;gico e da comunidade cient&#237;fica seja o maior de nossa hist&#243;ria e que este recurso &#237;mpar permita a implementa&#231;&#227;o de novas terap&#234;uticas, vacinas, amplie nossa capacidade diagn&#243;stica com impacto inestim&#225;vel na sa&#250;de dos idosos tanto para a COVID-19 como para outras doen&#231;as relacionadas ao envelhecimento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Research Letter</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>ACE2 Expression and Risk Factors for COVID-19 Severity in Patients with Advanced Age</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2366-3371</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tavares</surname>
            <given-names>Caio de Assis Moura</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9347-0519</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Avelino-Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Thiago Junqueira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Benard</surname>
            <given-names>Gil</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0701-6593</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cardozo</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Akira Malta</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2127-8493</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana Ruiz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3715-6917</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Girardi</surname>
            <given-names>Adriana Castello Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jacob</surname>
            <given-names>Wilson</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor), Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, Faculdade Israelita de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Investiga&#231;&#227;o M&#233;dica em Envelhecimento (LIM-66), Servi&#231;o de Geriatria, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Investiga&#231;&#227;o M&#233;dica LIM-56, Divis&#227;o de Cl&#237;nica Dermatol&#243;gica Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Medicina Tropical de S&#227;o Paulo, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Wilson Jacob Filho</bold> &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Av. Dr Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. 2&#186; andar, Bloco ii, Sala 06. Postal Code <postal-code>05403-000</postal-code>, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: <email>wiljac@usp.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author Contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Tavares CAM, Avelino-Silva TJ, Girardi ACC, Jacob Filho W; Acquisition of data: Tavares CAM, Avelino-Silva TJ, Benard G, Fernandes JR, Cardozo FAM, Girardi ACC, Jacob Filho W; Writing of the manuscript: Tavares CAM, Avelino-Silva TJ, Benard G, Fernandes JR, Cardozo FAM, Girardi ACC; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Tavares CAM, Avelino-Silva TJ, Benard G, Girardi ACC, Jacob Filho W.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Aging</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Immunosenescence</kwd>
        <kwd>Frailty</kwd>
        <kwd>Multimorbidity</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>Understanding the relationship between aging and COVID-19 severity is key from multiple perspectives: for the clinical management of patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection, drafting of health policies and repositioning of drugs and/or the development of potential therapeutic targets for this population. Focusing on the underlying molecular and pathophysiological mechanisms, we will discuss the potential risk factors that may contribute to COVID-19 severity in patients with advanced age: ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) expression, immunosenescence/inflammaging and the presence of multimorbidity or frailty.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>ACE2, SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Aging</title>
        <p>Abnormalities induced by aging in metabolic pathways may partly explain the higher rate of COVID-19 morbidity and mortality in elderly patients. These include those belonging to the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), given the crucial role that this system plays both in viral transmissibility<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> and in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury and its most severe form: acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
        <p>ACE2 is known to act as a receptor for SARS-CoV-2 1 structural protein S (spike),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> through which the virus gains access to the host cell. This mechanism involves interaction of viral S protein with ACE2 extracellular domain, triggering conformational changes that destabilize the cell membrane, allowing the internalization of SARS-CoV-2 and ACE2, viral replication, and cell-to-cell transmission.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref></p>
        <p>With aging, there is a considerable reduction in the expression of ACE2 in the lungs.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> Knowing that ACE2 is the gateway to SARS-CoV-2, it can be affirmed that the greater the expression of ACE2 in the cell membrane, the greater the infectivity. However, despite the decline in tissue ACE2 expression with age, elderly patients have greater severity of lung damage and higher lethality rate from COVID-19 compared to young individuals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> A possible explanation to this apparent inconsistency between old age, level of tissue ACE2 and severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> is that younger people with higher ACE2 expression are more likely to have the infection while elderly individuals, with lower ACE2 expression may present more severe conditions when infected due to exacerbated effects mediated by Angiotensin II (Ang II). This is supported by the fact that, with aging, in addition to reduced tissue ACE2 expression, there is greater activation of pro-inflammatory signaling pathways resulting from hyperactivity of the ACE/Ang II pathway.