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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">ZspFJxrMPWPMvnKnd9Dmzsm</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020001100569</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200474</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200474</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Carta Cient&#237;fica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Afec&#231;&#245;es Peric&#225;rdicas em Pacientes com COVID-19: Uma Poss&#237;vel Causa de Deteriora&#231;&#227;o Hemodin&#226;mica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2437-2485</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ramires</surname>
            <given-names>Felix Jos&#233; Alvarez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio Danziato</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sim&#245;es</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vinicius</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mady</surname>
            <given-names>Charles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o,S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio S&#227;o Camilo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio S&#227;o Camilo,S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto,Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense,Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: F&#225;bio Fernandes</bold> &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Av. Dr. Eneas C. Aguiar, 44. CEP 05403-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>fabio.fernandes@incor.usp.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos Autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Fernandes F, Mesquita ET; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Fernandes F, Fernandes FD, Sim&#245;es MV, Mesquita ET; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Fernandes F, Ramires F, Fernandes FD, Sim&#245;es MV, Mesquita ET, Mady C; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Fernandes F, Ramires F, Fernandes FD, Sim&#245;es MV, Mesquita ET.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>115</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>569</fpage>
      <lpage>573</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Coronavirus-19</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Betacoronavirus/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Pandemia</kwd>
        <kwd>SARS-CoV-2</kwd>
        <kwd>Hip&#243;xia</kwd>
        <kwd>Complica&#231;&#245;es Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflama&#231;&#227;o Sist&#234;mica</kwd>
        <kwd>Trombose</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="26"/>
        <page-count count="5"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O curso cl&#237;nico da infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV-2 &#233; caracterizado por sintomas do trato respirat&#243;rio, febre, tosse, dor de garganta, fadiga e complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo. No entanto, alguns pacientes que inicialmente apresentam sintomas leves poder&#227;o subsequentemente apresentar deteriora&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, a qual ocorre aproximadamente uma semana ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio dos sintomas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A progress&#227;o aguda da COVID-19 pode ser dividida em tr&#234;s fases distintas: infec&#231;&#227;o precoce, fase pulmonar e hiperinflama&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, pode haver sobreposi&#231;&#227;o significativa entre as diferentes fases em qualquer paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O envolvimento card&#237;aco &#233; uma caracter&#237;stica proeminente da COVID-19 e est&#225; associado a pior progn&#243;stico. Os mecanismos de les&#227;o card&#237;aca s&#227;o m&#250;ltiplos, sendo descritos aumento do estresse card&#237;aco secund&#225;rio a insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria, hipoxemia, infec&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica direta pelo SARS-CoV-2, doen&#231;a microvascular ou microtrombose e inj&#250;ria indireta secund&#225;ria a inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Frente a um paciente com COVID-19 que apresenta piora cl&#237;nica, devemos incluir como poss&#237;veis diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais: pneumonia em evolu&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2, exacerba&#231;&#227;o aguda da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica, s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, embolia pulmonar aguda, miocardite e afec&#231;&#245;es peric&#225;rdicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Diante do exposto, realizou-se uma revis&#227;o n&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura a fim de abordar os principais estudos que sugerem comprometimento peric&#225;rdico em pacientes com COVID-19. A base de dados consultada foi a PubMed (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed). Foram selecionados artigos originais e de revis&#227;o realizados em humanos, redigidos em portugu&#234;s e ingl&#234;s. Os seguintes descritores MeSH foram utilizados como palavras-chave: COVID-19, <italic>cardiac tamponade</italic>, SARS-CoV-2 e <italic>pericarditis</italic>.</p>
      <p>Neste trabalho, objetivamos revisar as evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis at&#233; o momento em rela&#231;&#227;o ao envolvimento peric&#225;rdico de pacientes com SARS-CoV-2, suas formas de apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos e possibilidades terap&#234;uticas, salientando a possiblidade de comprometimento hemodin&#226;mico pela ocorr&#234;ncia de tamponamento card&#237;aco (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Quadro 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Quadro 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Reconhecimento de pericardiopatias em pacientes com COVID-19</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>1. Paciente com COVID-19 e suspeita de pericardite:</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; dispneia, taquipneia, edema de membros inferiores;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; taquicardia;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; hipotens&#227;o;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; pulso paradoxal.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>2. Exames complementares:</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; ECG (baixa voltagem);</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; troponina e CKMB (miopericardite);</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico (sinais de tamponamento).</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>3. Diagn&#243;stico diferencial:</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; cardiomiopatia relacionada a sepse (tempestade de citocinas);</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; miocardite;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>4. Investiga&#231;&#245;es adicionais:</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca, se poss&#237;vel;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8226; angiotomografia de coron&#225;rias.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>5. Considerar periocardiocentese</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Afec&#231;&#245;es Peric&#225;rdicas</title>
