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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">559hrkfMvMqSDvX7FTttN8Q</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020000900292</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200424</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200424</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Posicionamento</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Posicionamento sobre Uso de Antiplaquet&#225;rios e Anticoagulantes nos Pacientes Infectados pelo Novo Coronav&#237;rus (COVID-19) &#8211; 2020</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3777-1947</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre de Matos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Leal</surname>
            <given-names>Tatiana de Carvalho Andreucci Torres</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcel de Paula</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Gomes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Figueiredo</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cristina Baptista da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4598-5512</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Petriz</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Luiz Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1187-8690</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Precoma</surname>
            <given-names>Dalton Betolim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9171-1224</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Serrano</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Vicente</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor), Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP),S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital BP Mirante</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital BP Mirante, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital 9 de Julho</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital 9 de Julho, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Gl&#243;ria D&#8217;Or</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Gl&#243;ria D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Barra D&#8217;Or</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Barra D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Sociedade Hospitalar Angelina Caron</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Sociedade Hospitalar Angelina Caron, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: 20020-907. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>115</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>292</fpage>
      <lpage>301</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="48"/>
        <page-count count="10"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup width="13%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th colspan="8" style="font-weight:normal">Declara&#231;&#227;o de potencial conflito de interesses dos autores/colaboradores do Posicionamento do Departamento de Ergometria, Exerc&#237;cio, Cardiologia Nuclear e Reabilita&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular (DERC/SBC) sobre a Atua&#231;&#227;o M&#233;dica em suas &#193;reas Durante a Pandemia por COVID-19 Se nos &#250;ltimos 3 anos o autor/colaborador do Posicionamento:</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Nomes Integrantes do Posicionamento</th>
              <th>Participou de estudos cl&#237;nicos e/ou experimentais subvencionados pela ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica ou de equipamentos relacionados ao posicionamento em quest&#227;o</th>
              <th>Foi palestrante em eventos ou atividades patrocinadas pela ind&#250;stria relacionados ao posicionamento em quest&#227;o</th>
              <th>Foi (&#233;) membro do conselho consultivo ou diretivo da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica ou de equipamentos</th>
              <th>Participou de comit&#234;s normativos de estudos cient&#237;ficos patrocinados pela ind&#250;stria</th>
              <th>Recebeu aux&#237;lio pessoal ou institucional da ind&#250;stria</th>
              <th>Elaborou textos cient&#237;ficos em peri&#243;dicos patrocinados pela ind&#250;stria</th>
              <th>Tem a&#231;&#245;es da ind&#250;stria</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td>Ant&#244;nio Carlos Avanza Jr.</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Carlos Alberto Cordeiro Hossri</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Carlos Alberto Cyrillo Sellera</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Gabriel Blacher Grossman</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Lara Terra F. Carreira</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Luiz Eduardo Fonteles Ritt</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Luiz Eduardo Mastrocola</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Mauricio Batista Nunes</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Mauricio Milani</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Nabil Ghorayeb</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Odilon Gariglio Alvarenga de Freitas</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Pedro Ferreira de Albuquerque</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Romeu Sergio Meneghelo</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Salvador Manoel Serra</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Tales de Carvalho</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>William Azem Chalela</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
    </p>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A pandemia pelo novo coronav&#237;rus (SARS-CoV-2) vem gerando debates a respeito do melhor tratamento para a doen&#231;a e suas complica&#231;&#245;es. Publica&#231;&#245;es recentes demonstraram que as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) est&#227;o entre os principais fatores de risco para evolu&#231;&#227;o desfavor&#225;vel da doen&#231;a, incluindo hipertens&#227;o arterial e diabetes mellitus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Foi demonstrado que pacientes com infec&#231;&#227;o pelo novo coronav&#237;rus (COVID-19) apresentam mecanismos pr&#243;-tromb&#243;ticos distintamente ativados, com maior possibilidade de eventos tromb&#243;ticos ocorrerem. S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA) com e sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST pode ocorrer em pacientes com COVID-19, mas a real incid&#234;ncia ainda &#233; incerta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Dessa forma, diversas quest&#245;es relacionadas ao uso de medicamentos antiplaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes em pacientes com suspeita ou infec&#231;&#227;o confirmada por COVID-19 permanecem incertas. Tais recomenda&#231;&#245;es a seguir s&#227;o v&#225;lidas para as mais diversas situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas como fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana cr&#244;nica, interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea, p&#243;s-cirurgia card&#237;aca, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico (AVE) isqu&#234;mico e tromboembolismo venoso, devendo ser aplicadas caso-a-caso.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2. Fisiopatologia Envolvida</title>
      <sec>
        <title>2.1. Mecanismo de Entrada Celular</title>
        <p>O v&#237;rus SARS-CoV-2 tem como receptor funcional e porta de entrada a enzima conversora da angiotensina 2 (ECA2). Trata-se de uma carboxipeptidase que, diferente da enzima conversora da angiotensina 1, tem efeito contr&#225;rio, aumentando a degrada&#231;&#227;o da angiotensina 2 e, portanto, apresenta efeito final vasodilatador. Al&#233;m de estar presente no par&#234;nquima pulmonar, a ECA2 &#233; distribu&#237;da tamb&#233;m em todo sistema cardiovascular, rins e cora&#231;&#227;o. Sabe-se que a ECA2 tem certa participa&#231;&#227;o na fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Modelos animais que tem express&#227;o reduzida de ECA2, apresentam disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda severa. Aparentemente a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo novo coronav&#237;rus &#233; capaz de promover <italic>downregulation</italic> desses receptores, o que poderia favorecer a inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica e a les&#227;o pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> . Apesar dessa poss&#237;vel associa&#231;&#227;o, estudo observacional que avaliou 8910 pacientes infectados pelo SARS-Cov-2 n&#227;o demonstrou aumento de mortalidade em pacientes em uso de medica&#231;&#245;es inibidores da ECA (IECA) e bloqueador de receptores de angiotensina (BRA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Desta forma, essas medica&#231;&#245;es devem ser mantidas em pacientes que faziam uso pr&#233;vio e desenvolverem a infec&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.2. Inj&#250;ria Mioc&#225;rdica</title>