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Also, there is ample evidence of the protective role of ACE2 against pulmonary insufficiency and a causal relationship between the ACE/Ang II pathway and ARDS, established in animal models.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> The complex interrelationship between ACE2, SARS-CoV-2 infection and aging is illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Association between age, ACE2 expression and COVID-19 severity. Reduced expression of ACE2 in the membrane of pulmonary epithelial cells (type II pneumocytes) with aging increases the levels of angiotensin II (Ang II) to the detriment of Ang-(1-7) formation, exaggeratedly triggering pro-inflammatory pathways and predisposing elderly patients to greater severity of acute lung injury and mortality from COVID-19. Such predisposition is enhanced by the fact that SARS-CoV-2 binding to ACE2 leads to the internalization of both, further reducing the expression of this enzyme in the cell membrane. In young patients, expression of ACE2 in the cell membrane is greater than in the elderly, enabling a balance between the actions of Ang II and Ang-1-7. Greater expression of ACE2 may cause increased infectivity by SARS-CoV-2, but the generation of Ang-1-7 triggers anti-inflammatory effects that are opposed to those of Ang II, protecting young individuals against the development/progression of acute lung injury. This model is hypothetical and has not been validated experimentally.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0701-00487-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Immunosenescence, Inflammaging and COVID-19</title>
        <p>Significant abnormalities in the immune system, which affect both innate and adaptive immunity, have been associated with aging. This set of abnormalities are broadly referred to as immunosenescence, characterized by a decline in immune system responsiveness, leading to more serious viral and bacterial infection outcomes, and increased incidence of autoimmune diseases, neoplasms, and others.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Based on current knowledge of the abnormalities caused by immune system senescence, and based on studies related to the pathophysiology of COVID-19, it is possible to come up with explanations about the high frequency of severe cases in the elderly or patients with chronic diseases. Healthy individuals in general, in contrast to the elderly and immunosuppressed, have efficient innate immunity, which, associated with intact cellular and humoral immunity, limit the progression of infection and recovery in a few weeks. This controlled immune response supposedly acts in the initial phase of the infectious process, limiting viral replication and dissemination, which, unfortunately, frequently occur in the elderly critically ill from COVID-19.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> In the elderly, weakened innate and adaptive immune systems would allow higher and persistent viral loads &#8212; an assumption that is in line with a recent description of patients with COVID-19, in which the viral load detected in the posterior oropharynx correlates with age.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> This increased viral load represents intense and persistent antigenic stimulus in the elderly, concomitantly with lower immune system regulation. The relationship between changes in the immune system, advanced age and COVID-19 severity is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 2</xref>. To better understand this, it is necessary to define and describe the processes of immunosenescence and inflammaging.</p>
        <fig id="f5">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Relationship between immunosenescence, inflammageing and severity of infection by COVID-19. Note that changes in the immune system and inflammatory status can contribute to the severity of the infection both by impacting viral replication and by increasing inflammatory cytokines.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0701-00487-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Dendritic cells (DC) are cells of the innate immune system that connect the innate and adaptive immune systems<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> &#8212; this cell subtype seems important in the host&#8217;s defense against SARS-CoV-2, given the location of this cell type (present in the skin, nasal cavity, lungs, peripheral blood, the sites where we can find the virus). In the elderly, DCs: 1) have poorer phagocytic capacity &#8212; which may result not only in a less efficient immune system response, but also in reduced physiological capacity to remove proper components (including apoptotic cells); 2) are less able to instruct an adaptive immune response through coordinated signaling; 3) remain capable of secreting inflammatory cytokines under stress conditions, contributing to a chronic inflammatory state.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In addition to DCs, monocytes and macrophages act on innate immunity by producing pro-inflammatory cytokines and processing and presenting antigens to T lymphocytes. With aging, there may be reduced generation of macrophage precursors and their phagocytic function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> Signaling dysregulation by Toll-like receptors (TLR) has also been described, generating insufficient production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-<italic>&#945;</italic>) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), and contributing to poorer activation of essential immune cells in immune response, such as lymphocytes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Senescence also causes an imbalance in Natural Killer (NK) cell populations &#8212; which play an early role in the immune response to infectious processes and participate on orchestrating the subsequent steps of the adaptive immune response. There is an increase in the subtype CD56dim (high cytotoxic capacity) and a decrease in the subtype CD56bright (low cytotoxic capacity, but with high immunoregulatory activity through secretion of cytokines and chemokines) impacting