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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">7p3SMVQfQZNS5vLS5TPP4yN</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020001100547</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200405</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200405</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>C&#226;ncer e Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares na Pandemia de COVID-19</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7002-744X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kawahara</surname>
            <given-names>Lucas Tokio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1418-9361</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Isabela Bispo Santos da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6160-3126</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barros</surname>
            <given-names>Cec&#237;lia Chie Sakaguchi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5306-5519</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriel Coelho de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3339-8866</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bittar</surname>
            <given-names>Cristina Salvadori</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6306-2522</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rizk</surname>
            <given-names>Stephanie Itala</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6080-7429</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Testa</surname>
            <given-names>Laura</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1182-4764</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moniz</surname>
            <given-names>Camila Motta Venchiarutti</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0655-2821</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0737-6188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3176-9747</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Diz</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Del Pilar Estevez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0626-2250</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Guimar&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Patricia Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0886-0844</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pinto</surname>
            <given-names>Ibraim Masciarelli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1033-3672</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5645-2055</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hajjar</surname>
            <given-names>Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0065-2194</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hoff</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo , S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#237;rio-liban&#234;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital S&#237;rio-liban&#234;s , S&#227;o Paulo , SP - Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o &#8211; Cardio-Oncologia, S&#227;o Paulo , SP - Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto D&#8217;Or de Pesquisa e Ensino</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Instituto D&#8217;Or de Pesquisa e Ensino , S&#227;o Paulo , SP - Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro , Rio de Janeiro , RJ - Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia , S&#227;o Paulo , SP - Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>8</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Grupro Fleury Medicina Diagn&#243;stica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Grupro Fleury Medicina Diagn&#243;stica , S&#227;o Paulo , SP - Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Isabela Bispo Santos da Silva Costa</bold> &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 251. CEP 01246-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>Isabela.bispo@hc.fm.usp.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos Autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Kawahara LT, Costa IBSS, Hajjar LA, Hoff PM; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Kawahara LT, Costa IBSS, Barros CCS, Almeida GC, Bittar CS, Rizk SI, Testa L, Moniz CMV, Pereira J, Hajjar LA, Hoff PM; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Costa IBSS, Oliveira GMM, Diz MDPE, Guimar&#227;es PO, Pinto IM, Kalil Filho R, Hajjar LA, Hoff PM.</p>
          <p>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>115</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>547</fpage>
      <lpage>557</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>01</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>O desafio imposto ao sistema de sa&#250;de pela pandemia da COVID-19 faz com que haja uma necessidade de readequa&#231;&#245;es de rotinas e servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de, com os objetivos de controlar a dissemina&#231;&#227;o do v&#237;rus e preservar a sa&#250;de. Torna-se ainda mais importante o manejo seguro e correto dos pacientes dos grupos de risco, como os pacientes idosos, os portadores de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e os pacientes com c&#226;ncer. Dessa forma, a cardio-oncologia ganha novo dimensionamento, no intuito de se adequar &#224;s necessidades dos pacientes diante de uma pandemia, reestruturando o sistema de atendimento de forma a oferecer qualidade e seguran&#231;a na assist&#234;ncia &#224; sa&#250;de.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Coronav&#237;rus</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Betacoronavirus/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome Respirat&#243;ria Aguda Grave</kwd>
        <kwd>SARS-CoV-2</kwd>
        <kwd>Pandemia</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasias/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>SARS-CoV-19</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="75"/>
        <page-count count="11"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A <italic>coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19),</italic> cujo agente patog&#234;nico foi descrito como um betacoronav&#237;rus de RNA envelopado, nomeado de <italic>severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)</italic> , teve seus primeiros casos descritos em dezembro de 2019 e rapidamente se disseminou pelo mundo, tendo sido denominada pela Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de (OMS) como uma pandemia em 11 de mar&#231;o de 2020. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os dados epidemiol&#243;gicos atuais mostram que pacientes com c&#226;ncer e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) s&#227;o frequentemente acometidos e apresentam pior evolu&#231;&#227;o quando infectados pela COVID-19. A incid&#234;ncia e a mortalidade por complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares s&#227;o maiores nesses pacientes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> O n&#250;mero crescente de pacientes e a sobrecarga nos servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de em &#225;reas nas quais o risco de cont&#225;gio &#233; elevado geraram a necessidade de se discutir adequa&#231;&#245;es nas rotinas de cuidados desses pacientes visando preserv&#225;-los, sem causar impacto no tratamento de suas comorbidades. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Dessa forma, esta revis&#227;o tem por objetivo sistematizar o atendimento dos servi&#231;os de cardio-oncologia quanto ao manejo do paciente com c&#226;ncer e DCV durante a pandemia, buscando adotar o tratamento necess&#225;rio com a m&#225;xima seguran&#231;a.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Covid-19 em Pacientes com C&#226;ncer</title>
        <p>Pacientes com c&#226;ncer ativo ou em remiss&#227;o, demonstraram-se como um not&#225;vel grupo de risco &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2. V&#225;rios aspectos corroboram para o enquadramento dos pacientes oncol&#243;gicos como um grupo de maior vulnerabilidade relacionada &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2, com maior chance de evolu&#231;&#227;o para formas graves, com velocidade mais r&#225;pida de deteriora&#231;&#227;o e &#243;bito. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> O risco aumentado em pacientes oncol&#243;gicos pode estar relacionado ao estado de imunossupress&#227;o sist&#234;mica que pode ser atribu&#237;do tanto aos tratamentos antineopl&#225;sicos (quimioterapias e cirurgias para ressec&#231;&#227;o tumoral) como tamb&#233;m &#224; pr&#243;pria malignidade tumoral e ao mesmo tempo ao aumento de DCV nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A preval&#234;ncia de c&#226;ncer nos estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos que descrevem pacientes com COVID-19 &#233; bastante vari&#225;vel. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Estudos chineses mostram preval&#234;ncia de 1%, n&#250;mero consideravelmente mais elevado que a preval&#234;ncia de c&#226;ncer nesse pa&#237;s (0,29%). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Em an&#225;lise de 5.700 casos em Nova York, 6% dos pacientes tinham c&#226;ncer. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Grasselli et al. em coorte italiana com 1.571 pacientes demonstraram que c&#226;ncer era uma das comorbidades mais prevalentes, correspondendo a 8% de todos os pacientes analisados. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em estudo recentemente publicado, quando comparados a paciente sem c&#226;ncer, os pacientes com c&#226;ncer e COVID-19 eram mais idosos (63,1 anos [&#177; 12,1%] vs. 48,7 anos [&#177; 16,2]), mais frequentemente tabagistas (2 [22%] vs. 107 [7%]) e tinham altera&#231;&#245;es mais graves na tomografia computadorizada (TC) de t&#243;rax (17 [94%] vs. 1113 [71%]). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as quanto a sexo ou outras comorbidades. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Os pacientes com c&#226;ncer apresentaram maior taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es (7 [39%] vs. 124 [8%]). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A idade avan&#231;ada &#233; preditor independente de gravidade em pacientes com COVID-19. A mediana de idade dos pacientes que evolu&#237;ram a &#243;bito na It&#225;lia foi de 81 anos (IQR 73 &#8211; 86). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Zhou et al., <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> observaram que na an&#225;lise multivariada a chance de &#243;bito foi maior (OR 1,10; 95% CI 1,03 &#8211; 1,17) para cada ano a mais. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Nos pacientes com c&#226;ncer, Liang et al. observaram que a idade avan&#231;ada foi o &#250;nico preditor independente da forma grave da doen&#231;a (OR 1,43; 95% CI 0,97 &#8211; 2,12). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Estes dados sugerem que seja dada especial aten&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes com idade avan&#231;ada e c&#226;ncer, pela maior gravidade observada nesta popula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>No grupo com hist&#243;rico de c&#226;ncer, foi observada uma heterogeneidade associada ao intervalo de tempo desde a &#250;ltima interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica (cir&#250;rgica ou quimioter&#225;pica). Os pacientes que haviam passado por esses procedimentos no m&#234;s anterior &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2 apresentaram maior incid&#234;ncia de eventos graves do que os sobreviventes de c&#226;ncer que n&#227;o tinham sido submetidos a nenhuma interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica, sugerindo a associa&#231;&#227;o entre o estado de imunossupress&#227;o causado pelo tratamento antitumoral e o maior risco de gravidade na apresenta&#231;&#227;o da COVID-19. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os dados iniciais de mortalidade de pacientes com c&#226;ncer e COVID-19 sugerem que estes casos t&#234;m mortalidade elevada em compara&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes sem c&#226;ncer. Estudos de coortes italianas mostram uma preval&#234;ncia de 16% a 20% de pacientes com c&#226;ncer ativo dentre os pacientes que vieram a &#243;bito pela COVID-19. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Pacientes com c&#226;ncer apresentam taxa de letalidade de 7,6% em virtude da COVID-19, substancialmente maior do que a taxa de letalidade de 1,4% de pacientes sem condi&#231;&#245;es de comorbidades. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dessa maneira, conhecendo os riscos que esses pacientes correm ao serem infectados pelo SARS-CoV-2, &#233; essencial que pacientes com c&#226;ncer sejam constantemente acompanhados e monitorados em locais em que casos de COVID-19 estejam em ascens&#227;o. Este acompanhamento pode utilizar o aux&#237;lio da telemedicina. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Defini&#231;&#227;o do Tratamento Oncol&#243;gico</title>