        <p>Diversos estudos, principalmente chineses, v&#234;m demonstrando o impacto da inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica na instala&#231;&#227;o e progress&#227;o da COVID-19, assim como em sua apresenta&#231;&#227;o de gravidade. Dados chineses descreveram a presen&#231;a de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica em aproximadamente 20-30% dos pacientes internados, sendo presente tamb&#233;m em 40% naqueles que morreram. H&#225; dados demonstrando que a eleva&#231;&#245;es de alguns marcadores, como troponina e D-d&#237;mero, est&#227;o associados a pior progn&#243;stico, com maior necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o em unidades de terapia intensiva, necessidade de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica e morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O mecanismo da inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica ainda n&#227;o est&#225; bem estabelecido. Al&#233;m do efeito direto do v&#237;rus, h&#225; o envolvimento do estresse mioc&#225;rdico induzido pela fal&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria e hipoxemia, com desbalan&#231;o de oferta e demanda, al&#233;m de uma a&#231;&#227;o indireta da resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica sobre o tecido mioc&#225;rdico e fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; dados suficientes sobre o efeito da inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. N&#227;o se sabe ao certo se a miocardite induzida pela COVID-19 produza insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o exclusivamente reduzida. H&#225; relatos que descrevem achados anatomopatol&#243;gicos de miocardite linfoc&#237;tica, mesmo em pacientes com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada e sinais de hipertrofia ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.3. Associa&#231;&#227;o com SCA</title>
        <p>O risco aumentado para SCA em portadores da doen&#231;a pode ser explicado pelo aumento da atividade tromb&#243;tica descrita nesses pacientes, evidenciado pela frequente eleva&#231;&#227;o do D-d&#237;mero e plaquetopenia. Al&#233;m desse achado espec&#237;fico, sabe-se que h&#225; um aumento de eventos coronarianos em associa&#231;&#227;o direta de infec&#231;&#245;es respirat&#243;rias virais. Fatores relacionados &#224; atividade inflamat&#243;ria, tais como disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, ativa&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos, disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica, express&#227;o de fatores teciduais e libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas s&#227;o capazes de aumentar o risco de instabiliza&#231;&#227;o da placa ateroscler&#243;tica. Estudo mais recentes identificaram tamb&#233;m n&#237;veis elevados de anticorpos antifosfol&#237;pides em pacientes com COVID-19, no entanto, n&#227;o se sabe se isso apresenta alguma rela&#231;&#227;o com gravidade da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No in&#237;cio da fase de infec&#231;&#227;o, a inibi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria pode reduzir a forma&#231;&#227;o de fibrina intravascular e trombos. Dessa forma, uso de aspirina pr&#233;-hospitalar, mas n&#227;o o uso p&#243;s-admiss&#227;o, foi associado menor risco para o desenvolvimento de insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria e mortalidade em pacientes com pneumonia adquirida pela comunidade. Em segundo lugar, a escolha de inibidores P2Y12 orais: apesar do fato de que todos os inibidores P2Y12 reduzem agregados de plaquetas e leuc&#243;citos e citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias derivadas de plaquetas, ticagrelor &#233; &#250;nico em ter um alvo adicional bem documentado de inibi&#231;&#227;o, transportador nucleos&#237;deo equilibrativo 1 (ENT1), contribuindo para a inibi&#231;&#227;o da capta&#231;&#227;o de adenosina celular. Portanto, ticagrelor confere propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias mais potentes, embora n&#227;o testado em COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Vale ressaltar que na vig&#234;ncia do quadro cl&#237;nico infeccioso e, visto a alta incid&#234;ncia de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica decorrente a presen&#231;a direta do v&#237;rus e de efeitos indiretos da infec&#231;&#227;o, mesmo na vig&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas, o diagn&#243;stico de SCA deve ser considerado frente &#224; possibilidade de doen&#231;a n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica. Foi publicado<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> relato de 18 casos de eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST em hospitais de Nova York, sugerindo SCA com supra de ST. Dentre eles, 4 tinham eleva&#231;&#227;o difusa e 14 tinham eleva&#231;&#245;es focais do segmento ST. 50% dos pacientes fizeram cineangiocoronariografia e 33% n&#227;o tinham doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva. No total, 44% dos pacientes tiveram diagn&#243;stico de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio. Dessa forma, mesmo em pacientes com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento de ST, diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais devem ser levantados, visto quadro cl&#237;nico heterog&#234;neo. Independente da etiologia, a mortalidade foi de 72%. A decis&#227;o terap&#234;utica e a estratifica&#231;&#227;o invasiva deve ser ponderada levando em considera&#231;&#227;o quadro cl&#237;nico, achados de exames complementares, experi&#234;ncia da equipe e disponibilidade do laborat&#243;rio de hemodin&#226;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> . Em outras duas publica&#231;&#245;es, demonstraram-se que houve menor incid&#234;ncia de SCA no norte da Calif&#243;rnia, em rela&#231;&#227;o ao mesmo per&#237;odo no ano anterior e que houve maior incid&#234;ncia de parada card&#237;aca extra-hospitalar, na It&#225;lia. Isto sugere uma menor procura da popula&#231;&#227;o aos servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m de todos esses fatores, uma enorme preocupa&#231;&#227;o tem sido levantada devido aos efeitos do isolamento social. A maioria das pessoas reduziram drasticamente a atividade f&#237;sica. Al&#233;m disso, a alimenta&#231;&#227;o por vezes torna-se inadequada com ingesta maior de carboidratos. Tais mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida podem ser fatores adicionais capazes de desencadear e contribuir com eventos tromb&#243;ticos com AVE e SCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.4. Mecanismo Tromboemb&#243;lico</title>