both adaptive immune response and regulatory capacity of the immune system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In addition to changes in innate immunity, aging directly impacts the adaptive immune response mediated by T and B lymphocytes. Elderly people are known to have attenuated antibody production and reduced vaccine response. Several mechanisms contribute to this deficiency: 1) the balance between different subtypes of B lymphocytes is altered, with a higher proportion of memory B cells, which produce large amounts of inflammatory cytokines and contribute to the status of systemic inflammation in this population (these cells possibly have a role in the generation and maintenance of systemic inflammation, known as inflammaging);<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> 2) Na&#239;ve B lymphocytes in the elderly are capable of producing IL-10 and TNF-<italic>&#945;</italic> with physiological stimulus, while na&#239;ve B lymphocytes in young individuals require more potent stimuli; 3) plasmocytes have reduced clonal expansion with aging, culminating in the production of antibodies with lesser antigenic affinity;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> 4) decreased B lymphocyte repertoire caused by increased memory cell compartment impacts the ability to respond to new antigenic stimuli. Reduced primary humoral response capacity, in turn, is associated with disturbances both in the switch of immunoglobulin class and in the generation of specific antibodies with different functions. Therefore, there is greater susceptibility to infections.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In patients affected by the severe form of COVID-19, lung parenchyma damage would be caused mainly by severe inflammatory response and less by the direct virus action. Exacerbated immune (or immunopathogenic) response partly accounts for severe pneumonia, respiratory failure in these individuals, and often for disorders in other organs and systems. One of the problems related to aging is that some elderly people or patients with chronic diseases are unable to modulate inflammatory immune response, leading to an overflow of immune cells and inflammatory cytokines in the lungs, an event called &#8220;cytokine storm&#8221;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> Several of the cytokines described in the context of inflammaging, such as IL-6, TNF-&#945; and interferon gamma (IFN-&#947;) participate in this storm of cytokines. IL-6 is also related to frailty, loss of muscle mass, cognitive decline and risk of hospitalization for pneumonia, frequent manifestations in frail elderly people. This cytokine triggers inflammation and tissue injury, which may facilitate the invasion of pathogens.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> Elderly people have high levels of TNF-&#945; after stimulation with lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and IFN-&#947;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> This cytokine reduces the expression of CD28 by inhibiting its transcription (in which the molecular mechanisms are not yet well known).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> In patients with COVID-19, increased levels of TNF-&#945;, IL-6, IFN-&#947; and IL-10 have been reported; whereas reduced levels of these cytokines were related to the resolution of the disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> Similar findings were described by Huang et al., but an even larger panel of inflammatory cytokines was analyzed and included interleukin 1 beta (IL-1&#946;), IL-12 and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Multimorbidity</title>
        <p>Individual-multimorbidity interaction is complex and interferes with the clinical management of patients with COVID-19. If in the routine follow-up of people with multimorbidity disease-disease, disease-treatment and treatment-treatment interactions should already be considered, in the context of infection with the novel coronavirus, an additional variable<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> is introduced, often accompanied by new organic dysfunctions and poorly understood effects.</p>
        <p>In a theoretical example, one can imagine a 72-year-old patient with Hypertension, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), dyslipidemia, depression and mild cognitive impairment using statins, angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker (ARB), beta-blocker, inhalation device with long-acting beta-2-agonist/inhaled corticoid and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). If this patients is hospitalized with COVID-19 presents acute hypoxemic respiratory failure and requires admission to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) with mechanical ventilation. Chloroquine and azithromycin are initiated and, during hospitalization, the patient presents acute confusional state, acute kidney failure and ventricular arrhythmia. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 3</xref> exemplifies the various possible interactions in this scenario (interaction between diseases (blue lines), interaction between treatment for one disease impacting another disease (black lines) and interactions between treatments (red lines). This complex scenario illustrates the importance of patient-centered care to define the therapeutic plan, given that interactions between diseases and treatments can be harmful to patients with multimorbidity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