        <p>Muito se discute a respeito do adiamento das interven&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas e terap&#234;uticas nos pacientes com c&#226;ncer durante o per&#237;odo da pandemia. As visitas frequentes aos hospitais poderiam aumentar o risco de cont&#225;gio desses pacientes e da equipe de sa&#250;de. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> As medidas de distanciamento social t&#234;m sido incentivadas no intuito de diminuir a dissemina&#231;&#227;o da COVID-19, uma vez que a transmiss&#227;o &#233; elevada e ocorre mesmo por pessoas assintom&#225;ticas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Em contrapartida, sabe-se que muitos tipos de c&#226;ncer apresentam morbidade e mortalidade mais elevadas que a COVID-19 e o adiamento de terapia tem implica&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas importantes, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> especialmente em locais onde os recursos de sa&#250;de s&#227;o habitualmente limitados e a espera pelo atendimento oncol&#243;gico pode demorar meses. Dessa forma, uma avalia&#231;&#227;o criteriosa que leve em considera&#231;&#227;o o tipo de c&#226;ncer, o <italic>status</italic> da performance do paciente e o tipo de terapia antineopl&#225;sica necess&#225;ria s&#227;o extremamente relevantes para se fazer um balan&#231;o entre riscos e benef&#237;cios do poss&#237;vel adiamento do tratamento antitumoral. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recomenda-se iniciar ou continuar terapias adjuvantes e neoadjuvantes (ou qualquer outra terapia com potencial curativo), bem como manter terapia para doen&#231;as metast&#225;ticas nas quais o benef&#237;cio do tratamento seja claro na literatura. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos oncol&#243;gicos com potencial curativo continuam a ser recomendados, avaliando sempre a morbidade cir&#250;rgica do procedimento e a exist&#234;ncia de outras terapias neoadjuvantes mais seguras. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Algumas estrat&#233;gias t&#234;m sido discutidas como alternativas ben&#233;ficas durante a pandemia, especialmente para pacientes idosos em locais com transmiss&#227;o elevada. A escolha da terapia oncol&#243;gica deve levar em considera&#231;&#227;o as op&#231;&#245;es locais dispon&#237;veis, evitando que pacientes fa&#231;am longos deslocamentos (viagens intermunicipais) at&#233; o servi&#231;o de sa&#250;de. Deve-se dar prefer&#234;ncia &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o de quimioterapia oral quando indicada e &#224; endocrinoterapia em tumores sens&#237;veis. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pode-se ainda considerar, a depender da resposta do paciente, tipo do tumor e tempo da terapia, espa&#231;ar ciclos de pacientes em imunoterapia de duas ou tr&#234;s para quatro ou seis semanas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Em pacientes em radioterapia, para tratamento de doen&#231;as mais comuns (como mama, pr&#243;stata, pulm&#227;o e cabe&#231;a), discute-se a redu&#231;&#227;o do fracionamento da dose, na qual utiliza-se dose mais elevada e menor n&#250;mero de sess&#245;es. Esta abordagem pode levar ao aumento da toxicidade, e dessa forma, devem ser sempre discutidos o risco e o benef&#237;cio do hipofracionamento. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>&#201; importante que toda estrat&#233;gia seja discutida e debatida com o paciente e familiares. A rela&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dico paciente &#233; extremamente importante nesse momento e o aux&#237;lio da telemedicina pode aproximar esta intera&#231;&#227;o e diminuir a exposi&#231;&#227;o do paciente. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Recomenda-se ainda que, se poss&#237;vel, existam servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de direcionados para o tratamento oncol&#243;gico, que n&#227;o sejam refer&#234;ncias para receber pacientes com a COVID-19. As recomenda&#231;&#245;es realizadas pela <italic>American Society of Clinical Oncology</italic> referentes a cada tipo de procedimento espec&#237;fico em pacientes oncol&#243;gicos est&#227;o resumidas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> . <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Orienta&#231;&#245;es quanto aos procedimentos em pacientes oncol&#243;gicos durante a pandemia da COVID-19</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th scope="col">Per&#237;odo</th>
                  <th scope="col">Procedimentos</th>
                  <th scope="col">Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Pr&#233;-diagn&#243;stico</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Rastreamento oncol&#243;gico</td>
                  <td>- Procedimentos de rotina em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos que requisitem visitas a centros de sa&#250;de, como mamografias e colonoscopias, devem ser postergados. - Pacientes com suspeita de doen&#231;a devem ser investigados. - Bi&#243;psias e exames de imagem em pacientes com suspeita de neoplasia devem ser realizados.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="6">
                    <bold>Diagn&#243;stico oncol&#243;gico ativo</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Estadiamento</td>
                  <td>- Avalia&#231;&#227;o criteriosa de adiamento considerando doen&#231;as de comportamento indolente.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Radioterapia</td>
                  <td>- Em pacientes com tumores de progress&#227;o r&#225;pida ou em pacientes nos quais a radioterapia curativa tem benef&#237;cio claro, a radioterapia deve ser mantida; - Alguns pacientes podem ter sua radioterapia adiada de forma segura, por&#233;m discuss&#245;es multidisciplinares s&#227;o fundamentais na tomada de decis&#227;o individual.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Imunoterapia</td>
                  <td rowspan="2">- A decis&#227;o cl&#237;nica de postergar as terapias imunossupressoras deve ser tomada de maneira individualizada, considerando os seguintes fatores: &#8226; risco de recorr&#234;ncia do c&#226;ncer caso haja alguma mudan&#231;a na rotina de terapia; &#8226; n&#250;mero de ciclos da terapia completados; &#8226; toler&#226;ncia do paciente ao tratamento. - Em pacientes com tumores n&#227;o est&#225;veis, n&#227;o se recomenda suspender a quimioterapia.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Quimioterapia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cirurgia oncol&#243;gica</td>
                  <td>- Deve ser feita rotineiramente uma an&#225;lise de riscos do dano em virtude do adiamento da cirurgia e dos benef&#237;cios da cirurgia, em meio a pandemia pela COVID-19.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Transplante de c&#233;lula-tronco</td>
                  <td>- Pacientes em alto risco para a COVID-19 cuja neoplasia possa ser temporariamente controlada com terapia convencional podem ter o transplante de c&#233;lula-tronco adiado. - Apesar da falta de evid&#234;ncias quanto &#224; transmiss&#227;o do SARS-CoV-2 via transfus&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, &#233; prudente testar os potenciais doadores para COVID-19.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Diagn&#243;stico oncol&#243;gico em remiss&#227;o</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Rotina de seguimento</td>
                  <td>- Em casos de pacientes com baixo risco de recorr&#234;ncia e assintom&#225;ticos no per&#237;odo de acompanhamento, pode-se postergar a rotina de seguimento para evitar as visitas cl&#237;nicas e a poss&#237;vel exposi&#231;&#227;o; - A telemedicina &#233; ferramenta &#250;til para que a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes seja feita de maneira segura e regular; - Nos casos em que haja uma recomenda&#231;&#227;o de uma frequ&#234;ncia de interven&#231;&#227;o em um paciente, adiar a rotina de interven&#231;&#227;o para a menor frequ&#234;ncia recomendada &#233; prudente.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o Progn&#243;stica</title>
        <p>O manejo do paciente com c&#226;ncer deve incluir a discuss&#227;o de cuidados paliativos naqueles cuja expectativa de vida seja limitada. No contexto dessa pandemia, essa discuss&#227;o ganha ainda mais import&#226;ncia, evitando-se a exposi&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes com progn&#243;stico ruim ao cont&#225;gio da COVID-19. &#201; importante a discuss&#227;o de diretivas antecipadas com os pacientes portadores de doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas terminais, sempre respeitando as regula&#231;&#245;es locais, para que estes n&#227;o sejam submetidos a terapia de cuidados intensivos (ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, procedimentos invasivos, reanima&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar), caso essa op&#231;&#227;o seja considerada a mais adequada e proporcional dentro do contexto da doen&#231;a de base. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Interse&#231;&#227;o entre C&#226;ncer, Doen&#231;a Cardiovascular e a COVID-19</title>
        <p>As DCV e o c&#226;ncer s&#227;o as duas principais causas de morte nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos e em desenvolvimento, apesar de melhorias significativas na preven&#231;&#227;o, triagem e tratamento de ambas as doen&#231;as. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Com muitos fatores de risco em comum, o c&#226;ncer e as DCV frequentemente coexistem nos mesmos indiv&#237;duos; aqueles diagnosticados com c&#226;ncer de pulm&#227;o, c&#226;ncer de mama e c&#226;ncer de c&#243;lon t&#234;m maior risco de DCV e aqueles com DCV t&#234;m maior risco de desenvolver muitos tipos de c&#226;ncer. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> A preval&#234;ncia de fatores de risco cardiovasculares nos pacientes com c&#226;ncer &#233; elevada, sendo que 60,4% dos pacientes t&#234;m hipertens&#227;o, 23,9% t&#234;m diabetes e 22,4% tem dislipidemia. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O manejo dos pacientes com c&#226;ncer e DCV sob tratamento oncol&#243;gico &#233; multidisciplinar, tendo como metas o controle de fatores de risco, a redu&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares e a minimiza&#231;&#227;o de interrup&#231;&#245;es desnecess&#225;rias do tratamento oncol&#243;gico. As terapias antineopl&#225;sicas s&#227;o potencialmente t&#243;xicas ao cora&#231;&#227;o e a incid&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares em sobreviventes &#233; elevada. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> A intera&#231;&#227;o entre as especialidades oncol&#243;gicas (cl&#237;nica e cir&#250;rgicas) e o servi&#231;o de cardio-oncologia &#233; fundamental para o manejo adequado desses pacientes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Esse cuidado integral ganha ainda mais sentido em pacientes com a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2, que agrega morbimortalidade consider&#225;vel. A interse&#231;&#227;o entre as tr&#234;s doen&#231;as vai desde o controle de fatores de riscos, quanto ao manejo das complica&#231;&#245;es pulmonares e cardiovasculares, bem como o ajuste do tratamento oncol&#243;gico e preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ilustra os principais pontos de liga&#231;&#227;o entre essas tr&#234;s doen&#231;as. O conhecimento e a implementa&#231;&#227;o precoce de medidas terap&#234;uticas adequadas podem resultar em melhora do progn&#243;stico dos pacientes com c&#226;ncer.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Interse&#231;&#227;o entre o c&#226;ncer, o cora&#231;&#227;o e a COVID-19. A hipertens&#227;o, idade avan&#231;ada, diabetes, obesidade e tabagismo s&#227;o fatores de risco comuns &#224;s tr&#234;s doen&#231;as. O manejo no c&#226;ncer na COVID-19 visa evitar visitas desnecess&#225;rias aos servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de, uma vez que estes pacientes sob tratamento oncol&#243;gico s&#227;o imunossuprimidos e mais suscet&#237;veis ao desenvolvimento de complica&#231;&#245;es da COVID-19. As formas graves da COVID-19, manifestadas por hipoxemia e s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo, decorrem de processo inflamat&#243;rio sist&#234;mico, com eleva&#231;&#245;es de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias e fatores pr&#243;-tromb&#243;ticos. As complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares s&#227;o frequentes nessa popula&#231;&#227;o, como trombose, arritmias, miocardite e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. ECA2: enzima conversora de angiotensina 2; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; IL-6: interleucina-6; SDRA: s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo; SRIS: s&#237;ndrome da resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica. Quimio: quimioterapia; Radio: Radioterapia; Imuno: imunoterapia.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-03-0547-00405-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A COVID-19 e as Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</title>