        <p>Pacientes infectados pelo COVID-19 provavelmente apresentam risco aumentado de tromboembolismo venoso (TEV). Embora n&#227;o haja nenhuma grande s&#233;rie de casos publicados at&#233; agora, h&#225; relatos de par&#226;metros anormais de coagula&#231;&#227;o em pacientes hospitalizados com doen&#231;a COVID-19 grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudo recente mostrou em uma s&#233;rie de 106 casos de COVID-19 submetidos &#224; angiotomografia de art&#233;rias pulmonares na investiga&#231;&#227;o de TEV pulmonar que 30% dos pacientes houve confirma&#231;&#227;o de tromboembolismo venoso. Pacientes com infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 e embolia pulmonar apresentaram n&#237;veis mais elevados de D-d&#237;mero do que aqueles sem embolia ( <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0,001), al&#233;m de maior necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o em terapia intensiva (75% vs. 32%, p &lt; 0,001). A presen&#231;a de D-d&#237;mero &gt; 2.660 &#181;g/L apresentou sensibilidade de 100% e especificidade de 67% para embolia pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O D-d&#237;mero tem sido associado a maior taxa de mortalidade e parece aumentar progressivamente com a exacerba&#231;&#227;o da infec&#231;&#227;o. A fase da doen&#231;a em que ocorre o desenvolvimento de s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo (SDRA) e a piora do padr&#227;o radiol&#243;gico &#233; marcada pela eleva&#231;&#227;o expressiva de D-d&#237;mero, observando-se nos casos mais graves inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica e coagula&#231;&#227;o intravascular disseminada (CIVD). A resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica em pacientes com infec&#231;&#227;o pode resultar em les&#227;o endotelial com consequente aumento na gera&#231;&#227;o de trombina e redu&#231;&#227;o da fibrin&#243;lise end&#243;gena. Esse estado pr&#243;-tromb&#243;tico &#233; denominado coagulopatia induzida pela sepse (SIC) e precede a CIVD. Os diversos mecanismos envolvidos na SIC agem simultaneamente, culminando em um estado pr&#243;-hemost&#225;tico. Aparentemente, os fatores mais importantes que medeiam esse dist&#250;rbio do sistema de coagula&#231;&#227;o durante a sepse s&#227;o as citocinas inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Evid&#234;ncias demonstram uma intera&#231;&#227;o cruzada entre inflama&#231;&#227;o e coagula&#231;&#227;o, com a inflama&#231;&#227;o induzindo a ativa&#231;&#227;o da coagula&#231;&#227;o e a coagula&#231;&#227;o acentuando a atividade inflamat&#243;ria. As plaquetas t&#234;m um papel central no desenvolvimento das anormalidades da coagula&#231;&#227;o na sepse e podem ser ativadas diretamente por mediadores pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios, como o fator ativador de plaquetas, bem como por meio da trombina gerada. A ativa&#231;&#227;o de plaquetas tamb&#233;m pode estimular a forma&#231;&#227;o de fibrina por mecanismo alternativo. A express&#227;o de P-selectina na membrana plaquet&#225;ria n&#227;o apenas induz a ades&#227;o de plaquetas a leuc&#243;citos e c&#233;lulas endoteliais, mas tamb&#233;m aumenta a express&#227;o do fator tecidual nos mon&#243;citos. Em circunst&#226;ncias normais, a ativa&#231;&#227;o da coagula&#231;&#227;o &#233; controlada por tr&#234;s importantes vias anticoagulantes fisiol&#243;gicas: o sistema antitrombina, o sistema ativado da prote&#237;na C e o inibidor da via do fator tecidual. Na sepse, todas as tr&#234;s vias sofrem disfun&#231;&#227;o. Em meio a todo esse desbalan&#231;o do sistema de coagula&#231;&#227;o, a fibrin&#243;lise end&#243;gena &#233; amplamente reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em um estudo de coorte retrospectiva da China, n&#237;veis elevados de D-d&#237;mero (&gt;1g/L) foram fortemente associados ao &#243;bito hospitalar. Em outro estudo comparando sobreviventes da COVID-19 com n&#227;o-sobreviventes, os n&#227;o sobreviventes tiveram n&#237;veis significativamente mais elevados de D-d&#237;mero e produtos de degrada&#231;&#227;o de fibrinas e 71,4% dos n&#227;o sobreviventes atenderam aos crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos de CIVD durante o curso da doen&#231;a. Al&#233;m da CIVD, pacientes gravemente doentes com imobiliza&#231;&#227;o prolongada est&#227;o inerentemente em alto risco para TEV. A inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular tamb&#233;m pode contribuir para o estado hipercoagulante e endotelial disfun&#231;&#227;o em tais pacientes. No cen&#225;rio de pacientes COVID-19 gravemente doentes que demonstram cl&#237;nico deteriora&#231;&#227;o como evidenciado por hip&#243;xia ou instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, doen&#231;a tromboemb&#243;lica deve ser considerada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Intera&#231;&#245;es Medicamentosas e Efeitos Cardiovasculares Pr&#243;/Antitromb&#243;ticos</title>
      <p>At&#233; o momento, n&#227;o h&#225; tratamento espec&#237;fico para a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo COVID-19 e um arsenal terap&#234;utico vem sendo usado em situa&#231;&#245;es de gravidade em ambiente hospitalar, muitos ainda em investiga&#231;&#227;o de efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a.</p>
      <p>Como esses medicamentos podem ser usados em situa&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas, vale considerar seus efeitos colaterais sobre o sistema cardiovascular e poss&#237;veis intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas com outras terapias frequentemente utilizadas em pacientes cardiopatas.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>3.1. Antirretrovirais</title>
        <p>A ribavirina, e o remdesivir s&#227;o agentes que agem bloqueando a RNA polimerase e o lopinavir/ritonavir inibem a replica&#231;&#227;o viral.</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; descri&#231;&#227;o de cardiotoxicidade induzido pela ribavirina. Por sua vez, o lopinavir/ritonavir produz alargamento do intervalo QT e PR, principalmente em pacientes que j&#225; apresentam QT longo ou est&#227;o em uso de outras drogas que tamb&#233;m interagem sobre o intervalo QT. Tanto a ribavirina quanto o lopinavir/ritonavir potencializam o efeito anticoagulante, modificando a a&#231;&#227;o da varfarina (principalmente ribavirina) ou novos anticoagulantes como apixabana e rivaroxabana (principalmente lopinavir-ritonavir).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em outro estudo, o uso de dabigatrana em pacientes internados por COVID-19 com uso de antivirais, teve aumento dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos plasm&#225;ticos, com necessidade de retirada da droga em mais da metade dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O lopinavir-ritonavir podem tamb&#233;m influenciar na atividade dos inibidores P2Y12 por inibi&#231;&#227;o da CYP3A4 o que reduz o n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de metab&#243;litos ativos do clopidogrel e aumenta a atividade do ticagrelor. Assim, pelo alto risco de sangramento, o uso concomitante de ticagrelor e lopinavir-ritonavir deve ser desencorajado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>H&#225; tamb&#233;m evid&#234;ncia de que o uso de clopidogrel na vig&#234;ncia de tratamento com lopinavir-ritonavir possa produzir efeito antiagregante insuficiente, o que n&#227;o &#233; observado com prasugrel, sendo, portanto, a droga mais ideal <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Na presen&#231;a de contraindica&#231;&#245;es para o uso de prasugrel (tais como AVE pr&#233;vio, idade avan&#231;ada, &#237;ndice de massa corp&#243;rea baixa e risco aumentado de sangramento) indica-se o uso de clopidogrel, sendo sugerido a realiza&#231;&#227;o de avalia&#231;&#227;o de atividade plaquet&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Remdesivir &#233; um antirretroviral em investiga&#231;&#227;o para COVID-19 e que j&#225; foi utilizado durante a epidemia de Ebola. Apesar de medica&#231;&#227;o promissora, em estudo randomizado, duplo-cego, multic&#234;ntrico, a prescri&#231;&#227;o de remdesivir n&#227;o resultou em desfechos de mortalidade em rela&#231;&#227;o ao placebo. Houve tend&#234;ncia a diminui&#231;&#227;o de sintomas, por&#233;m sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> N&#227;o h&#225; descri&#231;&#245;es sobre cardiotoxicidade e outras intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas importantes at&#233; o momento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.2. Hidroxicloroquina e Cloroquina</title>