      <p>O derrame peric&#225;rdico &#233; a apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica mais comum das pericardiopatias. Processos infecciosos causados por agentes virais, bacterianos ou f&#250;ngicos podem cursar ou n&#227;o com o acometimento do peric&#225;rdio. Em caso de pericardite, encontraremos, em sua forma aguda, manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas como dor tor&#225;cica tipo pleur&#237;tica e atrito peric&#225;rdico, al&#233;m de altera&#231;&#245;es no tra&#231;ado eletrocardiogr&#225;fico. A condi&#231;&#227;o mais comumente associada ao derrame peric&#225;rdico &#233; a pericardite aguda de etiologia viral, frequentemente uma condi&#231;&#227;o autolimitada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nos casos de pacientes com COVID-19, a ocorr&#234;ncia de derrame pleural, linfadenopatia, cavita&#231;&#227;o, sinal de halo da tomografia de t&#243;rax, pneumot&#243;rax e derrame peric&#225;rdico &#233; incomum, mas pode ser observada com a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A a&#231;&#227;o do v&#237;rus no peric&#225;rdio pode ser por efeito citot&#243;xico direto e/ou por mecanismo imunomediado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O primeiro relato de tamponamento card&#237;aco secund&#225;rio &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o pela COVID-19 foi feito em 30 mar&#231;o de 2020, em uma paciente de 47 anos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Quadro 2</xref>). A paciente referia sintomas de febre e tosse seca e n&#227;o apresentava comorbidades cardiovasculares, como hipertens&#227;o ou diabetes, mas apresentava antecedente de miopericardite e teste positivo para COVID-19 em <italic>swab</italic> nasofar&#237;ngeo. Evoluiu com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, sendo diagnosticado tamponamento card&#237;aco e identificada necessidade de pericardiocentese &#8211; na qual 540 mL de l&#237;quido serossanguinolento foram retirados. Esse caso chamou aten&#231;&#227;o da comunidade m&#233;dica para a possibilidade do comprometimento peric&#225;rdico evoluir para tamponamento card&#237;aco e ser um fator respons&#225;vel pela deteriora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica em pacientes com COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Quadro 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Casos de afec&#231;&#245;es peric&#225;rdicas e COVID-19</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="14%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Data publica&#231;&#227;o <sup>(ref.)</sup> Pa&#237;s</th>
                <th>Idade (anos)</th>
                <th>Sexo</th>
                <th>Antecedentes CV</th>
                <th>Tamponamento/Pericardiocentese</th>
                <th>Sintomas pr&#233;vios COVID-19</th>
                <th>Tratamento coadjuvante</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>30/03/2020 Reino Unido<sup>8</sup></td>
                <td align="center">47</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Miopericardite</td>
                <td align="center">Sim / Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o relatado</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>27/03/2020 It&#225;lia<sup>9</sup></td>
                <td align="center">53</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Sem antecedentes</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o / N&#227;o (miopericardite)</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Lopinavir/Ritonavir Corticoide/hidroxicloroquina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>23/04/2020 It&#225;lia<sup>10</sup></td>
                <td align="center">59</td>
                <td align="center">M</td>
                <td align="center">Cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica aguda (revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica)</td>
                <td align="center">Sim / Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Lopinavir/Ritonavir Enoxaparina/hidroxicloroquina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>23/04/2020 Estados Unidos<sup>7</sup></td>
                <td align="center">67</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Miocardiopatia isqu&#234;mica FE 40%</td>
                <td align="center">Sim / Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Colchicina, hidroxicloroquina, corticoide</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>12/05/2020<sup>11</sup> Ar&#225;bia Saudita</td>
                <td align="center">41</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Sem antecedentes</td>
                <td align="center">Sim / Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Azitromicina e Hidroxicloroquina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>06/05/2020<sup>12</sup> Estados Unidos</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica, hipertens&#227;o e diabetes</td>
                <td align="center">Sim / Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Colchicina</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Outro caso de tamponamento peric&#225;rdico foi identificado em uma paciente de 67 anos com antecedente de miocardiopatia isqu&#234;mica e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de 40% que, ap&#243;s uma semana do in&#237;cio de sintomas respirat&#243;rios, desenvolveu fadiga, hipotens&#227;o e taquicardia. Al&#233;m disso, o eletrocardiograma evidenciou baixa voltagem, com os marcadores s&#233;ricos troponina e BNP normais. Devido &#224; persist&#234;ncia dos sintomas, realizou-se ecocardiograma, o qual evidenciou tamponamento peric&#225;rdico. Em seguida, foi realizada drenagem de 800 mL de l&#237;quido sero-hemorr&#225;gico com caracter&#237;sticas de exsudato. Logo ap&#243;s a pericardiocentese, a paciente evoluiu para cardiomiopatia induzida por estresse, caraterizada pelo abaulamento apical transit&#243;rio (s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo), conforme achados cl&#237;nicos, laboratoriais, eletro e ecocardiogr&#225;ficos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Uma paciente de 53 anos, sem antecedentes m&#243;rbidos, procurou servi&#231;o uma semana ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio dos sintomas. Deu entrada com hipotens&#227;o e altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas com supradesnivelamento difuso do segmento ST e eleva&#231;&#227;o de biomarcadores, como troponina e NT-proBNP, mas com coron&#225;rias angiograficamente normais. Foi solicitado exame PCR de <italic>swab</italic> de nasofaringe, o qual testou positivo para SARS-CoV-2. A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca evidenciou edema e realce tardio mioc&#225;rdicos, al&#233;m de derrame peric&#225;rdico circunferencial compat&#237;vel com miopericardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um paciente de 59 anos deu entrada com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda e foi submetido a cateterismo card&#237;aco, o qual evidenciou les&#245;es triarteriais. O paciente recebeu tratamento de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. No 22&#186; p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, iniciou sintomas de febre e dispneia e apresentou PCR positivo para SARS-CoV-2, com tomografia de t&#243;rax compat&#237;vel com pneumonia por SARS-CoV-2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> No 23&#186; dia de infec&#231;&#227;o, o paciente evoluiu com dor precordial, dispneia, hipotens&#227;o e taquicardia. O ecocardiograma evidenciou derrame peric&#225;rdico circunferencial com sinais de tamponamento de c&#226;maras direitas, sendo drenados 250 mL de l&#237;quido serossanguinolento.</p>