        <p>A presen&#231;a de DCV preexistente &#233; apontada como um dos principais fatores de risco para ocorr&#234;ncia e gravidade da COVID-19 (9). Uma meta-an&#225;lise recentemente publicada, abrangendo um total de 1.527 pacientes, observou que em pacientes com COVID-19, as preval&#234;ncias de hipertens&#227;o, doen&#231;as card&#237;acas e cerebrovasculares, e diabetes eram de 17,1%, 16,4% e 9,7%, respectivamente. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Richardson et al. em uma coorte estadunidense com 5.700 pacientes observaram que as comorbidades mais prevalentes foram hipertens&#227;o (3026 [56,6%]), obesidade (1737 [41,7%]) e diabetes (1808 [33,85%]). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Em uma coorte italiana com 1.591 pacientes, hipertens&#227;o (509 [49%]) foi a comorbidade mais prevalente, seguida de DCV (223 [21%]), dislipidemia (188 [18%]) e diabetes (180 [17%]). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m da preval&#234;ncia elevada, estes pacientes t&#234;m maior predisposi&#231;&#227;o para o desenvolvimento de formas graves da doen&#231;a e sua evolu&#231;&#227;o a &#243;bito. Em estudo chin&#234;s, a mortalidade de pacientes com DCV foi de 10,5%, sendo nos diab&#233;ticos 7,3% e nos hipertensos 6,0%, taxas estas maiores que nos pacientes sem comorbidades (2,3%). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Dos pacientes que vieram a &#243;bito na It&#225;lia, 3,6% n&#227;o tinham comorbidades, 14,4% uma &#250;nica comorbidade, 21,1% duas, e 60,9% tr&#234;s ou mais, sendo hipertens&#227;o (69,1%), diabetes (31,7%) e DCV (27,5%) as comorbidades mais prevalentes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Em estudo publicado por Jianfeng Xie et al., com 168 pacientes que morreram pelo novo coronav&#237;rus <bold>,</bold> 74,4% tinha alguma comorbidade. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> As comorbidades mais comuns foram hipertens&#227;o (50%), diabetes (25%) e cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica (18,5%). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O SARS-CoV-2 causa les&#227;o ao sistema cardiovascular por diferentes mecanismos. O v&#237;rus utiliza a prote&#237;na de membrana enzima conversora de angiotensina 2 (ECA 2) no in&#237;cio da liga&#231;&#227;o do v&#237;rus com o hospedeiro. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> A ECA2 modula negativamente o sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona por meio da convers&#227;o de angiotensina 2 em angiotensina 1-7, o que se op&#245;e &#224; a&#231;&#227;o da enzima conversora de angiotensina (ECA). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Ela &#233; altamente expressa em tecidos pulmonares e card&#237;acos, e exerce fun&#231;&#245;es importantes de prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular e pulmonar. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> A liga&#231;&#227;o viral a essa prote&#237;na de membrana causa inibi&#231;&#227;o desses mecanismos de prote&#231;&#227;o, podendo resultar em inflama&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio, edema pulmonar e insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria aguda. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A les&#227;o cardiovascular pode ainda decorrer da resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica, que resulta no fen&#244;meno de tempestade de citocinas. Nesse sentido, em casos mais graves, a infec&#231;&#227;o resultaria em uma resposta desbalanceada por c&#233;lulas Th1 e Th2. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> A eleva&#231;&#227;o de interleucina-6 (IL-6) foi apontada como um dos preditores de mortalidade na COVID-19, sugerindo que a hiperinflama&#231;&#227;o em resposta &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2 seja um fator importante de mortalidade. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As principais complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares resultantes da COVID-19 s&#227;o inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, miocardite, arritmias card&#237;acas, choque e insufici&#234;ncia coron&#225;ria. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Em alguns estudos, a eleva&#231;&#227;o isolada de troponina foi preditor independente de mortalidade ( <italic>OR</italic> = 26.909, 95% <italic>CI</italic> 4.086 &#8211; 177.226).37 Guo et al., observaram que entre 187 pacientes com COVID-19, 52 (27,8%) tinham les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a mortalidade foi marcadamente maior em pacientes com n&#237;veis elevados de troponina T do que em pacientes com n&#237;veis normais de troponina T (59,6% vs. 8,9%).38 N&#237;veis aumentados de d&#237;mero-D tamb&#233;m tem rela&#231;&#227;o direta com mortalidade.4 A inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica esteve relacionada a quadros graves da doen&#231;a, com maior necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o em unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI), disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e choque.4,39</p>
        <p>Os casos de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular observados nos pacientes com COVID-19 s&#227;o resultados de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA), miocardite e s&#237;ndrome de takotsubo. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> A SCA com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST nos pacientes com COVID-19 acontece mesmo sem doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) obstrutiva, sendo necess&#225;ria avalia&#231;&#227;o criteriosa desses pacientes com avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e dos n&#237;veis de biomarcadores. Em uma coorte com 18 pacientes, 10 (55%) apresentaram supra desnivelamento do segmento ST sem doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria obstrutiva, e nestes pacientes a mortalidade chegou a 90%, sendo decorrente possivelmente de inflama&#231;&#227;o, vasoespasmo, hip&#243;xia e trombose de microcircula&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As arritmias card&#237;acas na COVID-19 podem ser consequ&#234;ncia dos quadros de miocardite aguda, inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica e de efeitos colaterais da terapia farmacol&#243;gica. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Em um estudo conduzido com 138 pacientes hospitalizados, 16,7% apresentaram arritmias, sendo mais prevalentes em pacientes internados em UTI (44,4% vs. 6,9%). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Guo et al., <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> observaram que 11,7% apresentavam arritmias malignas (taquicardias ventriculares ou fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Essas arritmias eram significativamente mais comuns em pacientes com n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos elevados de troponina card&#237;aca T e de fragmento N-terminal do pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Como a COVID-19 &#233; uma doen&#231;a recente, n&#227;o se sabe ao certo quais seriam suas consequ&#234;ncias card&#237;acas a longo prazo. Entretanto, constata-se, em um estudo de 12 anos de seguimento, que sobreviventes da infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV apresentaram &#237;ndices aumentados de anormalidades cardiovasculares e de dist&#250;rbios no metabolismo de lip&#237;dios e glicose. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Embora os mecanismos de tais altera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o tenham sido explicitados, devido &#224; semelhan&#231;a estrutural entre o SARS-CoV e o SARS-CoV-2, aventa-se a possibilidade de que a COVID-19 possa ter implica&#231;&#245;es semelhantes a longo prazo. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Manejo Cl&#237;nico de Pacientes com C&#226;ncer e Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares em &#193;reas de Alta Transmiss&#227;o de COVID-19</p>
        <p><bold>Preven&#231;&#227;o.</bold> As medidas de preven&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o etapa primordial no cuidado dos pacientes com c&#226;ncer e DCV durante a pandemia da COVID-19. A associa&#231;&#227;o de DCV e c&#226;ncer aumenta o risco da COVID-19 e a gravidade da doen&#231;a. Considerando todos os aspectos relacionados &#224; quarentena, ao isolamento social e ao distanciamento, a preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular deve ser refor&#231;ada nesses pacientes, com a ado&#231;&#227;o de medidas de controle da press&#227;o arterial, dos n&#237;veis de glicemia e de lip&#237;dios, ado&#231;&#227;o de dieta adequada e o est&#237;mulo &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o de atividade f&#237;sica.</p>
        <p>Como ainda n&#227;o h&#225; vacina comprovadamente eficaz para o SARS-CoV-2, recomenda-se a atualiza&#231;&#227;o do cart&#227;o vacina contra influenza e antipneumoc&#243;cica como forma de diminuir a incid&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#245;es sobrepostas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Medidas necess&#225;rias para frear a dissemina&#231;&#227;o do v&#237;rus devem ser ainda mais enf&#225;ticas nessa popula&#231;&#227;o, como a higieniza&#231;&#227;o correta das m&#227;os com sab&#227;o ou &#225;lcool em gel, assim como recomenda&#231;&#245;es de evitar o contato com pessoas sintom&#225;ticas, bem como aglomera&#231;&#245;es. O Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de, em concord&#226;ncia com a OMS, aconselha que todos devam higienizar frequentemente as m&#227;os e os objetos de uso frequente, al&#233;m de minimizar o compartilhamento de objetos e evitar levar as m&#227;os aos olhos, boca e nariz. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em locais de risco elevado, medidas de minimiza&#231;&#227;o de contato e de exposi&#231;&#227;o devem ser tomadas nos casos de maior vulnerabilidade. Nesse sentido, o acompanhamento e a visita dos pacientes com DCV e/ou c&#226;ncer est&#225;vel pode ser feito com o aux&#237;lio da telemedicina, evitando a transmiss&#227;o do SARS-CoV-2 a esse grupo de risco. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> A telemedicina foi recentemente regularizada pelo Conselho Federal de Medicina durante a pandemia e deve ser utilizada nesses pacientes a fim de reduzir as idas frequentes aos servi&#231;os. As consultas podem ser feitas via telefone ou v&#237;deo-consulta, visando especialmente controle de fatores de risco cardiovasculares (como hipertens&#227;o, diabetes, tabagismo, obesidade, dentre outros) e monitoriza&#231;&#227;o de sintomas.</p>
        <p>Para pacientes com hist&#243;rico recente de transplante de c&#233;lulas-tronco, o auto-isolamento pode ser uma maneira eficaz de evitar exposi&#231;&#227;o em &#225;reas de risco elevado. Pessoas em contato com esses pacientes tamb&#233;m precisam aderir &#224;s medidas de precau&#231;&#245;es necess&#225;rias, minimizando a exposi&#231;&#227;o ou obtendo testes para SARS-CoV-2 quando apresentarem sintomas gripais.</p>
        <p>Pelas altera&#231;&#245;es imunol&#243;gicas, pacientes em tratamento para neoplasias podem apresentar um quadro at&#237;pico de COVID-19, com sintomas mais brandos mascarando quadros graves. Pacientes em tratamento oncol&#243;gico e seus m&#233;dicos devem ter aten&#231;&#227;o redobrada para quaisquer sintomas.</p>