        <p>Hidroxicloroquina e cloroquina s&#227;o medica&#231;&#245;es frequentemente utilizadas em pacientes portadores de mal&#225;ria e outras doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias sist&#234;micas tais como l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico e artrite reumatoide. Aparentemente, s&#227;o capazes bloquear a entrada de v&#237;rus pelas c&#233;lulas, al&#233;m de produzir imunomodula&#231;&#227;o, atenuando a produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas, a inibi&#231;&#227;o de autofagia e atividade lisossomal no hospedeiro. Podem exercer propriedades antitromb&#243;ticas, especialmente contra anticorpos antifosfol&#237;pides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>H&#225; evid&#234;ncias anteriores do uso e de sua efic&#225;cia em epidemias pr&#233;vias no tratamento de SARS e MERS. Um estudo chin&#234;s demonstrou que em 100 pacientes infectados pelo COVID-19, o uso de cloroquina foi relacionado a melhora do padr&#227;o radiol&#243;gico, maior depura&#231;&#227;o viral e menor progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a. Apesar dos resultados promissores, o estudo apresenta diversas limita&#231;&#245;es e tem diversos vieses de interpreta&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Em outras publica&#231;&#245;es de estudos observacionais, demonstrou-se que o uso de hidroxicloroquina associado ou n&#227;o ao uso de azitromicina n&#227;o resultou em desfechos favor&#225;veis. N&#227;o houve diminui&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade ou tempo de intuba&#231;&#227;o, assim como n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a de soroconvers&#227;o em pacientes com doen&#231;a leve a moderada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Diversos estudos sobre o impacto da hidroxicloroquina e/ou cloroquina est&#227;o em andamento.</p>
        <p>Apesar de classicamente bem toleradas, a cloroquina e a hidroxicloroquina podem induzir graves efeitos colaterais tais como aumentar o intervalo QT, induzir hipoglicemia, retinopatia e dist&#250;rbios neuropsiqui&#225;tricos. No entanto, n&#227;o h&#225; descri&#231;&#227;o de intera&#231;&#227;o com medicamentos antiplaquet&#225;rios ou anticoagulantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.3. Corticosteroides</title>
        <p>Metilprednisolona &#233; outra droga cujo uso pode ser considerado durante a apresenta&#231;&#227;o grave de COVID-19 e s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo. Sabidamente provoca reten&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica, altera&#231;&#245;es hidroeletrol&#237;ticas e hipertens&#227;o. Por&#233;m, tamb&#233;m n&#227;o h&#225; descri&#231;&#227;o de intera&#231;&#227;o com medicamentos antiplaquet&#225;rios ou anticoagulantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.4. Heparinas</title>
        <p>Em estudo chin&#234;s<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> com 449 pacientes internados por COVID-19, mostrou-se que a estrat&#233;gia de prescri&#231;&#227;o de enoxaparina 40-60mg/dia ou heparina n&#227;o-fracionada 10.000 a 15.000U/dia trouxe benef&#237;cios de mortalidade em 28 dias em 2 subgrupos. Um deles era de pacientes com crit&#233;rios de SIC <underline>&gt;</underline> 4 (que usa os crit&#233;rios de aumento de TP, queda na contagem de plaquetas e aumento do SOFA-Score), com diferen&#231;a de 40% vs. 64,2% (p = 0,029) e o outro subgrupo era composto por pacientes com D-d&#237;mero &gt; 6x o limite da normalidade, com diferen&#231;a de 32,8% vs. 52,4% (p = 0,017), demonstrando que a estrat&#233;gia de prescri&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia qu&#237;mica de TEV ou anticoagula&#231;&#227;o plena devem ser consideradas individualmente em todos os pacientes com COVID-19 internados, assim como a pesquisa de eventos tromb&#243;ticos deve ser buscada com maior intensidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.5. Imunoglobulinas e Anticorpos Anti-IL6</title>
        <p>A l&#243;gica por tr&#225;s do uso da imunoglobulina depende do uso dos mecanismos: neutraliza&#231;&#227;o viral e imunomodula&#231;&#227;o. Uma aplica&#231;&#227;o intrigante do mecanismo anterior &#233; o uso de soro convalescente ou plasma. Tal terapia tem efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos que culminam na supress&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o e, portanto, esta terapia pode potencialmente aliviar a gravidade da doen&#231;a na fase de hiperinflama&#231;&#227;o. Evid&#234;ncias mais robustas s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para confirmar esses achados. Da mesma forma, h&#225; uma boa raz&#227;o para se perguntar se os pacientes com COVID-19 com tempestade de citocinas podem se beneficiar de anticorpos monoclonais direcionados ao receptor de interleucina 6(IL-6) que foram bem-sucedidos em atenuar a inflama&#231;&#227;o em pacientes transplantados. Talvez isso se reflita no contexto tromb&#243;tico do paciente, por&#233;m ainda n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias concretas sobre isso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Anticorpos anti-IL 6 aumentam a express&#227;o da CYP3A4. No entanto, n&#227;o existe nenhuma recomenda&#231;&#227;o de ajuste de dose de antiplaquet&#225;rios ou anticoagulantes em pacientes em uso dessa terapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <sec>
        <title>4.1. Anticoagulantes</title>
        <p>A prescri&#231;&#227;o de heparina de baixo peso molecular ou heparina n&#227;o-fracionada profil&#225;ticas para TEV ou como anticoagula&#231;&#227;o plena devem ser individualizadas, sendo sempre consideradas em pacientes de alto risco de TEV internados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A terapia anticoagulante em pacientes com COVID-19 grave e ind&#237;cios de SIC e/ou com D-d&#237;mero muito elevado em associa&#231;&#227;o a outros biomarcadores que denotam gravidade, na aus&#234;ncia de contraindica&#231;&#227;o &#224; anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, pode ser considerada uma estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica fundamentada no consenso de especialistas e em poucos estudos retrospectivos. Adicionalmente, essa estrat&#233;gia requer a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de protocolos institucionais r&#237;gidos que permitam a vigil&#226;ncia e a r&#225;pida interven&#231;&#227;o frente a complica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>&#201; poss&#237;vel que a terap&#234;utica anticoagulante seja mais ben&#233;fica quando iniciada na fase pr&#233;-tromb&#243;tica do que nos quadros avan&#231;ados, quando o risco de sangramento &#233; maior. Em se optando pela anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, parece razo&#225;vel o uso de heparina de baixo peso molecular como f&#225;rmaco de escolha em pacientes est&#225;veis e com depura&#231;&#227;o normal de creatinina (dose de 1 mg/kg de 12/12h, subcut&#226;nea). Em caso de choque ou depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina abaixo de 50 ml/min/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> , &#233; prefer&#237;vel o uso de heparina n&#227;o-fracionada intravenosa (18 UI/kg/h), tendo como alvo um tempo de tromboplastina parcial ativada entre 1,5 e 1,8. Entretanto, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias que fundamentem a ampla utiliza&#231;&#227;o de heparina em dose terap&#234;utica na COVID-19. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ilustra uma sugest&#227;o de avalia&#231;&#227;o e estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica nesse grupo de pacientes baseado nas poucas evid&#234;ncias vigentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Sugest&#227;o de manejo e fluxograma para avalia&#231;&#227;o de terapia anticoagulante em pacientes graves com COVID-19.</italic></title>
              <p>
                <italic>FR: frequ&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria; SIC: coagulopatia induzida pela sepse; RNI: raz&#227;o de normatiza&#231;&#227;o internacional; SOFA: sequential organ failure assessment; CIVD: coagula&#231;&#227;o intravascular disseminada; LSN: limite superior da normalidade.</italic>