      <p>Em outro caso, uma paciente de 70 anos com antecedentes de doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria aguda (infarto do mioc&#225;rdio sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST duas semanas antes da interna&#231;&#227;o, com angioplastia recente) deu entrada com sintomas respirat&#243;rios. No segundo dia de interna&#231;&#227;o, apresentou dor tor&#225;cica sugestiva de pericardite aguda, evoluindo com tamponamento card&#237;aco, intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal e instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica com necessidade de drogas vasoativas. Houve melhora cl&#237;nica e hemodin&#226;mica apenas ap&#243;s a pericardiocentese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Outro caso de COVID-19 e tamponamento card&#237;aco envolveu uma paciente de 41 anos, sem antecedentes pr&#233;vios, que havia procurado o servi&#231;o com sintomas respirat&#243;rios 10 dias antes da interna&#231;&#227;o. Realizou-se pericardiocentese e evidenciou-se exsudato no l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico, com elevados n&#237;veis de DHL e albumina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nesses seis primeiros casos, observamos que pacientes com SARS-CoV-2 podem apresentar comprometimento peric&#225;rdico na evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica. O per&#237;odo de diagn&#243;stico e piora cl&#237;nica, em geral ap&#243;s a primeira semana da infec&#231;&#227;o, coincide com a fase de aumento de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias, provavelmente com mecanismos autoimunes envolvidos no mecanismo etiopatog&#234;nico do derrame.</p>
      <p>Alguns autores acreditam que, em pacientes com miocardite secund&#225;ria ao coronav&#237;rus, a infec&#231;&#227;o viral pode ser o fator inicial, desencadeando inj&#250;ria imunomediada. Em estudos de necropsia, observa-se infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio mononuclear nos tecidos card&#237;acos, por&#233;m sem presen&#231;a de inclus&#227;o viral em alguns casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> A r&#225;pida recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e o leve aumento na carga viral sugerem que, al&#233;m da replica&#231;&#227;o viral no mioc&#225;rdio, &#233; poss&#237;vel que a resposta imune, uma tempestade de citocinas, realmente possa desempenhar um papel significativo na fisiopatologia da agress&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A libera&#231;&#227;o excessiva de citocinas pode ser observada em grande variedade de doen&#231;as sist&#234;micas, incluindo doen&#231;as infecciosas, reum&#225;ticas e neopl&#225;sicas, as quais podem levar ao comprometimento peric&#225;rdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Imunologistas e patologistas observaram infiltrado de macr&#243;fagos na necropsia, podendo indicar que a viremia e imunidade inata dominam o quadro cl&#237;nico antes que o infiltrado linfocit&#225;rio possa ocorrer. Observam-se par&#226;metros inflamat&#243;rios aumentados, entre eles a prote&#237;na C-reativa e as citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias (IL-6, TNF&#945;, IL-8l).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Dessa forma, um estado hiperinflamat&#243;rio induzido pela a&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pode levar &#224; insufici&#234;ncia de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os e poderia ser respons&#225;vel pelo comprometimento mioc&#225;rdico e peric&#225;rdico na doen&#231;a; no entanto, n&#227;o podemos excluir a possibilidade de parte desse comprometimento ser causado pelo v&#237;rus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O caso do paciente relatado no estudo italiano exibiu um per&#237;odo mais tardio at&#233; o aparecimento de pericardite, e a an&#225;lise qu&#237;mica e citol&#243;gica do l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico demonstrou presen&#231;a de infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio com predom&#237;nio linfocit&#225;rio e presen&#231;a de SARS-CoV-2, sugerindo poss&#237;vel efeito direto do v&#237;rus nas manifesta&#231;&#245;es cardiol&#243;gicas. &#201; interessante notar que o paciente apresentava PCR negativo no sangue e na regi&#227;o nasofar&#237;ngea, sendo apenas positivo no l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico, o que pode sugerir poss&#237;vel reservat&#243;rio do v&#237;rus no peric&#225;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em cinco dos casos, a apresenta&#231;&#227;o foi de tamponamento card&#237;aco, uma causa de descompensa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de alto risco, mas potencialmente revers&#237;vel. A decis&#227;o de adotar uma t&#233;cnica invasiva de tratamento &#233; influenciada pelo quadro cl&#237;nico do paciente. Quando o quadro for evidente, com presen&#231;a de hipotens&#227;o arterial, dispneia e pulso paradoxal, n&#227;o existe controv&#233;rsia quanto ao procedimento. A conduta frente ao derrame peric&#225;rdico deve estar embasada no contexto cl&#237;nico (piora dos sintomas), hemodin&#226;mico (presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de tamponamento) ou pesquisa da etiologia (infec&#231;&#227;o, tuberculose ou neoplasia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Tratamento Farmacol&#243;gico</title>
      <p>A defini&#231;&#227;o do melhor tratamento farmacol&#243;gico para afec&#231;&#227;o peric&#225;rdica em pacientes com SARS-CoV-2 merece discuss&#227;o. Os anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o hormonais (AINHs) est&#227;o indicados como primeira op&#231;&#227;o em todos os casos de pericardite aguda e recorrente, desde que n&#227;o apresentem contraindica&#231;&#245;es. Recomenda-se &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico (AAS) 800 mg, a cada oito horas, ou ibuprofeno 600 mg, a cada oito horas, em associa&#231;&#227;o com a colchicina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um estudo retrospectivo realizado na Fran&#231;a<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> demonstrou que o uso de AINHs para efeito de sintomas pr&#233;vio &#224; hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por pneumonia desenvolveu formas mais graves da doen&#231;a e per&#237;odo maior de interna&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes. Por outro lado, o uso de ibuprofeno e acetaminofeno tamb&#233;m esteve associado a maior risco de complica&#231;&#245;es em crian&#231;as, principalmente em altas doses cumulativas. Especula-se que o al&#237;vio sintom&#225;tico da dor e febre possa acarretar retardo na introdu&#231;&#227;o precoce de antibi&#243;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Os poss&#237;veis vieses de que pacientes com infec&#231;&#245;es virais mais severas, como <italic>influenza</italic> e COVID-19, s&#227;o mais propensos a utilizar anti-inflamat&#243;rios e ibuporofeno poderiam ser fatores confundidores do risco aumentado.</p>