        <p>As medidas de preven&#231;&#227;o envolvem tamb&#233;m a organiza&#231;&#227;o dos servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de para o atendimento correto desses pacientes. Idealmente, os hospitais dos pacientes com c&#226;ncer n&#227;o devem ser os mesmos que atendem casos com suspeita/confirma&#231;&#227;o de COVID-19. Caso exista essa possibilidade, recomenda-se que haja um servi&#231;o direcionado para atendimento destes pacientes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Em caso de suspeita de COVID-19, estes pacientes devem ter seu atendimento priorizado pois apresentam r&#225;pida progress&#227;o para formas graves. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Caso n&#227;o haja um servi&#231;o referenciado a eles, recomenda-se organizar fluxo seguro de atendimento a esses pacientes nas cl&#237;nicas e hospitais, com a ado&#231;&#227;o de todas as medidas de preven&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>&#201; importante tamb&#233;m que os profissionais de sa&#250;de envolvidos no atendimento desses pacientes tomem os cuidados adequados com rela&#231;&#227;o a medidas de preven&#231;&#227;o. &#201; recomendado o uso de equipamentos de prote&#231;&#227;o individual, higieniza&#231;&#227;o das m&#227;os antes e depois do contato com o paciente ou materiais de uso do paciente, bem como o cuidado na manipula&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos a serem empregados ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref> ). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Medidas de preven&#231;&#227;o para a popula&#231;&#227;o geral em &#225;rea com alto risco de infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV-2. SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-03-0547-00405-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Pacientes com c&#226;ncer j&#225; s&#227;o submetidos a grande estresse psicol&#243;gico em resultado do pr&#243;prio diagn&#243;stico. Dessa forma, aconselha-se que estes pacientes recebam informa&#231;&#245;es claras, apoio de familiares e sejam estimulados a terem um estilo de vida saud&#225;vel durante a quarentena, com pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico e alimenta&#231;&#227;o saud&#225;vel. Isso pode auxiliar a reduzir ansiedade e estresse emocional. As medidas de distanciamento social s&#227;o importantes para preven&#231;&#227;o da dissemina&#231;&#227;o da COVID-19, entretanto podem causar preju&#237;zo &#224; sa&#250;de mental dos pacientes com quadro de ansiedade. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Um recente trabalho sobre o impacto psicol&#243;gico da quarentena indica a exist&#234;ncia de tens&#227;o psicol&#243;gica sobre aqueles que n&#227;o podem ou n&#227;o s&#227;o capazes de participar da vida social. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> &#201; importante ressaltar a todos os pacientes com c&#226;ncer que havendo urg&#234;ncia ou complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao c&#226;ncer ou ao sistema cardiovascular, os mesmos devem procurar os servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia imediatamente, evitando-se maus resultados relacionados ao receio de procurar assist&#234;ncia de sa&#250;de.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Conduta em Rela&#231;&#227;o a Exames Diagn&#243;sticos e a Terapia nos Pacientes com C&#226;ncer</title>
        <p><italic>Exames diagn&#243;sticos</italic><bold>:</bold> Os pacientes com c&#226;ncer frequentemente necessitam da realiza&#231;&#227;o de exames para diagn&#243;stico, estadiamento e avalia&#231;&#227;o de resposta terap&#234;utica. O monitoramento varia a depender do diagn&#243;stico oncol&#243;gico, mas, muitas vezes, &#233; necess&#225;ria a realiza&#231;&#227;o de marcadores tumorais s&#233;ricos, TC, cintilografia &#243;ssea e tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons (PET <italic>,</italic> siglas em ingl&#234;s de <italic>positron emission tomography)</italic> .</p>
        <p>A realiza&#231;&#227;o dos exames de medicina nuclear (cintilografia e PET) demandam tempo prolongado e v&#225;rios profissionais envolvidos. A exposi&#231;&#227;o do paciente e dos profissionais de sa&#250;de ao cont&#225;gio da COVID-19 &#233;, por isso, relativamente elevada, sugerindo-se que a indica&#231;&#227;o da realiza&#231;&#227;o desses exames, durante o per&#237;odo da pandemia, seja discutida e individualizada, avaliando-se os riscos e os benef&#237;cios para cada paciente. Recomenda-se o adiamento dos exames para, pelo menos, 14 dias em pacientes suspeitos ou confirmados como portadores da infec&#231;&#227;o pelo novo coronav&#237;rus. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A realiza&#231;&#227;o de TC deve ser priorizada no contexto atual para avalia&#231;&#227;o da infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, e da presen&#231;a de tromboembolismo pulmonar. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Os achados tomogr&#225;ficos da COVID-19 s&#227;o vari&#225;veis, sendo mais comuns as imagens reticulares e infiltrado em vidro fosco perif&#233;ricas e bilaterais. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Recomenda-se evitar a realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico e de cintilografia pulmonar durante a pandemia pelo elevado risco de contamina&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> A realiza&#231;&#227;o de resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca deve ser feita ap&#243;s cuidadosa avalia&#231;&#227;o do paciente e da indica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, uma vez que pela maior dura&#231;&#227;o e pelas caracter&#237;sticas deste tipo de exame, tanto o risco de cont&#225;gio como a limpeza do equipamento t&#234;m maior complexidade. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> O Centro de Controle de Doen&#231;as estadunidense sugere cautela na indica&#231;&#227;o deste tipo de investiga&#231;&#227;o e sociedades internacionais recomendam que sua realiza&#231;&#227;o obede&#231;a a protocolos rigorosos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Durante o per&#237;odo da pandemia, recomenda-se que aqueles pacientes que estejam em remiss&#227;o, sem doen&#231;a oncol&#243;gica ativa e estejam assintom&#225;ticos possam ter seus exames de controle reagendados para momento oportuno, ap&#243;s a pandemia, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Adicionalmente, deve-se priorizar a realiza&#231;&#227;o de exames em pacientes com indica&#231;&#245;es urgentes e que necessitem iniciar tratamento com potencial curativo. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Pacientes com idade superior a 65 anos, ou na presen&#231;a de comorbidades e com fatores para imunossupress&#227;o (neutropenia, neoplasias hematol&#243;gicas, quimioterapia nos &#250;ltimos 30 dias, transplantados e em uso de medica&#231;&#245;es imunossupressoras) devem ter seus atendimentos priorizados, evitando longas esperas, o que poderia sobrecarregar ainda mais os servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
        <p><italic>Rastreio de cardiotoxicidade</italic><bold>:</bold> Os pacientes sob terapia oncol&#243;gica t&#234;m risco potenciais de desenvolvimento de cardiotoxicidade. O espectro de manifesta&#231;&#245;es da cardiotoxicidade &#233; amplo, sendo os principais tipos: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, arritmias, trombose e DAC. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Os exames de imagem card&#237;aca s&#227;o fundamentais para correto diagn&#243;stico e manejo dos pacientes, especialmente em pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o de uso de antraciclina e trastuzumabe. O diagn&#243;stico de cardiotoxicidade por essas drogas &#233; classicamente definido pela queda da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de &gt; 10 pontos percentuais para valores menores de 50%.</p>
        <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, diversas estrat&#233;gias de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o e rastreio de toxicidade precoce, com diagn&#243;stico ainda na fase subcl&#237;nica, foram incorporadas na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica para evitar que esses pacientes desenvolvam disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Lopez-Sendon et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> identificaram a incid&#234;ncia de cardiotoxicidade em 37% dos pacientes previamente submetidos a terapia com elevado potencial cardiot&#243;xico e que tiveram monitoramento card&#237;aco durante a quimioterapia. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Entretanto, no cen&#225;rio atual da pandemia, avaliando-se o risco potencial de contamina&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 em pacientes com c&#226;ncer sob quimioterapia, considera-se rediscutir a indica&#231;&#227;o desses exames, reorganizando-se a marca&#231;&#227;o de exames de maneira personalizada. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os principais fatores de risco de cardiotoxicidade s&#227;o dose elevada de antraciclina (&gt; 250 mg/m <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> ): uso concomitante de terapias cardiot&#243;xicas (radioterapia, ciclofosfamida, trastuzumabe, imunoterapia e antraciclinas): doen&#231;a card&#237;aca pr&#233;via; presen&#231;a de dois ou mais fatores de risco cardiovasculares; e extremos de idade (&lt; 18 anos ou &gt; 65 anos). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> A presen&#231;a de sinais e sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca tamb&#233;m &#233; indicativa de risco de cardiotoxicidade. Dessa forma, nesses pacientes com risco elevado de cardiotoxicidade deve-se considerar a realiza&#231;&#227;o de investiga&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular.</p>
        <p>Quando existir a suspeita de cardiotoxicidade, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular nesses pacientes deve ser feita preferencialmente com a ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica, com exame feito de modo direcionado para elucidar a quest&#227;o. &#201; importante o uso de equipamentos de prote&#231;&#227;o individual para diminuir o risco de transmiss&#227;o do v&#237;rus durante o exame. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Pode-se considerar a realiza&#231;&#227;o da pesquisa de biomarcadores card&#237;acos, caso o paciente tenha visita programada para coleta de exames durante a quimioterapia. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Entretanto, n&#227;o se recomenda a solicita&#231;&#227;o rotineira de biomarcadores para pesquisa de cardiotoxicidade. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outros exames de imagem (angiotomografia coron&#225;ria, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca e angiografia coron&#225;ria) podem ser necess&#225;rios para investiga&#231;&#227;o adicional de etiologia de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, uma vez que cardiotoxicidade &#233; diagn&#243;stico de exclus&#227;o e as complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares s&#227;o frequentes em pacientes com c&#226;ncer e COVID-19. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> No contexto da exclus&#227;o de DAC, a tomografia pode ser particularmente &#250;til na exclus&#227;o desta entidade e, assim, dispensar a realiza&#231;&#227;o de outros exames, nos quais o risco de contamina&#231;&#227;o e complexidade s&#227;o maiores. Recomenda-se a investiga&#231;&#227;o apenas nos pacientes em que a realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame deve propiciar modifica&#231;&#227;o da conduta m&#233;dica. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3</xref> ilustra as recomenda&#231;&#245;es que visam auxiliar no manejo racional da cardiotoxicidade destes pacientes durante a pandemia.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para manejo da cardiotoxicidade durante a pandemia. *Miocardiopatia, doen&#231;a valvar moderada a importante, arritmia e doen&#231;a arterial coronariana com revasculariza&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via. #Idade &gt; 60 anos, hipertens&#227;o arterial, tabagismo, obesidade e dislipidemia. ATAC, angiotomografia de art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias; DCV: doen&#231;a cardiovascular; EcoTT, ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico; FRCV: fatores de risco cardiovascular; RMC, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-03-0547-00405-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p><italic>Terapia Medicamentosa:</italic> Pacientes com DCV pr&#233;vias e pacientes que receberam o diagn&#243;stico de cardiotoxicidade (disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular) t&#234;m indica&#231;&#227;o de uso de inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina e bloqueadores de angiotensina II. Postulou-se que estes f&#225;rmacos podem aumentar a express&#227;o dos receptores da ECA2, facilitando a entrada do v&#237;rus nas c&#233;lulas hospedeiras. Entretanto, evid&#234;ncias mais recentes n&#227;o confirmaram estes achados e n&#227;o sugerem que estas medica&#231;&#245;es aumentem o risco de infec&#231;&#227;o pela COVID-19. Recomenda-se que essas medica&#231;&#245;es devam ser mantidas em pacientes com COVID-19, na aus&#234;ncia de contra-indica&#231;&#245;es. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> N&#227;o se recomenda o uso dessas medica&#231;&#245;es como profilaxia prim&#225;ria de cardiotoxicidade.</p>