        <fig id="f6">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Theoretical model of a patient with multimorbidity with COVID-19. Blue balloons represent chronic diseases; green balloons, COVID-19 complications; yellow rectangles, treatment for chronic diseases; and red rectangles, new therapy initiated on admission. Gray lines represent usual treatment based on the disease; blue lines, potential disease interactions; red lines, potential interactions between the proposed treatments; and black lines, potential interactions between the proposed treatment for two different diseases. COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; HTN: Hypertension; HF: heart failure; AKI: Acute Kidney Injury; SSRI: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; ICU: intensive care unit. Adapted from.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-04-0701-00487-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Although the available information suggests an association between multimorbidity and severity of COVID-19, it is still unclear whether there are specific situations in which the treatment of chronic diseases may have a beneficial effect on infection control (e.g.: HIV using antiretroviral, permanent atrial fibrillation using oral anticoagulation). Thus, while there is no more information about SARS-CoV-2 infection, care should be taken before untimely suspending medications to which the patient is accustomed. The healthcare team is responsible for weighing, on a case-by-case basis, the risks and benefits of each drug in use in view of possible interventions against COVID-19. This avoids the unwanted cascade in which disease number 1 (COVID-19) is controlled today and diseases number 2, 3, 4 ... (chronic diseases) become even bigger problems tomorrow.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Frailty</title>
        <p>Although every elderly person has some risk of developing frailty, it is more common among those with multimorbidities, physical inactivity and inadequate nutrition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> Frailty is associated with a chronic pro-inflammatory state characterized by increased cytokines such as interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;), whose levels can predict loss of functionality and other adverse health outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> Taking this information into account, and knowing that there are outcomes suggesting an association between high levels of IL-6 and higher mortality in individuals with COVID-19,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> frailty is likely a more robust prognostic marker than age, in the disease.</p>
        <p>Unfortunately in the context of a pandemic, during which clinical decisions and limited resources need to be arranged quickly, it is common for purely age criteria to be used to define the best candidates for certain managements.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> However, it is essential to understand that the geriatric population is much more heterogeneous than other age groups, and that, therefore, it is not possible to determine an automatic correlation between age and the potential for treatment benefits.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> This caveat is particularly true when treatment includes general clinical support measures and proper medical and hospital assistance, as in COVID-19.</p>
        <p>On the other hand, classifying people of the same age group according to frailty, at different levels of risk for adverse outcomes, can assist in the prognostic assessment of those infected with COVID-19. Its identification is possible through simple scales, such as the FRAIL scale and the Frailty Index, as these screening instruments are currently validated for filling in information from patients, family members or medical records, an interesting flexibility in a scenario where isolation measures are necessary.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The identification of frailty from the emergency care unit can help understand acute illness in the context of an individual&#8217;s baseline health conditions, hence helping the team to predict adverse events. Therewith, it is possible to implement interventions aimed at preventing these adverse events and guide the decisions on allocation of resources.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> Such work is part of the global assessment of the elderly, the cornerstone in the multidisciplinary teams&#8217; work of managing medications, preventing falls and delirium, and implementing care transitions.</p>
        <p>Frailty syndrome has not been sufficiently studied in the context of COVID-19. Exploring its usefulness for assessing prognosis and defining the proportionality of support measures can be a fundamental step so that health professionals may act with justice and security, without omission or negligence in the application of health resources.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Prospects</title>
        <p>It is clear that the elderly will be those who will be most impacted by the pandemic, regarding morbidity and mortality &#8212; this includes different aspects discussed in this study, connected in some aspects and acting synergistic in others: expression of ACE2 and renin-angiotensin system, immunosenescence, inflammaging, multimorbidity and frailty, summarized in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 3</xref>.</p>
        <p>The SARS-CoV-2 imposes a range of challenges on health system managers, government officials, health professionals and society in general. In a scenario with finite resources and saturation of health services, a rational allocation of the health system will be necessary.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Decision-making, however, should never be based solely and exclusively on an individual&#8217;s chronological age &#8212; healthcare professionals relocated to see patients with COVID-19 must be familiar with the application of frailty scores determined by their institutional practice and complete mandatory training. Cardiologists are aware of the impact of frailty in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The knowledge generated during this pandemic can be essential to provide answers about the peculiarities of aging in several other contexts. Human, technological and scientific community engagement is possibly the greatest in our history and this unique resource may allow the implementation of new therapies, vaccines, expand our diagnostic capacity with an inestimable impact on the health of the elderly, both for COVID-19 and for other diseases related to aging.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn3">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Study Association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