      <p>A controv&#233;rsia relacionada &#224; seguran&#231;a do uso de ibuprofeno em pacientes com COVID-19 originou-se na Fran&#231;a, quando um infectologista relatou piora dos sintomas em quatro pacientes que haviam feito uso da medica&#231;&#227;o. O relato foi logo respaldado pelo Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de Franc&#234;s.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>Por outro lado, h&#225; dados que mostram que o ibuprofeno aumenta a express&#227;o de receptores ACE<sub>2.</sub> No entanto, sabemos que evid&#234;ncias de efeitos mecan&#237;sticos nem sempre s&#227;o confirmados por estudos cl&#237;nicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>Atualmente, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de e da <italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic> (FDA) n&#227;o se op&#245;em ao uso de ibuprofeno em casos sintom&#225;ticos de COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Em resumo, as evid&#234;ncias epidemiol&#243;gicas recentes n&#227;o s&#227;o suficientes para afirmar um elo causal entre efeito delet&#233;rio e uso de ibuprofeno em pacientes com COVID-19. Dessa forma, deve-se ponderar a rela&#231;&#227;o risco-benef&#237;cio na decis&#227;o sobre o uso desse medicamento em pacientes com COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, a colchicina vem se destacando como medica&#231;&#227;o coadjuvante aos AINH tanto no tratamento da pericardite aguda quanto no da recorrente, com excelentes resultados, devendo tamb&#233;m ser considerada no tratamento da pericardite em pacientes com SARS-CoV-2. Os efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios da colchicina est&#227;o relacionados &#224; ruptura da fun&#231;&#227;o dos microt&#250;bulos, cujo resultado &#233; a inibi&#231;&#227;o dos neutr&#243;filos e mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o que interferem no in&#237;cio e na amplifica&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso da colchicina em pacientes com COVID-19, existem pelo menos oito estudos inclu&#237;dos no <italic>site</italic> https://clinicaltrials.gov/ com o objetivo de testar o efeito do medicamento em atenuar a inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica e/ou mioc&#225;rdica. Dois dos estudos j&#225; est&#227;o em andamento: <italic>Colchicine Coronavirus SARS-CoV2 Trial</italic> (COLCORONA) e <italic>The ECLA PHRI COLCOVID Trial</italic>. <italic>Effects of Colchicine on Moderate/High-risk Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients</italic>.</p>
      <p>Os corticosteroides s&#227;o muito utilizados no tratamento da pericardite aguda e de suas recorr&#234;ncias porque melhoram os sintomas e causam diminui&#231;&#227;o de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios. Por&#233;m, seu uso &#233; limitado aos casos de intoler&#226;ncia, contraindica&#231;&#245;es ou falha do tratamento com AINHs e colchicina devido ao aumento de recorr&#234;ncias, como demonstrado no estudo COPE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> H&#225; tamb&#233;m indica&#231;&#227;o para o uso de corticosteroides em casos de etiologias espec&#237;ficas, como doen&#231;as autoimunes, por&#233;m nas menores doses poss&#237;veis. Nessas situa&#231;&#245;es, a diminui&#231;&#227;o da dose deve ser bem lenta e iniciar apenas ap&#243;s o desaparecimento dos sintomas e a normaliza&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na C-reativa. Doses de 0,25 a 0,5 mg/kg/dia devem ser utilizadas nos casos de pericardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>De maneira geral, para as afec&#231;&#245;es peric&#225;rdicas, o uso de corticoides em detrimento do uso de AINHs e colchicina &#233; sempre evitado. Contudo, a COVID-19 tem se mostrado uma doen&#231;a peculiar com caracter&#237;sticas fisiopatol&#243;gicas distintas, na qual h&#225; um estado de hiperinflama&#231;&#227;o e tempestade de citocinas. Nesses casos, a introdu&#231;&#227;o de corticoides talvez possa ser considerada como primeira op&#231;&#227;o no tratamento das afec&#231;&#245;es peric&#225;rdicas em pacientes com COVID-19. Para essa doen&#231;a, f&#225;rmacos que reduzem a inflama&#231;&#227;o antes da disfun&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;ltiplos-sistemas t&#234;m sido preconizados - dessa forma, o uso de corticoides poderia ser justificado. Por&#233;m, permanecem d&#250;vidas referentes &#224; dose e ao tempo de tratamento ideais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Diretrizes internacionais sobre o manejo e tratamento da sepse e do choque s&#233;ptico recomendam que corticoides sejam utilizados em doses pequenas, por curto per&#237;odo de tempo, e nos casos em que a reposi&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica e as drogas vasopressoras n&#227;o estabilizarem o paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Em um estudo de Chen et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> 19% dos pacientes com pneumonia receberam corticoides - metilprednisolona, 1-2 mg/kg por dia, e dexametasona, por 3 a 15 dias (mediana de 5 dias). Os potenciais riscos do tratamento com corticoides seriam o retardo na elimina&#231;&#227;o viral e a ocorr&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#245;es secund&#225;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O SARS-CoV-2 foi inicialmente identificado no lavado pulmonar coletado de um paciente com pneumonia, no final de dezembro de 2019. Desde ent&#227;o, tem-se isolado o v&#237;rus no trato respirat&#243;rio, nas fezes, na conjuntiva e no sangue. Recentemente, tivemos relato da presen&#231;a do v&#237;rus no l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico de um paciente com tamponamento card&#237;aco submetido a pericardiocentese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Dessa forma, o uso de corticoides seria especulativo nessa situa&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Observamos que alguns pacientes com afec&#231;&#227;o peric&#225;rdica e COVID-19 utilizaram hidroxicloroquina como parte do tratamento da pericardite. No entanto, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia da efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a desse medicamento nos pacientes. Pacientes com COVID-19 apresentam quadro de inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica e muitos desenvolvem miocardite concomitante; tal quadro inflamat&#243;rio pode levar a arritmias ventriculares graves, e a introdu&#231;&#227;o de hidroxicloroquina, um medicamento que aumenta o intervalo QT, poderia potencializar a ocorr&#234;ncia de <italic>torsade de points.</italic></p>