        <p>A abordagem do paciente com COVID-19 deve levar em conta a apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e a presen&#231;a de sinais e sintomas de gravidade, como hipoxemia e dispneia. V&#225;rios medicamentos foram testados nestes cen&#225;rios, como imunomoduladores, antivirais, antibi&#243;ticos, corticosteroides, inibidores de Il-6 e interferon, entretanto, ainda n&#227;o h&#225; dados definitivos sobre a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a desses f&#225;rmacos na COVID-19. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudos iniciais sugeriram benef&#237;cio potencial do uso da cloroquina e hidroxicloroquina na COVID-19, por terem a capacidade de aumentar o pH endoss&#244;mico das c&#233;lulas e reduzir a replica&#231;&#227;o do SARS-CoV-2. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Entretanto, outros estudos n&#227;o conseguiram corroborar o benef&#237;cio do uso dessas drogas, e ainda mais, sugerem aumento do risco de mortalidade dos pacientes que receberam cloroquina. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> Dessa forma, o Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de, pelas evid&#234;ncias apenas incipientes do ben&#233;fico dessas drogas, sugere que estes medicamentos possam ser utilizados, em casos confirmados e a crit&#233;rio m&#233;dico, como terapia adjuvante no tratamento de formas graves, em pacientes hospitalizados, sem que outras medidas de suporte sejam preteridas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A linfohistiocitose hemofagoc&#237;tica (LHH) &#233; uma s&#237;ndrome hiperinflamat&#243;ria ainda subdiagnosticada em pacientes com a COVID-19. Esta s&#237;ndrome &#233; caracterizada como um estado de hipercitocinemia potencialmente fatal que leva a m&#250;ltipla disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> Os principais achados da LHH incluem: febre, citopenias e hiperferritinemia; envolvimento pulmonar (incluindo s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo) ocorre em aproximadamente 50% dos pacientes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dos pacientes com COVID-19, aqueles que evolu&#237;ram a &#243;bito tinham n&#237;veis mais elevados de ferritina e Il-6, sugerindo que a inflama&#231;&#227;o esteja relacionada com a mortalidade desses pacientes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> Dessa forma, na hiperinflama&#231;&#227;o observada na COVID-19, a imunossupress&#227;o parece ser ben&#233;fica. As op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas incluem ester&#243;ides, imunoglobulina intravenosa, bloqueio seletivo de citocinas (por exemplo, anakinra ou tocilizumabe) e inibi&#231;&#227;o de Janus Kinase. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Perspectivas</title>
        <p>Espera-se que com a evolu&#231;&#227;o do conhecimento da infec&#231;&#227;o pelo novo coronav&#237;rus, entendamos cada vez mais o comportamento da doen&#231;a em pacientes com comorbidades como c&#226;ncer e DCV. As perspectivas em rela&#231;&#227;o a um tratamento eficaz s&#227;o grandes, e independentemente do tempo necess&#225;rio para que a ci&#234;ncia abra o caminho para melhores resultados, o oncologista e o cardiologista devem fortalecer ainda mais a linha de cuidado do paciente com c&#226;ncer. A preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, o tratamento adequado do c&#226;ncer e da DCV, e a an&#225;lise criteriosa da estrat&#233;gia diagn&#243;stica e terap&#234;utica s&#227;o essenciais para a obten&#231;&#227;o de bons resultados nessa popula&#231;&#227;o frente &#224; pandemia da COVID-19.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>A interse&#231;&#227;o entre c&#226;ncer, o cora&#231;&#227;o e COVID-19 &#233; complexa e a racionaliza&#231;&#227;o do cuidado desses pacientes &#233; pautada em uma intera&#231;&#227;o entre as especialidades e na personaliza&#231;&#227;o de condutas. A avalia&#231;&#227;o dos riscos e benef&#237;cios da realiza&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas e diagn&#243;sticas requer aten&#231;&#227;o individualizada, considerando-se o progn&#243;stico oncol&#243;gico e o risco de cont&#225;gio da COVID-19, especialmente em regi&#245;es cuja transmissibilidade esteja elevada. Os pacientes com c&#226;ncer e com DCV apresentam formas mais graves da infec&#231;&#227;o pelo novo coronav&#237;rus, e por isto, devemos refor&#231;ar ainda mais as medidas de preven&#231;&#227;o nesses pacientes.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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        <p>Fontes de Financiamento</p>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Cancer and Cardiovascular Diseases during the COVID-19 Pandemic</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7002-744X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kawahara</surname>
            <given-names>Lucas Tokio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1418-9361</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Isabela Bispo Santos da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6160-3126</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barros</surname>
            <given-names>Cec&#237;lia Chie Sakaguchi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5306-5519</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriel Coelho de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3339-8866</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bittar</surname>
            <given-names>Cristina Salvadori</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6306-2522</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rizk</surname>
            <given-names>Stephanie Itala</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6080-7429</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Testa</surname>
            <given-names>Laura</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1182-4764</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moniz</surname>
            <given-names>Camila Motta Venchiarutti</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0655-2821</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0737-6188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3176-9747</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Diz</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Del Pilar Estevez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0626-2250</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Guimar&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Patricia Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0886-0844</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pinto</surname>
            <given-names>Ibraim Masciarelli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1033-3672</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5645-2055</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hajjar</surname>
            <given-names>Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0065-2194</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hoff</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital S&#237;rio-liban&#234;s, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o &#8211; Cardio-Oncologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Instituto D&#8217;Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Grupo Fleury Medicina Diagn&#243;stica, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing Address: Isabela Bispo Santos da Silva Costa</bold> &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 251. Postal Code 01246-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: Isabela.bispo@hc.fm.usp.br</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Kawahara LT, Costa IBSS, Hajjar LA, Hoff PM; Writing of the manuscript: Kawahara LT, Costa IBSS, Barros CCS, Almeida GC, Bittar CS, Rizk SI, Testa L, Moniz CMV, Pereira J, Hajjar LA, Hoff PM; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Costa IBSS, Oliveira GMM, Diz MDPE, Guimar&#227;es PO, Pinto IM, Kalil Filho R, Hajjar LA, Hoff PM.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>The challenges that the COVID-19 pandemic cretead to the healthcare system have made it necessary to adapt routines and services, with the objectives of controlling the spread of the virus and preserving health. Safe and correct management of patients in risks groups, such as elderly patients, patients with cardiovascular diseases, and patients with cancer, has become even more important. Thus, cardio-oncology has gained a new dimension, with the aim of adapting to patients&#8217; needs during the pandemic by restructuring the system of care in a manner that offers quality and safety in healthcare.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Coronavirus</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Betacoronavirus/complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome/complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasms/complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Pandemics</kwd>
        <kwd>SARS-CoV-19</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>The first cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), whose pathological agent has been described as an RNA-enveloped betacoronavirus, named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), were described in December 2019; the disease rapidly spread throughout the world, and it was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The current epidemiological data show that patients with cancer and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are frequently affected, and they show worse prognosis when infected with COVID-19. Incidence and mortality due to cardiovascular complications are higher in these patients. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The growing number of patients and the overload in health services in areas where the risk of contagion is high have generated the need to discuss adjustments in the care routines for these patients in order to preserve care, without impacting the treatment of comorbidities. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Thus, the objective of this review is to systematize the care provided by cardio-oncology services regarding management of patients with cancer and CVD during the pandemic, seeking to adopt the necessary treatment with maximum safety.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>COVID-19 in Patients with Cancer</title>
          <p>Patients with cancer, whether active or in remission, have been shown to be a notable risk group for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Several aspects corroborate the classification of patients in oncology as a group of greater vulnerability in relation to SARS-CoV-2 infection, with higher chances of progressing to severe forms and faster rates of deterioration and death. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The increased risk in patients in oncology may be related to the state of systemic immunosuppression that can be attributed both to antineoplastic treatments (chemotherapy and tumor resection surgery) and to tumor malignancy itself, as well as to the increase in cardiovascular diseases in this population. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The prevalence of cancer in epidemiological studies that describe patients with COVID-19 is rather variable. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Studies from China have shown a prevalence of 1%, which is considerably higher than the prevalence of cancer in China (0.29%). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> In an analysis of 5,700 cases in New York, 6% of patients had cancer. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Grasselli et al. in an Italian cohort with 1,571 patients, demonstrated that cancer was one of the most prevalent comorbidities, accounting for 8% of all patients analyzed. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In a recently published study, when compared to patients without cancer, patients with cancer and COVID-19 were more older (63.1 years [&#177; 12.1%] vs. 48.7 years [&#177; 16.2]) and more often smokers (2 [22%] vs. 107 [7%]), and they had more severe alterations on chest computed tomography (CT) (17 [94%] vs. 1,113 [71%]). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> No differences were observed regarding sex or other comorbidities. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Patients with cancer also had a higher rate of complications (7 [39%] vs. 124 [8%]). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Advanced age is an independent predictor of disease severity in patients with COVID-19. The median age of patients who progressed to death in Italy was 81 years (IQR 73 &#8211; 86). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Zhou et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> observed in multivariate analysis that the risk of death were higher (OR 1.10; 95% CI 1.03 &#8211; 1.17) for each additional year. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> In patients with cancer, Liang et al. observed that advanced age was the only independent predictor of the severe form of the disease (OR 1.43; 95% CI 0.97 &#8211; 2.12). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> These data suggest that special attention should be given to patients with advanced age and cancer, due to the greater severity observed in this population.</p>