              </p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-02-0292-00424-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>J&#225; a <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic> prop&#244;s uma recomenda&#231;&#227;o de realizar anticoagula&#231;&#227;o plena em todos os pacientes com sinais de gravidade como: aumento da frequ&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria &gt; 24 ipm, satura&#231;&#227;o arterial de oxig&#234;nio &lt; 90%, prote&#237;na-C reativa elevada, n&#237;veis elevados de D-d&#237;mero ou em ascens&#227;o e n&#237;veis de fibrinog&#234;nio elevados. Especificamente em rela&#231;&#227;o ao D-d&#237;mero a orienta&#231;&#227;o &#233; de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o plena quando &gt; 3.000 ng/mL, somente profilaxia qu&#237;mica quando &lt; 500 ng/mL e uso de enoxaparina 40 mg de 12/12h quando D-d&#237;mero estiver entre 500 e 3.000 ng/mL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A manuten&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia para tromboembolismo ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar tamb&#233;m deve ser individualizada com heparina de baixo peso molecular ou novos anticoagulantes, pesando risco benef&#237;cio de eventos tromb&#243;ticos <italic>versus</italic> sangramento ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o quanto ao uso de anticoagulantes em pacientes com infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19.</italic></title>
              <p>
                <italic>TEV: tromboembolismo venoso; TP: tempo de protrombina.</italic>
              </p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-02-0292-00424-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Enquanto n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia espec&#237;fica para COVID-19, &#233; razo&#225;vel considerar individualizar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos e hemorr&#225;gicos e estender a profilaxia medicamentosa por at&#233; 45 dias, considerando pacientes com mobilidade reduzida, c&#226;ncer, TEV pr&#233;vio, D-d&#237;mero elevado &gt; 2 vezes o limite superior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes que j&#225; fazem uso de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via por quaisquer motivos, a medica&#231;&#227;o deve ser mantida sempre que poss&#237;vel. Caso o paciente seja internado por sintomas de pneumonia por COVID-19 a manuten&#231;&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o deve ser individualizada. Em pacientes graves pode-se ter altera&#231;&#245;es na farmacocin&#233;tica das medica&#231;&#245;es, insufici&#234;ncia renal, insufici&#234;ncia hep&#225;tica, plaquetopneia e CIVD, e a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o parenteral com uso de heparina de baixo peso molecular ou heparina n&#227;o-fracionada deve ser preferencial, caso n&#227;o haja contra-indica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O uso de lopinavir/ritonavir tem intera&#231;&#227;o com os anticoagulantes orais, sendo desaconselhado manter e rivaroxabana e edoxabana concomitante e, diminuir doses de apixabana e monitoriza&#231;&#227;o mais frequente do TP em pacientes em uso de varfarina. Dessa forma, em pacientes com uso pr&#233;vio de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral e que necessitam manter a medica&#231;&#227;o na interna&#231;&#227;o, aconselha-se trocar pela forma parenteral por heparina de baixo peso molecular. &#201; v&#225;lido lembrar que caso os pacientes evoluam com discrasia sangu&#237;nea/CIVD deve-se pesar o risco de sangramento ao manter essas medica&#231;&#245;es, sendo necess&#225;ria a suspens&#227;o na quase totalidade dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.2. Antiplaquet&#225;rios</title>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso de antiplaquet&#225;rios, pacientes que fazem uso dessas medica&#231;&#245;es no cen&#225;rio de doen&#231;a coronariana cr&#244;nica, a medica&#231;&#227;o deve ser mantida. Em pacientes que usam dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, deve-se individualizar a prescri&#231;&#227;o de tais medica&#231;&#245;es em pacientes internados ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o quanto ao uso de antiplaquet&#225;rios em pacientes com infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19.</italic></title>
              <p>
                <italic>ICP: interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea; DAPT: dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria.</italic>
              </p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-02-0292-00424-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Dado o alto risco de sangramento em pacientes ap&#243;s interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea (ICP) complicada pela COVID-19, a menor dura&#231;&#227;o da dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (DAPT) pode ser ben&#233;fica nesta popula&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m do uso preferencial do clopidogrel naqueles com risco de sangramento elevado, pesando-se sempre o risco de trombose de <italic>stent</italic> vs. sangramento. Para contrabalancear o aumento do risco de hemorragia associado &#224; DAPT, estudos mais recentes forneceram evid&#234;ncias que suportam a suspens&#227;o precoce de aspirina ap&#243;s ICP, reduzindo principalmente taxas de sangramento. Entre os pacientes em uso de DAPT, manter o inibidor P2Y12 em monoterapia (preferencialmente ticagrelor) pode ser uma estrat&#233;gia razo&#225;vel ap&#243;s ICP realizada h&#225; mais de 3 meses. Devido &#224; falta de evid&#234;ncias, para aqueles com ICP realizada h&#225; menos de 3 meses, DAPT n&#227;o deve ser descontinuada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Caso o paciente necessite do uso de antivirais, h&#225; intera&#231;&#227;o entre lopinavir/ritonavir com clopidogrel e ticagrelor, devendo-se evitar essas medica&#231;&#245;es ou avaliar atividade plaquet&#225;ria. Prasugrel pode ser administrado com cautela, salvo contra-indica&#231;&#245;es inerentes ao medicamento. N&#227;o h&#225; descri&#231;&#227;o de intera&#231;&#245;es com antiplaquet&#225;rios endovenosos como cangrelor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Consensos de especialistas recomendam medidas proativas ou mesmo parar toda a terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria em pacientes com uma contagem de plaquetas &lt; 100.000/&#956;L e &lt; 50.000/&#956;L, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> H&#225; entretanto recomenda&#231;&#227;o mais atual que sugere reduzir para monoterapia se &lt; 50.000/&#956;L e suspender caso fique &lt; 25.000/&#956;L, considerando sempre o risco isqu&#234;mico vs. risco de sangramento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.3. Trombol&#237;ticos</title>
        <p>Tanto a <italic>American Heart Association</italic> quanto a <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic> indicam o uso de tromb&#243;lise como primeira op&#231;&#227;o em pacientes suspeitos/confirmados com COVID-19 e infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, principalmente em centros sem servi&#231;o de hemodin&#226;mica ou naqueles com hemodin&#226;mica dispon&#237;vel, por&#233;m sem preparo adequado para evitar a contamina&#231;&#227;o da equipe envolvida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dessa forma, n&#227;o existe at&#233; o momento nenhuma contra-indica&#231;&#227;o ao uso de trombol&#237;ticos nesse contexto e seu uso deve ser pautado de acordo com as contra-indica&#231;&#245;es usuais, sendo individualizado em situa&#231;&#245;es de instabilidade el&#233;trica ou hemodin&#226;mica, CIVD, plaquetopenia, sangramentos e insufici&#234;ncia renal ou hep&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Vale ressaltar que diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais de supradesnivelamento do segmento ST devem ser sempre aventados, como miopericardite, nos quais a tromb&#243;lise deve ser evitada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>5. Considera&#231;&#245;es Finais</title>
      <p>As evid&#234;ncias a respeito da COVID-19 e suas intera&#231;&#245;es com os sistemas de coagula&#231;&#227;o e ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria ainda s&#227;o iniciais. Existem fortes ind&#237;cios de que essa via possa ser um alvo terap&#234;utico importante. No entanto, ainda s&#227;o necess&#225;rios estudos mais robustos para determinar a real import&#226;ncia dos mecanismos pr&#243;-tromb&#243;ticos e a melhor terapia a ser adotada nesse grupo de pacientes.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es gerais para sobre Covid-19/antiplaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Indica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>Classe de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Associa&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa entre terapias antritromb&#243;ticas e medica&#231;&#245;es utilizadas no tratamento do COVID-19</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes em uso de Lopinavir-Ritonavir o Prasugrel deve ser o antiplaquet&#225;rio de escolha</td>