      <p>O tocilizumab, um anticorpo monoclonal antirreceptor de IL-6, est&#225; sendo testado em estudos multic&#234;ntricos randomizados em pacientes com COVID-19 que apresentam aumento de IL-6 e que possam se beneficiar do tratamento em casos de s&#237;ndrome de tempestade de citocinas, reduzindo a inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
      <p>Outra caracter&#237;stica cl&#237;nica proeminente em pacientes com as formas graves de COVID-19 s&#227;o as manifesta&#231;&#245;es de les&#227;o endotelial e trombose microvascular, podendo mimetizar vasculite, inclusive com casos de amputa&#231;&#227;o de extremidades. No estudo patol&#243;gico, observa-se infiltra&#231;&#227;o de mon&#243;citos e linf&#243;citos ao redor dos vasos sangu&#237;neos com hiperplasia e espessamento da parede do vaso, al&#233;m de trombos em microvasos; altos n&#237;veis de anticorpos antifosfol&#237;pides, anticardiolipina e anti-&#946;<sub>2</sub> glicoprote&#237;na estiveram associados a trombose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Dessa forma, alguns estudos recomendam o uso de anticoagulantes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> para tentar evitar fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos e, como observado nos casos relatados anteriormente, os cl&#237;nicos devem estar atentos, nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, para o risco aumentado de ocorr&#234;ncia de hemoperic&#225;rdio e tamponamento.</p>
      <p>Recentemente, foi publicado um registro internacional de pacientes com casos suspeitos e confirmados de COVID-19 em 69 pa&#237;ses de seis continentes, totalizando 1.216 casos. Os pacientes foram submetidos a ecocardiograma, e observou-se que a maioria dos casos apresentava anormalidades n&#227;o espec&#237;ficas de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Entretanto, observaram-se novo infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, miocardite e cardiomiopatia de Takotsubo em uma minoria dos casos. Em 11 casos (1%), evidenciou-se presen&#231;a de tamponamento peric&#225;rdico, o que demonstra a import&#226;ncia do tema e a possibilidade da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;todos complementares, como o ecocardiograma, para identificar e modificar diretamente a conduta cl&#237;nica e, consequentemente, o tratamento desses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A cardiovigil&#226;ncia dos pacientes que desenvolveram comprometimento peric&#225;rdico &#233; de fundamental import&#226;ncia, com o objetivo de avaliar recorr&#234;ncias e/ou evolu&#231;&#227;o para formas constritivas a longo prazo.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de Financiamento</p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Research Letter</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Pericardial Affections in Patients with COVID-19: A Possible Cause of Hemodynamic Deterioration</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2437-2485</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ramires</surname>
            <given-names>Felix Jos&#233; Alvarez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio Danziato</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sim&#245;es</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vinicius</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mady</surname>
            <given-names>Charles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio S&#227;o Camilo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing Address: F&#225;bio Fernandes</bold> &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Av. Dr. Eneas C. Aguiar, 44. CEP 05403-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: fabio.fernandes@incor.usp.br </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Fernandes F, Mesquita ET; Acquisition of data: Fernandes F, Fernandes FD, Sim&#245;es MV, Mesquita ET; Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Fernandes F, Ramires F, Fernandes FD, Sim&#245;es MV, Mesquita ET, Mady C; Writing of the manuscript: Fernandes F, Ramires F, Fernandes FD, Sim&#245;es MV, Mesquita ET.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Keywords</kwd>
        <kwd>Coronavirus-19</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Betacoronavirus/complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Pandemics</kwd>
        <kwd>SARS-CoV-2</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypoxia</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Systemic, Inflammation</kwd>
        <kwd>Thrombosis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>The clinical course of the SARS-CoV-2 infection is characterized by respiratory symptoms, fever, cough, sore throat, fatigue, and complications related to the acute respiratory distress syndrome. However, some patients with initially mild symptoms can present clinical deterioration approximately one week after onset of the symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The acute progression of COVID-19 can be divided into 3 different phases: early infection, pulmonary phase, and hyperinflammation, and significant overlaps between these phases can occur.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Cardiac impairment is a prominent characteristic of COVID-19 and is associated with poor prognosis. Its mechanisms include increased cardiac stress caused by respiratory failure, hypoxemia, direct myocardial infection by SARS-CoV-2, microvascular thrombosis, and secondary injury due to systemic inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>When treating a patient with COVID-19 and clinical worsening, possible differential diagnoses should be considered: ongoing pneumonia caused by SARS-CoV-2, acute exacerbation of chronic heart failure, acute coronary syndrome, acute pulmonary embolism, myocarditis, and pericardial affections.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Considering these findings, we performed a non-systematic review of the literature in search of the main studies suggesting pericardial impairment in patients with COVID-19. The examined database was PubMed (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed). We selected original articles and reviews involving human participants, written in Portuguese or English, using the following medical subject headings (MeSH): cardiac tamponade, SARS-CoV-2, and pericarditis.</p>