          <p>In the group with history of cancer, heterogeneity was observed in association with the time interval since the last therapeutic intervention (surgery or chemotherapy). The patients who had undergone these procedures during the month prior to SARS-CoV-2 infection showed a higher incidence of serious events than cancer survivors who had not undergone therapeutic intervention, suggesting an association between the immunosuppression status caused by antitumor treatment and the increased risk of severity of COVID-19 presentation. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Initial data on mortality of patients with cancer and COVID-19 suggest that these cases have higher mortality in comparison with patients without cancer. Cohort studies from Italy have shown a prevalence of 16% to 20% of patients with active cancer among patients who died due to COVID-19. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Patients with cancer have a COVID-19 lethality rate of 7.6%, which is substantially higher than that of 1.4% in patients without comorbidities. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Knowing the risks patients with cancer face when infected with SARS-CoV-2, it is essential that they are consistently accompanied and monitored geographic areas where COVID-19 cases are on the rise. Telemedicine can aid in this monitoring. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Choice of Oncological Treatment</title>
          <p>Postponement of diagnostic and therapeutic interventions in patients with cancer during the pandemic period has been much discussed. Frequent visits to hospitals could increase the risk of contagion in these patients and in the healthcare team. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Social distancing measures have been encouraged in order to reduce the spread of COVID-19, given that transmission is high, and it occurs even from people who are asymptomatic. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> On the other hand, it is also known that many types of cancer have higher morbidity and mortality than COVID-19, and postponement of therapy has important prognostic implications, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> especially in areas where healthcare resources are typically limited and the wait for oncological care may last months. In this manner, comprehensive evaluation that takes into consideration the type of cancer, patient performance status, and the type of antineoplastic therapy required is extremely relevant to balancing the risks and benefits of possibly postponing antitumor treatment. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It is recommended to begin or continue adjuvant and neoadjuvant therapies (or any other therapy with curative potential) and to maintain therapy for metastatic diseases for which the literature has shown a clear benefit. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Oncological surgical procedures with curative potential are still recommended, always evaluating the procedure&#8217;s surgical morbidity and the possibilty of other safer neoadjuvant therapies. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Some strategies have been discussed as beneficial alternatives during the pandemic, especially for elderly patients in areas with elevated transmission. Choice of oncological therapy must consider the local options available, avoiding the need for patients to make long trips (between cities) to reach the health service. Preference should be given to oral chemotherapy, when indicated, and to endocrine therapy in sensitive tumors. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Depending on patient response, tumor type, and therapy time, it is also possible to consider spacing cycles of patients in immunotherapy from two or three to four or six weeks. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Regarding patients in radiotherapy, for treatment of more common diseases (such as breast, prostate, lung, and head cancer), reduced dose fractionation has been discussed, using a higher dose and a smaller number of sessions. This approach can lead to increased toxicity; therefore, the risks and benefits of hypofractionation should always be discussed. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It is important to discuss and weigh each strategy with patients and their family members. The doctor-patient relationship is extremely important during this moment, and the use of telemedicine can bring this interaction closer and decrease patient exposure. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> It is, furthermore, recommended that, if possible, there exist health services aimed at oncological treatment that are not references for receiving patients with a COVID-19. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> summarizes the American Society of Clinical Oncology&#8217;s recommendations regarding each type of specific procedure for patients with cancer. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Guidelines regarding procedures in patients in oncology during the COVID-19 pandemic</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Period</th>
                    <th>Procedures</th>
                    <th>Recommendations</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Pre-diagnostic</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Oncological screening</td>
                    <td>- Routine procedures in asymptomatic patients that require visits to health centers, such as mammograms and colonoscopies, should be postponed. - Patients with suspected disease should be investigated. - Biopsies and imaging exams should be performed in patients with suspected neoplasm.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="6">
                      <bold>Active oncological diagnosis</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Staging</td>
                    <td>- Comprehensive evaluation of postponement, considering diseases with indolent behavior.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Radiotherapy</td>
                    <td>- In patients with rapidly progressing tumors or patients for whom curative radiotherapy has a clear benefit, radiotherapy should be maintained; - Some patients may have radiotherapy postponed safely; however, multidisciplinary discussion is fundamental in making individual decisions.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Immunotherapy</td>
                    <td rowspan="2">- The clinical decision to postpone immunosuppressive therapies should be made in an individualized manner, taking the following factors into consideration: &#8226; Risk of recurrence of cancer in the event that there are changes to the therapy routine; &#8226; Number of therapy cycles completed; &#8226; Patient tolerance to treatment. - In patients with unstable tumors, suspending chemotherapy is not recommended.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Chemotherapy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Oncological surgery</td>
                    <td>- It is necessary to routinely perform analysis of the risks of damage due to postponing surgery and the benefits of the surgery, in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Stem cell transplant</td>
                    <td>- High-risk patients for COVID-19 whose neoplasms can be temporarily controlled with conventional therapy may have their stem cell transplant postponed. - Notwithstanding the lack of evidence regarding the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 through blood transfusion, it is prudent to test potential donors for COVID-19.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Oncological diagnosis in remission</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Follow-up routine</td>
                    <td>- In cases of patients with low risk of recurrence who are asymptomatic during the period of follow-up, it is possible to postpone the follow-up routine in order to avoid clinical visits and possible exposure; - Telemedicine is a useful tool for evaluating patients, provided that it is carried out in a safe and regular manner; - In cases where there are recommendations regarding frequency of intervention in patients, it is prudent to postpone the intervention routine to the lowest recommended frequency.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prognostic Evaluation</title>
          <p>Management of patients with cancer should include discussion of palliative care for patients with limited life expectancy. In the context of this pandemic, this discussion gains even more importance, avoiding exposure of patients with poor prognosis to contagion of COVID-19. It is important to discuss advance orders with patients who have terminal chronic diseases, always respecting local regulations, so that they do not undergo to intensive care therapy (mechanical ventilation, invasive procedures, cardiopulmonary resuscitation), in the event that this option is considered the most appropriate and proportional within the context of the underlying disease. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Intersection Between Cancer, Cardiovascular Disease, and COVID-19</title>
          <p>CVD and cancer are the two leading causes of death in developed and developing countries, notwithstanding significant improvements in prevention, screening, and treatment for both diseases. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> With many risk factors in common, cancer and CVD often coexist in the same individuals; patients diagnosed with lung cancer, breast cancer, and colon cancer have greater risk of CVD, and patients with CVD are at a higher risk of developing many types of cancer. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> The prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in patients with cancer is elevated, with 60.4% of patients with hypertension, 23.9% with diabetes, and 22.4% with dyslipidemia. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Management of patients with cancer and CVD in oncological treatment is multidisciplinary, with the goals of controlling risk factors, reducing cardiovascular complications, and minimizing unnecessary interruptions in oncological treatment. Antineoplastic therapies are potentially toxic to the heart, and the incidence of cardiovascular complications in survivors is high. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> The interaction between oncological specialists, both clinical and surgical, and the cardio-oncology service is fundamental to adequate management of these patients. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>This multidisciplinary care is even more significant in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection, which aggregates considerable morbidity and mortality. The intersection between the three diseases extends from controlling risk factors to managing pulmonary and cardiovascular complications, in addition to adjusting oncological treatment and preventing thromboembolic events. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> illustrates the main points of intersection between the three diseases. Knowledge and early implementation of appropriate therapeutic measures can result in improved prognosis for patients with cancer.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Intersection between cancer, the heart, and COVID-19. Hypertension, advanced age, diabetes, obesity, and smorkers use are risk factors shared by these three diseases. Management of cancer in COVID-19 aims to avoid unnecessary visits to healthcare services, given that patients in oncological treatment are immunosuppressed, and they are more susceptible to developing complications of COVID-19. The most severe forms of COVID-19, manifested by hypoxemia and ARDS, result from the systemic inflammatory process, with increased inflammatory cytokines and pro-thrombotic factors. Cardiovascular complications, such as thrombosis, arrhythmias, myocarditis, and ventricular dysfunction, are frequent in this population. ACE2: angiotensin-converting enzyme 2; ARDS: acute respiratory distress syndrome; IL-6: interleukin-6; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; SIRS: systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Chemo: chemotherapy; Radio: radiotherapy; Immuno: Immunotherapy. BNP: brain natriuretic peptide.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-03-0547-00405-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>COVID-19 and Cardiovascular Diseases</title>