                <td align="center">IIB</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes em uso de Lopinavir-Ritonavir, caso contra-indicado Prasugrel, deve-se escolher Clopidogrel</td>
                <td align="center">IIB</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes em uso de Lopinavir-Ritonavir, caso optado pelo Clopidogrel, a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o de atividade plaquet&#225;ria</td>
                <td align="center">IIB</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes em uso de Lopinavir-Ritonavir, o uso de Ticagrelor deve ser desencorajado</td>
                <td align="center">IIB</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes em uso de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via e que far&#227;o uso de Lopinavir-Ritonavir, deve-se trocar o anticoagulante pela forma parenteral (Heparinas)</td>
                <td align="center">IIA</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes em uso de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via, evitar associa&#231;&#227;o de Rivaroxabana ou Edoxabana com Lopinavir-Ritonavir</td>
                <td align="center">III</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes em uso de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via com varfarina, com necessidade de manuten&#231;&#227;o desta medica&#231;&#227;o e estiverem em uso de Lopinavir-Ritonavir, deve-se avaliar com maior frequ&#234;ncia o TP</td>
                <td align="center">IIA</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>O uso de Remdesevir n&#227;o tem intera&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa importante com antiplaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes</td>
                <td align="center">IIA</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>O uso de corticoster&#243;ides n&#227;o tem intera&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa importante com antiplaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes</td>
                <td align="center">IIA</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Imunoglobulinas e anticorpos anti-IL6 n&#227;o tem intera&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa importante com antiplaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes</td>
                <td align="center">IIB</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>O uso de Hidroxicloroquina ou Cloroquina n&#227;o tem intera&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa importante com antiplaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes</td>
                <td align="center">IIB</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes que fizerem uso de Hidroxicloroquina ou Cloroquina, deve-se monitorizar o intervalo QT</td>
                <td align="center">IA</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Uso de anticoagulantes em pacientes infectados pelo COVID-19</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Profilaxia qu&#237;mica para eventos tromboemb&#243;licos deve ser institu&#237;da em todos pacientes internados</td>
                <td align="center">IIA</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>A anticoagula&#231;&#227;o plena deve ser considerada em casos especiais, pesando risco-benef&#237;cios, como por exemplo, utilizando o escore de coagulopatia induzida por sepse ou D-D&#237;mero &gt; 6x o limite superior da normalidade</td>
                <td align="center">IIB</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes que fazem uso de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o anteriormente, a medica&#231;&#227;o deve ser mantida sempre que poss&#237;vel</td>
                <td align="center">IIA</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Considerar estender profilaxia qu&#237;mica para eventos tromboemb&#243;licos at&#233; 45 dias ap&#243;s a alta em pacientes de risco</td>
                <td align="center">IIB</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Uso de antiplaquet&#225;rios em pacientes infectados pelo COVID-19</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes que faziam uso no cen&#225;rio de doen&#231;a coronariana cr&#244;nica, a medica&#231;&#227;o deve ser mantida</td>
                <td align="center">IIA</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes em uso de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o no cen&#225;rio p&#243;s angioplastia (ATC), pode-se considerar manter em monoterapia os pacientes com ATC com dura&#231;&#227;o maior que 3 meses, pesando o risco de sangramento e trombose de stent</td>
                <td align="center">IIA</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Realiza&#231;&#227;o: Grupo de Estudos de Antitromb&#243;ticos (GEAT) do Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica (DCC) da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (SBC)</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Conselho de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes (2020-2021): Brivaldo Markman Filho, Antonio Carlos Sobral Sousa, Aurora Felice Castro Issa, Bruno Ramos Nascimento, Harry Correa Filho, Marcelo Luiz Campos Vieira</p>
        <p>Coordenador de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes (2020-2021): Brivaldo Markman Filho</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>Esta diretriz dever&#225; ser citada como:</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>
          <italic>Soeiro AM, Leal TCAT, Pereira MP, Lima EG, Figueiredo ACBS, Petriz JLF, et al. Posicionamento sobre Uso de Antiplaquet&#225;rios e Anticoagulantes nos Pacientes Infectados pelo Novo Coronav&#237;rus (COVID-19) &#8211; 2020. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2020; 115(2):292-301.</italic>
        </p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <italic><bold>Nota:</bold> Estes posicionamentos se prestam a informar e n&#227;o a substituir o julgamento cl&#237;nico do m&#233;dico que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, deve determinar o tratamento apropriado para seus pacientes.</italic>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Statement</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Position Statement on the Use of Antiplatelet Agents and Anticoagulants in Patients Infected with the New Coronavirus (COVID-19) &#8211; 2020</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3777-1947</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre de Matos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Leal</surname>
            <given-names>Tatiana de Carvalho Andreucci Torres</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcel de Paula</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Gomes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Figueiredo</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cristina Baptista da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4598-5512</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Petriz</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Luiz Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1187-8690</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Precoma</surname>
            <given-names>Dalton Betolim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9171-1224</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Serrano</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Vicente</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor), Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital BP Mirante, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital 9 de Julho, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Gl&#243;ria D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Barra D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Sociedade Hospitalar Angelina Caron, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Correspondence: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; Postal Code: 20020-907. E-mail: diretrizes@cardiol.br</corresp>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1001">