        <p>We aimed to review the current evidence on pericardial impairment in patients with COVID-19, along with forms of clinical presentation, pathophysiological mechanisms, and therapeutic possibilities, and to highlight the risk of hemodynamic impairment due to cardiac tamponade (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recognizing pericardial diseases in patients with COVID-19</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <bold>1. Patient with COVID-19 and suspected pericarditis:</bold>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; dyspnea, tachypnea, lower limb edema;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; tachycardia;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; hypotension;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; paradoxical pulse.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <bold>2. Complementary examinations:</bold>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; electrocardiogram (low voltage);</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; troponin and CK-MB (myopericarditis);</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; transthoracic echocardiogram (signs of tamponade).</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <bold>3. Differential diagnosis:</bold>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; acute coronary syndrome;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy (cytokine storm);</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; myocarditis;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; Takotsubo cardiomyopathy.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <bold>4. Additional investigations:</bold>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging, if available;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8226; coronary computed tomography angiography.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <bold>5. Consider pericardiocentesis</bold>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Pericardial Affections</title>
        <p>Pericardial effusion is the most common clinical presentation of pericardial diseases. Infections caused by viral, bacterial, or fungal agents can occur with or without pericardial affection. The acute phase of pericarditis presents clinical characteristics such as pleuritic chest pain and pericardial friction rub, in addition to electrocardiographic abnormalities. The condition most commonly associated with pericardial effusion is viral acute pericarditis, which is frequently a self-limited condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In patients with COVID-19, the occurrence of pleural effusion, lymphadenopathy, cardiovascular cavitation, the halo sign in chest imaging, pneumothorax, and pericardial effusion is uncommon, but has been observed throughout the disease progression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Viral action in the pericardium can occur through a direct cytotoxic effect and/or an immune-mediated mechanism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The first report of cardiac tamponade secondary to COVID-19 was on March 30, 2020, in a 47-year-old female patient (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref>). The patient presented with fever and dry cough, tested positive for COVID-19 in a nasopharyngeal swab test, and did not have cardiovascular comorbidities such as hypertension or diabetes; however, there was a history of myopericarditis. The patient developed hemodynamic instability and cardiac tamponade and required pericardiocentesis, which drained 540 mL of serosanguineous fluid. This case attracted the attention of the medical community to the possibility of pericardial impairment evolving into cardiac tamponade and being partly responsible for the hemodynamic deterioration seen in patients with COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Cases of COVID-19 with pericardial impairment</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="14%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Date of publication<sup>(ref.)</sup> Country</th>
                  <th>Age (years)</th>
                  <th>Sex</th>
                  <th>Cardiovascular history</th>
                  <th>Tamponade/ pericardiocentesis</th>
                  <th>Previous COVID-19 symptoms</th>
                  <th>Ancillary treatment</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>March 30, 2020<sup>8</sup> United Kingdom</td>
                  <td align="center">47</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">Myopericarditis</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes/Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Not reported</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>March 27, 2020<sup>9</sup> Italy</td>
                  <td align="center">53</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">No history</td>
                  <td align="center">No/No (myopericarditis)</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Lopinavir/ritonavir corticosteroid/ hydroxychloroquine</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>April 23, 2020<sup>10</sup> Italy</td>
                  <td align="center">59</td>
                  <td align="center">M</td>
                  <td align="center">Ischemic heart disease (myocardial revascularization)</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes/Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Lopinavir/ritonavir enoxaparin/ hydroxychloroquine</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>April 23, 2020<sup>7</sup> United States</td>
                  <td align="center">67</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">Nonischemic cardiomyopathy (LVEF 40%)</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes/Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Colchicine/hydroxychloroquine/corticosteroid</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>May 12, 2020<sup>11</sup> Saudi Arabia</td>
                  <td align="center">41</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">No history</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes/Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Azithromycin/ hydroxychloroquine</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>May 06, 2020<sup>12</sup> United States</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">Ischemic heart disease, hypertension, diabetes</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes/Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Colchicine</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Another case of cardiac tamponade occurred in a 67-year-old female patient with a history of nonischemic cardiomyopathy and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) of 40%; after 1 week of respiratory symptoms, the patient presented with fatigue, hypotension, tachycardia, and low voltage on the electrocardiogram, in addition to normal serum levels of troponin and B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) markers. Since the symptoms were persistent, an echocardiogram was performed and indicated cardiac tamponade; drainage removed 800 mL of serosanguineous fluid with exudative characteristics. Soon after pericardiocentesis, the clinical, laboratory, electrocardiographic, and echocardiographic findings indicated stress-induced cardiomyopathy characterized by transient apical ballooning (Takotsubo cardiomyopathy).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A 53-year-old female patient, with no previous history of cardiovascular disease, presented with COVID-19 symptoms a week before hospital admission with hypotension and an electrocardiogram showing diffuse ST elevation, in addition to elevated troponin and NT-pro BNP biomarkers, despite angiographically normal coronary arteries. A reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) nasopharyngeal swab test was positive for SARS-CoV-2. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging indicated myocardial edema and late enhancement, as well as circumferential pericardial effusion compatible with myopericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A 59-year-old male patient admitted with acute coronary syndrome was subjected to a cardiac catheterization that showed multivessel disease and referred to myocardial revascularization. Twenty-two days later, the patient had fever, dyspnea, and a positive RT-PCR COVID-19 test. Chest computed tomography imaging suggested COVID-19-related pneumonia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> On day 23 after infection, the patient developed precordial pain, dyspnea, hypotension, and tachycardia. An echocardiogram showed circumferential pericardial effusion with signs of tamponade in the right heart sections; 250 mL of serosanguineous fluid was drained.</p>
        <p>Moreover, a 70-year-old patient with a history of acute coronary artery disease (non-ST elevation myocardial infarction treated 2 weeks before with angioplasty) was admitted with respiratory symptoms. Two days later, the patient had chest pain suggesting acute pericarditis with subsequent cardiac tamponade, requiring intubation and vasoactive drugs due to hemodynamic instability. Hemodynamic and clinical improvement were only achieved after pericardiocentesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Another case of COVID-19 and cardiac tamponade involved a 41-year-old patient, with no previous heart diseases, who had sought medical care with respiratory symptoms 10 days prior to hospital admission. The patient showed signs of cardiac tamponade and pericardiocentesis revealed exudative pericardial fluid, with high levels of lactate dehydrogenase and albumin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Considering these first 6 cases, it is clear that patients with COVID-19 can display pericardial impairment throughout the disease progression. The period of diagnosis and clinical worsening, generally after the first week of infection, matches an increase in inflammatory cytokines, probably with autoimmune mechanisms involved in the etiopathogenesis of pericardial effusion. (O autor pode conferir se esta inclus&#227;o est&#225; de acordo com o sentido original?)</p>
        <p>Some authors believe that, in patients with COVID-19-related myocarditis, the viral infection could be the initial factor that unlocks immune-mediated injury. Necropsy studies detected mononuclear inflammatory cell infiltrates in cardiac tissues, although with no viral inclusion in some cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The rapid recovery of cardiac function and only slight increase in viral load suggest that, in addition to viral replication in the myocardium, it is possible that an immune response (including a cytokine storm) could play a significant role in the pathophysiology of this injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>An excessive release of cytokines is observed in various systemic diseases, including infectious and rheumatic diseases or neoplasms, which can lead to pericardial impairment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Immunologists and pathologists observed macrophage infiltration in necropsy studies, which may indicate that viremia and the innate immunity control the clinical presentation before lymphocytic infiltration takes place. Inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF&#945;, IL8I) are increased.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Therefore, a hyperinflammatory state induced by cytokines can lead to multiple organ failure and could be responsible for the myocardial and pericardial impairment observed in this disease; however, it cannot be disregarded that part of this impairment could also be caused by the viral infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In the patient in the Italian case report, a longer period was observed before the onset of pericarditis, and the chemical and cytological analyses of pericardial fluid indicated mostly lymphocytic inflammatory infiltration and the presence of SARS-CoV-2, suggesting a possible direct effect of the virus on cardiac injury. Notably, this patient produced negative RT-PCR blood and nasopharyngeal COVID-19 tests, whereas his pericardial fluid tested positive; this could suggest a possible viral reservoir in the pericardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> (O estudo n&#227;o faz men&#231;&#227;o da nacionalidade do paciente, ent&#227;o sugerimos apenas dizer que o estudo &#233; italiano.)</p>
        <p>Five of these cases had cardiac tamponade, which is a high-risk but potentially reversible cause of clinical decompensation. The judgment of whether to adopt an invasive treatment strategy is influenced by the patient&#8217;s clinical presentation: in case of arterial hypotension, dyspnea, and paradoxical pulse, the decision is clear. The management of pericardial effusion should consider clinical characteristics (worsening of symptoms), hemodynamics (occurrence or not of tamponade), and an etiological search (infection, tuberculosis, or neoplasm).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Pharmacological Treatment</title>
        <p>The choice of the best pharmacological treatment for pericardial affections in patients with COVID-19 merits further discussion. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the recommended first choices in all acute and recurring cases of pericarditis with no contraindications. Indications include acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) at a dosage of 800 mg every 8 hours or an association of ibuprofen (600 mg every 8 hours) and colchicine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A retrospective study performed in France<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> indicated that patients on NSAIDs for symptom control before hospitalization for pneumonia developed more severe forms of the disease and had longer hospitalization periods. Additionally, ibuprofen and acetaminophen were associated with a higher risk of complications in children, especially in high cumulative dosages. The relief of symptoms such as pain and fever by these drugs could be leading to a delay in the introduction of antibiotics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Patients with more severe viral infections, such as those caused by influenza and SARS-CoV-2, are more likely to use NSAIDs, and the use of ibuprofen could complicate the detection of higher-risk cases.</p>