          <p>The presence of pre-existing CVD has been indicated as one of the main risk factors for the occurrence and severity of COVID-19 (9). A recently published meta-analysis, including a total of 1,527 patients, observed that, in patients with COVID-19, the prevalences of hypertension, cardiac and cerebrovascular diseases, and diabetes were 17.1%, 16.4%, and 9.7%, respectively. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> In a cohort of 5,700 patients from the United States, Richardson et al. observed that the most prevalent comorbidities were hypertension (3,026 [56.6%]), obesity (1,737 [41.7%]), and diabetes (1,808 [33.85%]). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> In an Italian cohort with 1,591 patients, hypertension (509 [49%]) was the most prevalent comorbidity, followed by CVD (223 [21%]), dyslipidemia (188 [18%]), and diabetes (180 [17%]). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In addition to having higher prevalence, these patients are more predisposed to developing severe forms of the disease and progressing to death. In a study from China, the mortality of patients with CVD was 10.5%; in patients with diabetes it was 7.3%, and in those with hypertension it was 6.0%. These rates are higher than those in patients without comorbidities (2.3%). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Of patients who died in Italy, 3.6% did not have comorbidities; 14.4% had a single comorbidity; 21.1% had two, and 60.9% had three or more. Hypertension (69.1%), diabetes (31.7%), and CVD (27.5%) were the most prevalent comorbidities. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> In a study published by Jianfeng Xie et al., of 168 patients who died of the new coronavirus <bold>,</bold> 74.4% had some comorbidity. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> The most frequent comorbidities were hypertension (50%), diabetes (25%), and ischemic heart disease (18.5%). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          <p>SARS-CoV-2 causes damage to the cardiovascular system through different mechanisms. The virus uses the membrane protein angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) to initiate viral binding with the host. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> ACE2 negatively modulates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system by converting angiotensin 2 to angiotensin 1-7, which is opposed to the action of the angiotensin-converting enzyme. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> It is highly expressed in pulmonary and heart tissues, and it performs important functions of cardiovascular and pulmonary protection. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Viral binding to this membrane protein causes inhibition of these protective mechanisms, which can result in myocardial inflammation, pulmonary edema, and acute respiratory failure. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Cardiovascular injury may also result from the systemic inflammatory response, which leads to the phenomenon of a cytokine storm. In this sense, in more severe cases, infection would result in unbalanced response by Th1 and Th2 cells. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Elevated interleukin-6 (IL-6) has been indicated as a predictor of mortality in COVID-19, suggesting that hyperinflammation in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection is an important factor for mortality. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The main cardiovascular complications resulting from COVID-19 are myocardial injury, heart failure, myocarditis, cardiac arrhythmias, shock, and coronary failure. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> In some studies, elevated troponin alone was an independent predictor of mortality (OR = 26,909, 95% CI 4,086 &#8211; 177,226). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Guo et al., observed that, of 187 patients with COVID-19, 52 (27.8%) had myocardial injury, and mortality was markedly higher in patients with elevated troponin T levels than in those with normal troponin T levels (59.6 % vs. 8.9%). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Increased D-dimer levels also have a direct relation with mortality. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Myocardial injury was related to severe manifestations of the disease, with greater need for admission to the intensive care unit (ICU), ventricular dysfunction, and shock. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Cases of ventricular dysfunction observed in patients with COVID-19 result from acute coronary syndrome (ACS), myocarditis, and takotsubo syndrome. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> ACS with ST segment elevation in patients with COVID-19 occurs, even without obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD), and it requires comprehensive evaluation of these patients with evaluation of ventricular function and biomarker levels. In a cohort with 18 patients, 10 (55%) had ST segment elevation without obstructive coronary disease, and, in these patients, mortality reaches 90%, possibly due to inflammation, vasospasm, hypoxia, and microcirculatory thrombosis. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Cardiac arrhythmias in COVID-19 may be a consequence of acute myocarditis, myocardial injury, and side effects of pharmacological therapy. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> In a study conducted with 138 hospitalized patients, 16.7% had arrhythmias, which were more prevalent in patients admitted to the ICU (44.4% vs. 6.9%). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Guo et al., <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> observed that 11.7% had malign arrhythmias (ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> These arrhythmias were significantly more frequent in patients with elevated serum levels of cardiac troponin T and N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
          <p>As COVID-19 is a recent disease, it is not clear what its long-term cardiac consequences might be. Nevertheless, a 12-year follow-up study found that survivors of SARS-CoV infection showed increased rates of cardiovascular abnormalities and lipid and glucose metabolism disorders. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Although the mechanisms of these alterations have yet to be explained, due to the structural similarity between SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, the possibility is raised that COVID-19 may have similar long-term implications. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Clinical Management of Patients with Cancer and Cardiovascular Diseases in Areas with High Transmission of COVID-19</title>
          <p><bold>Prevention.</bold> Prevention measures are a fundamental step in caring for patients with cancer and CVD during the COVID-19 pandemic. The association of CVD and cancer increases the risk of COVID-19 and the severity of the disease. Considering all aspects related to quarantine, social isolation, and distancing, cardiovascular prevention should be reinforced in these patients, implementing measures to control blood pressure, blood glucose, and lipid levels, adopting an adequate diet, and encouraging physical activity.</p>
          <p>As there is still no vaccine that has proven effective for SARS-CoV-2, it is recommended to update influenza and antipneumococcal vaccines as a means of decreasing the incidence of concurrent infection. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Important measures to reduce the spread of the virus should be emphasized even more in this population, including correct hand hygiene with soap or alcohol gel, as well as recommendations on avoiding contact with symptomatic people and agglomerations. The Brazilian Ministry of Health, in agreement with the WHO, advises everyone to wash their hands and objects that are used frequently, to minimize sharing of objects, and to avoid touching their eyes, mouth, and nose. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In high-risk areas, measures must be taken to minimize contact and exposure in the most vulnerable cases. Accordingly, monitoring and visiting patients with CVD and/or stable cancer can be carried out with the aid of telemedicine, thus avoiding transmission of SARS-CoV-2 to this risk group. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Telemedicine has recently been regulated by the Brazilian Federal Council of Medicine during the pandemic, and it should be used in these patients in order to reduce frequent visits to healthcare services. Consultations can take place via telephone or video, aiming especially at controlling cardiovascular risk factors (such as hypertension, diabetes, smoking, obesity, and others) and monitoring symptoms.</p>
          <p>For patients with a recent history of stem cell transplantation, self-isolation can be an effective way to avoid exposure in high-risk areas. People in contact with these patients also need to adhere to the necessary precautionary measures, minimizing exposure and obtaining tests for SARS-CoV-2 when they have flu-like symptoms.</p>
          <p>Due to immunological changes, patients undergoing treatment for neoplasms may present an atypical manifestation of COVID-19, with milder symptoms masking severe conditions. Patients in oncological treatment and their physicians should pay close attention to any symptoms.</p>
          <p>Prevention measures also involve organizing health services for the correct care of these patients. Ideally, hospitals for patients with cancer should not be the same as those for cases with suspected or confirmed COVID-19. If this is possible, it is recommended that there exist a service dedicated to attending these patients. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> In the event of suspected COVID-19, care should be prioritized for these patients, because they show rapid progression to severe forms. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> If there is no referral service for these patients, it is recommended to organize a safe flow of care for these patients in clinics and hospitals, with the adoption of all prevention measures.</p>
          <p>It is also important for health professionals involved in caring for these patients to practice appropriate caution in relation to prevention measures. Use of personal protective equipment, hand hygiene before and after contact with patients or materials for patient use, and caution when handling medication that will be given are all recommended ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref> ). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Prevention measures for the general population in areas with high risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection. SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-03-0547-00405-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Patients with cancer are already under a great deal of psychological stress as a result of the diagnosis in itself. These patients should receive clear information and support from family members, and they are encouraged to maintain a healthy lifestyle during quarantine, with physical exercise and a healthy diet. This can help reduce anxiety and emotional stress. Social distancing measures are important to prevent the spread of COVID-19; they, may, however compromise the mental health of patients with anxiety. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> A recent study on the psychological impact of quarantine indicates the psychological strain on patients who are not able to take part in social life. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> It is important to emphasize that all patients with cancer who have emergencies or complications related to cancer or the cardiovascular system should seek emergency service immediately, thus avoiding poor results related to concerns regarding seeking healthcare.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conduct in Relation to Diagnostic Exams and Therapy in Patients with Cancer</title>