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="13%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="8" style="font-weight:normal">Declaration of potential conflict of interests of authors/collaborators of the Position Statement of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology Department of Exercise Testing, Sports Exercise, Nuclear Cardiology, and Cardiovascular Rehabilitation (DERC/SBC) on Activities Within its Scope of Practice During the COVID-19 Pandemic If, within the last 3 years, the author/collaborator of the statement:</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Names of statement collaborators</th>
                <th style="font-weight:normal">Participated in clinical and/or experimental studies sponsored by pharmaceutical or equipment companies related to this statement</th>
                <th>Spoke at events or activities sponsored by industry related to this statement</th>
                <th>Was (is) a member of a board of advisors or a board of directors of a pharmaceutical or equipment industry</th>
                <th>Participated in normative committees of scientific research sponsored by industry</th>
                <th>Received personal or institutional funding from industry</th>
                <th>Wrote scientific papers in journals sponsored by industry</th>
                <th>Owns stocks in industry</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Ant&#244;nio Carlos Avanza Jr.</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Carlos Alberto Cordeiro Hossri</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Carlos Alberto Cyrillo Sellera</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Gabriel Blacher Grossman</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lara Terra F. Carreira</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luiz Eduardo Fonteles Ritt</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luiz Eduardo Mastrocola</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mauricio Batista Nunes</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mauricio Milani</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Nabil Ghorayeb</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Odilon Gariglio Alvarenga de Freitas</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pedro Ferreira de Albuquerque</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Romeu Sergio Meneghelo</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salvador Manoel Serra</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tales de Carvalho</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>William Azem Chalela</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>1. Introduction</title>
        <p>The new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has led to debate about the best treatment for the disease and its complications. Recent publications have shown that cardiovascular disease is among the main risk factors for disease progression, including high blood pressure and diabetes mellitus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>It has been demonstrated that patients infected with the new coronavirus (COVID-19) have distinct activation of prothrombotic mechanisms, including a greater likelihood of thrombotic events. Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) with or without ST-elevation can occur in patients with COVID-19, although the actual incidence is still uncertain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Thus, several issues related to using antiplatelet agents and anticoagulants in patients with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 infection remain uncertain. The following recommendations are valid for the most diverse clinical situations, such as atrial fibrillation, acute coronary syndrome, chronic coronary artery disease, percutaneous coronary intervention, post-cardiac surgery, ischemic stroke, and venous thromboembolism, and should be applied on a case-by-case basis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2. Pathophysiology</title>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1. Mechanism of Cellular Entry</title>
          <p>The functional receptor and gateway of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. This carboxypeptidase has the opposite effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme 1, i.e., it increases the degradation of angiotensin 2 and thus has a vasodilating effect. In addition to being present in lung parenchyma, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is also distributed throughout the cardiovascular system, kidneys and heart. It is known that angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 has a certain role in ventricular function. Severe left ventricular dysfunction occurred in animal models that reduced the expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. Apparently, infection with the new coronavirus can promote downregulation of these receptors, which could lead to myocardial injury and lung injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Despite this possible association, an observational study of 8,910 patients infected with SARS-Cov-2 found no increase in mortality among patients using angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Thus, these medications should not be discontinued in patients who used them prior to infection.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.2. Myocardial Injury</title>
          <p>Several studies, mainly Chinese, have demonstrated the impact of myocardial injury on the progression and severity of COVID-19. Chinese data indicate the presence of myocardial injury in approximately 20 to 30% of hospitalized patients, as well as in 40% of those who died. There are data showing that elevations in some markers, such as troponin and D-dimer, are associated with worse prognosis, intensive care unit hospitalization, mechanical ventilation, and death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The mechanism of myocardial injury is still not well established. In addition to the direct effect of the virus, there is myocardial stress induced by respiratory failure and hypoxemia, including supply and demand imbalances, as well as the indirect action of systemic inflammatory response on myocardial tissue and endothelial function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Data on the effects of myocardial inflammation is also insufficient. It is not clear whether COVID-19-induced myocarditis produces heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. There have been anatomopathological findings of lymphocytic myocarditis, even in patients with preserved ejection fraction and signs of ventricular hypertrophy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3. Association with Acute Coronary Syndrome</title>
          <p>The increased risk of ACS in patients with COVID-19 can be explained by increased thrombotic activity, evidenced by the frequent elevation of D-dimer and thrombocytopenia. There is also an increase in coronary events in direct association with viral respiratory infection. Factors related to inflammatory activity (e.g., endothelial dysfunction, platelet activation, macrophage activation, liver dysfunction, tissue factor expression and cytokine release) can increase the risk of atherosclerotic plaque instability. More recent studies have also identified high levels of antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with COVID-19, although it is not known whether this is related to disease severity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