        <p>Controversy regarding the safety of ibuprofen in patients with COVID-19 originated in France, when an infectious disease specialist reported worsening of symptoms in 4 patients that had received this drug; this result was soon supported by the French Health Ministry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Moreover, although it is known that mechanistic evidences are not always confirmed by clinical studies, published data indicated that ibuprofen increased the expression of ACE2 receptors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>Altogether, recent epidemiological evidences do not allow the establishment of a causal link for the negative effect of ibuprofen in patients with COVID-19, and current guidelines by the World Health Organization and the American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) do not recommend interrupting the use of ibuprofen in symptomatic COVID-19 cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Therefore, the use of this drug should be carefully considered regarding the risks and benefits for symptomatic patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recently, colchicine has been increasingly used along with NSAIDs in treatment strategies for acute and recurring pericarditis, with excellent results; thus, it should also be considered in cases of pericarditis in patients with COVID-19. Its anti-inflammatory effects are related to the disruption of microtubule function, which results in the inhibition of neutrophils and cell adhesion molecules that act in different phases of inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Regarding its use in patients with COVID-19, at least 8 studies are registered on clinicaltrials.gov for the evaluation of its effects in alleviating systemic and/or myocardial inflammation. Two studies are already in progress: &#8220;Colchicine Coronavirus SARS-CoV2 Trial (COLCORONA)&#8221; and &#8220;The ECLA PHRI COLCOVID Trial. Effects of Colchicine on Moderate/High-risk Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients.&#8221;</p>
        <p>Corticosteroids are widely used in treatments for acute and recurrent pericarditis since these drugs improve symptoms and reduce inflammatory markers. However, their use is limited to cases of intolerance, contraindications, or failure of treatment with NSAIDs and colchicine due to an increased risk of recurrence, as illustrated by the COPE study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Corticosteroids are also indicated in specific etiologies such as autoimmune diseases, although in the minimal possible dosages. In these situations, dosage should be slowly reduced only when symptoms are controlled and C-reactive protein levels are normalized. In cases of pericarditis, dosages of 0.25 to 0.5 mg/kg/day should be used.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Usually, the use of corticosteroids is avoided in cases of pericardial affections, whereas NSAIDs and colchicine are recommended. However, COVID-19 has been shown to have a unique pathophysiology, unlocking a state of hyperinflammation and cytokine storm. Considering this situation, the use of corticosteroids could be regarded as the first-choice treatment for pericardial affections in patients with COVID-19, since drugs that reduce inflammation before the impairment of multiple systems have been considered for this disease. Nevertheless, the following question would remain: what is the ideal dosage and period for corticosteroid treatment?<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>International guidelines for managing and treating sepsis and septic shock indicate that corticosteroids should be used in small doses and short periods of time, and only in cases where fluid replacement and the use of vasopressor drugs were not able to stabilize the patient.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Chen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> reported that 19% of patients with pneumonia received methylprednisolone (1-2 mg/kg/day) and dexamethasone for 3 to 15 days (median 5 days). Potential risks of treatment with corticosteroids include delays in viral clearance and the risk of secondary infections.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>SARS-CoV-2 was first identified in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid collected from a patient with pneumonia in December 2019, and since then it has been isolated from the respiratory tract, feces, conjunctiva, and blood. More recently, the virus was detected in the pericardial fluid of a patient with cardiac tamponade subjected to pericardiocentesis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> thus the use of corticosteroids would be speculative in this situation.</p>
        <p>Some patients with both pericardial affections and COVID-19 were treated with hydroxychloroquine as part of the pericarditis treatment. However, there is no evidence on the efficacy and safety of this drug in these cases. Patients with COVID-19 present systemic inflammation and many develop concurrent myocarditis, possibly leading to ventricular arrhythmias; the use of hydroxychloroquine, known for increasing QT interval, could increase the occurrence of torsade de pointes.</p>
        <p>Tocilizumab, an anti-IL-6 receptor monoclonal antibody, is being evaluated in multicentric randomized studies of patients with COVID-19 that present increased IL-6 levels and could benefit from the treatment in case of a cytokine storm, thus reducing myocardial inflammation.</p>
        <p>Another noteworthy characteristic of patients with severe forms of COVID-19 is the occurrence of endothelial damage and microvascular thrombosis, which can resemble vasculitis and ultimately lead to the need for amputation. Pathological studies indicated infiltration of monocytes and lymphocytes around vessels presenting hyperplasia and wall thickening, as well as thrombi in microvessels; high levels of antiphospholipid, anticardiolipin, and anti-&#946;2-glycoprotein antibodies were associated with thrombosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Therefore, some studies recommend the use of anticoagulant drugs<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> to avoid thromboembolic events. As previously stated, physicians should be aware of different aspects of each treatment and, in this case, of an increased risk of hemopericardium and tamponade.</p>
        <p>An international registry of patients with suspected and confirmed cases of COVID-19 from 69 countries and 6 continents included 1216 cases referred to echocardiography; most of them showed non-specific abnormalities of ventricular dysfunction. Myocardial infarction, myocarditis, and Takotsubo cardiomyopathy were observed only in a few cases. Eleven (1%) of these cases had cardiac tamponade, demonstrating the importance of this issue and thus of complementary examinations such as echocardiography to identify and guide the clinical management and treatment of these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Cardiac surveillance in patients with pericardial impairment is of utmost importance to evaluate recurrences and/or the long-term progression to constrictive pericarditis.</p>
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          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
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          <p>Sources of Funding</p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
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