          <p><italic>Diagnostic exams</italic>: Patients with cancer frequently require exams for diagnosis, staging, and evaluation of therapeutic response. Monitoring varies depending on oncological diagnostic, but it is often necessary to perform serum tumor markers, CT, bone scintigraphy, and positron emission tomography (PET).</p>
          <p>Nuclear medicine exams (scintigraphy and PET) take a long time, and several professionals are involved. The exposure of patients and health professionals to the contagion of COVID-19 is, therefore, relatively high, suggesting that the indication for these exams during the pandemic period should be discussed and individualized, assessing the risks and the benefits for each patient. It is recommended to postpone exams for at least 14 days patients with suspected or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
          <p>CT should be prioritized in the current context of evaluating COVID-19 infection and the presence of pulmonary thromboembolism. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Tomography findings in COVID-19 are variable; reticular images and peripheral and bilateral ground-glass infiltrates are the most common. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> It is recommended to avoid transesophageal echocardiography and pulmonary scintigraphy during the pandemic, due to the high risk of contamination. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging should be performed after careful evaluation of the patient and the clinical indication given that both the risk of contagion and the cleaning of the equipment are more complex, due to the longer duration and the characteristics of this type of exam. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> The United States Center for Disease Control recommends caution when indicating this type of investigation, and international societies recommend that its performance adhere to strict protocols. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
          <p>During the pandemic period, for asymptomatic patients who are in remission, without active oncological disease, in it recommended to reschedule control exams to an appropriate moment, after the pandemic. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Moreover, priority should be given to exams for patients with urgent indications and patients who need to begin treatments with curative potential. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> For patients over the age of 65 years or patients with comorbidities and with immunosuppression factors (neutropenia, hematological neoplasms, chemotherapy during the past 30 days, transplants and use of immunosuppressive medications), care should be prioritized, thus avoiding long waits, which would further overburden health services. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
          <p><italic>Screening for cardiotoxicity:</italic> Patients undergoing oncological therapy are at potential risks of developing cardiotoxicity. The spectrum of manifestations of cardiotoxicity is wide, with the main types being heart failure, arrhythmias, thrombosis, and CAD. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Cardiac imaging exams are essential to correct diagnosis and management of patients, especially in patients indicated for anthracycline and trastuzumab use. Diagnosis of cardiotoxicity due to these drugs is classically defined as a drop of &gt; 10 percentage points in ejection fraction to values below 50%.</p>
          <p>Over the past years, several strategies for monitoring and screening for early toxicity, with diagnosis still in the subclinical phase, have been incorporated into clinical practice in order to prevent these patients from developing ventricular dysfunction and heart failure. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Lopez-Sendon et al. identified a 37% incidence of cardiotoxicity in patients who previously underwent therapy with high cardiotoxic potential and who received cardiac monitoring during chemotherapy. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Nonetheless, during the current pandemic scenario, given the potential risk of COVID-19 contamination in patients with cancer in chemotherapy, it is possible to reconsider indicating these exams, reorganizing and rescheduling them in a personalized manner. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The main risk factors of cardiotoxicity are high doses of anthracycline (&gt; 250 mg/m <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> ), concomitant use of cardiotoxic therapies (radiotherapy, cyclophosphamide, trastuzumab, immunotherapy, and anthracyclines), prior heart disease, the presence of two or more cardiovascular risk factors, and age &lt; 18 or &gt; 65 years. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> The presence of signs and symptoms of heart failure is also indicative of risk of cardiotoxicity. Thus, in patients with high risk of cardiotoxicity, cardiovascular investigation should be considered.</p>
          <p>When cardiotoxicity is suspected, evaluation of ventricular function in these patients should be conducted, preferably with transthoracic echocardiography, with exams carried out in a manner that focuses on clarifying the question. It is important to use personal protective equipment to reduce the risk of viral transmission during the exam. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Study of cardiac biomarkers may be considered in the event the patient has a visit scheduled to collect exams during chemotherapy. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Otherwise, it is not recommended to routinely solicit biomarkers to investigate cardiotoxicity. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Other imaging exams (coronary angiotomography, cardiac magnetic resonance, and coronary angiography) may be necessary for additional investigation of the etiology of ventricular dysfunction, given that cardiotoxicity is a diagnosis of exclusion, and cardiovascular complications are frequent in patients with cancer and COVID-19. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> In the context of excluding CAD, tomography can be particularly useful and thus dispense with the need for further exams, where the risk of contamination and the complexity are greater. Investigation is recommended only in cases where the exam would promote a change in medical conduct. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3</xref> illustrates the recommendations that aim to assist in rational management of cardiotoxicity in these patients during the pandemic.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Recommendations for managing cardiotoxicity during the pandemic. *Cardiomyopathy, moderate to important valvular heart disease, arrhythmia, and coronary artery disease with prior revascularization. #Age &gt; 60 years, arterial hypertension, tobacco use, obesity, and dyslipidemia. CCTA: coronary computed tomography angiography; CMR, cardiac magnetic resonance; CVRF: cardiovascular risk factors; TTE: transthoracic echocardiography.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-03-0547-00405-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p><italic>Medical Therapy:</italic> For patients with prior CVD and patients who have been diagnosed with cardiotoxicity (ventricular dysfunction), the use of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II blockers is indicated. It has been postulated that these drugs can increase the expression of ACE2 receptors, facilitating viral entry into host cells. However, more recent evidence has not confirmed these findings, and it does not suggest that these medications increase the risk of COVID-19 infection. It is recommended that these medications should be maintained in patients with COVID-19, in the absence of contraindications. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> The use of these medications is not recommended as primary prophylaxis of cardiotoxicity.</p>
          <p>Treatment of patients with COVID-19 should take into account the clinical presentation and the presence of signs and symptoms of severity, such as hypoxemia and dyspnea. Several drugs have been tested in these settings, such as immunomodulators, antiviral, antibiotics, corticosteroids, and Il-6 and interferon inhibitors; nonetheless, there is still no definitive data on the efficacy and safety of these drugs in COVID-19. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Initial studies suggested a potential benefit from the use of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in COVID-19, as they have the ability to increase the endosomal pH of cells and reduce the replication of SARS-CoV-2. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Nonetheless, further studies failed to corroborate the benefit to using these drugs, and, furthermore, they have suggested an increased risk of mortality in patients who receive chloroquine. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> Accordingly, the Brazilian Ministry of Health, due to the merely incipient evidence on the benefits of these drugs, has suggested that they may be used in confirmed cases and at medical discretion, as an adjuvant therapy for treating severe forms in hospitalized patients, without neglected other measures of support. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a hyperinflammatory syndrome that is still underdiagnosed in patients with a COVID-19. This syndrome is characterized by a potentially fatal state of hypercytokinemia that leads to multiple organ dysfunction. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> The main findings of HLH include fever, cytopenias, and hyperferritinemia; pulmonary involvement (including acute respiratory distress syndrome) occurs in approximately 50% of patients. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In patients with COVID-19, those who progressed to death had more elevated levels of ferritin and Il-6, suggesting that inflammation is related to mortality in these patients. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> In this manner, in the hyperinflammation observed in COVID-19, immunosuppression appears to be beneficial. Therapeutic options include steroids, intravenous immunoglobulin, selective cytokine blockade (for example, anakinra or tocilizumab) and Janus Kinase inhibition. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prospects</title>
          <p>It is expected that, as knowledge regarding the infection by the new coronavirus evolves, we will increasingly understand the behavior of the disease in patients with comorbidities such as cancer and CVD. Prospects for effective treatment are very positive, and, regardless of the time required for science to pave the way to better results, oncologists and cardiologists must further strengthen the line of care for patients with cancer. Cardiovascular prevention, adequate treatment of cancer and CVD, and comprehensive analysis of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies are all essential in order to obtain good results in this population while facing the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>The intersection between cancer, the heart, and COVID-19 is complex, and the rationalization of care for these patients is based on interactions between specialties and personalized conduct. Evaluation of the risks and benefits of carrying out therapeutic and diagnostic interventions requires individualized attention, considering oncological prognosis and the risk of contagion of COVID-19, especially in regions with high transmission. Patients with cancer and CVD show more severe forms of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and, for this reason, we should reinforce prevention measures even further in these patients.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of Funding</p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