          <p>At the beginning of the infection phase, platelet inhibition can reduce the formation of intravascular fibrin and thrombus. Thus, the use of pre- but not post-admission acetylsalicylic acid was found to be associated with a lower risk of respiratory failure and mortality in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Despite the fact that all P2Y<sub>12</sub>inhibitors reduce platelet and leukocyte aggregates and platelet-derived proinflammatory cytokines, ticagrelor, which is orally administered, is unique in having an additional well-documented target of inhibition: equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1, which contributes to the inhibition of cellular adenosine uptake. Therefore, ticagrelor has more potent anti-inflammatory properties, although it has not been tested in COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It should be pointed out that in view of the high incidence of myocardial injury due to the virus and the indirect effects of infection, non-ischemic disease must be considered in an ACS diagnosis, even in the presence of electrocardiographic changes. A case series was published<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> of 18 patients in New York hospitals with COVID-19 and ST-segment elevation suggestive of acute myocardial infarction, including four with diffuse ST-segment elevation and 14 with focal ST-segment elevation. Of these patients, 50% had coronary angiography and 33% had no obstructive coronary disease. In all, 44% of the patients were diagnosed with acute myocardial infarction. Thus, even in patients with ST-segment elevation, differential diagnoses must be considered due to the heterogeneous clinical picture. However, regardless of the etiology, mortality was 72%. Therapeutic decision making and invasive stratification strategies should consider the clinical condition, the findings of complementary tests, the team&#8217;s experience, and the availability of the hemodynamics laboratory.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> In two other studies, a lower incidence of ACS was found in northern California compared to the same period the previous year, while a higher incidence of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest was found in Italy. This suggests a lower demand for emergency services by the population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In addition to all these factors, the effects of social isolation have raised enormous concern. Most people have drastically reduced physical activity. In addition, diets can become inadequate due to higher carbohydrate intake. Such lifestyle changes may contribute to thrombotic events, including stroke and ACS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.4. Thromboembolic Mechanism</title>
          <p>Patients infected with COVID-19 are likely to have an increased risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE). Although a large case series has not yet been published, there are reports of abnormal coagulation parameters in hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A recent case series of 106 COVID-19 patients who underwent pulmonary arteriography found that 30% had VTE. Patients with COVID-19 and pulmonary embolism had higher levels of D-dimer than those without an embolism (p &lt; 0.001), in addition to a greater need for intensive care (75% vs. 32%, p &lt; 0.001). A D-dimer level &gt; 2,660 &#181;g/L showed 100% sensitivity and 67% specificity for pulmonary embolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          <p>D-dimer levels have been associated with higher mortality rates and seem to progressively increase with infection severity. The phase of the disease in which acute respiratory distress syndrome develops and the radiological pattern worsens is marked by a significant increase in D-dimer levels, which is observed in the most severe cases of myocardial injury and disseminated intravascular coagulation. The systemic inflammatory response in infected patients can result in endothelial injury with a consequent increase in thrombin production and a reduction in endogenous fibrinolysis. This prothrombotic state is called sepsis-induced coagulopathy and precedes disseminated intravascular coagulation. The various mechanisms involved in sepsis-induced coagulopathy act simultaneously, culminating in a prohemostatic state. Apparently, inflammatory cytokines are the most important mediator of this clotting disorder during sepsis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A cross-interaction has been demonstrated between inflammation and coagulation, with inflammation inducing coagulation activation and coagulation accentuating inflammatory activity. Platelets play a central role in the development of coagulation abnormalities in sepsis and can be activated directly by pro-inflammatory mediators, such as platelet activating factor, as well as through thrombin. Platelet activation can also stimulate fibrin formation by an alternative mechanism. The expression of P-selectin in the platelet membrane not only induces the adhesion of platelets to leukocytes and endothelial cells but also increases the expression of tissue factor in monocytes. Under normal circumstances, coagulation activation is controlled by three important physiological anticoagulant pathways: the antithrombin system, the activated protein C system, and the tissue factor pathway inhibitor. In sepsis, all three pathways become dysfunctional. In the midst of this imbalance in the coagulation system, endogenous fibrinolysis is greatly reduced.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In a Chinese retrospective cohort study, elevated D-dimer levels (&gt; 1 g/L) were strongly associated with hospital death. In another study comparing COVID-19 survivors and non-survivors, non-survivors had significantly higher levels of D-dimer and fibrin degradation products, and 71.4% of non-survivors met the clinical criteria for disseminated intravascular coagulation during the course of disease. In addition to disseminated intravascular coagulation, critically ill patients who have experienced prolonged immobilization are at high risk of VTE. Vascular inflammation can also contribute to a state of hypercoagulation and endothelial dysfunction in such patients. In seriously ill patients with COVID-19 who clinically deteriorate, as evidenced by hypoxia or hemodynamic instability, thromboembolic disease should be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3. Drug Interactions and Cardiovascular Pro- /Antithrombotic Effects</title>
        <p>So far, there is no specific treatment for COVID-19 infection, and a variety of therapeutic regimens have been used in severe cases in a hospital environment, although the efficacy and safety of many are still being investigated. Since these drugs can be used in specific situations, it is worth considering their side effects on the cardiovascular system and possible drug interactions with other therapies frequently used in cardiac patients.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1. Antiretrovirals</title>
          <p>Ribavirin and remdesivir block RNA polymerase, while lopinavir-ritonavir inhibits viral replication. Ribavirin-induced cardiotoxicity has not been reported. However, lopinavir-ritonavir prolongs the QT and PR intervals, especially in patients who already have long QT intervals or are using other medications that interact with the QT interval.</p>
          <p>Both ribavirin and lopinavir-ritonavir enhance the anticoagulant effect, modifying the action of warfarin (mainly ribavirin) and new anticoagulants such as apixaban and rivaroxaban (mainly lopinavir-ritonavir).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> In another study, an association of dabigatran and antivirals in hospitalized COVID-19 patients resulted in increased in serum plasma levels, requiring medication withdrawal in more than half of the patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Lopinavir-ritonavir may also influence the activity of P2Y<sub>12</sub>inhibitors by inhibiting CYP3A4, which reduces the serum level of active metabolites of clopidogrel and increases the activity of ticagrelor. Therefore, due to the high risk of bleeding, the concomitant use of ticagrelor and lopinavir-ritonavir is discouraged.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>There is also evidence that using clopidogrel during treatment with lopinavir-ritonavir may result in an insufficient antiplatelet effect, although this has not been observed with prasugrel, which makes it the ideal medication.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> In the presence of contraindications for prasugrel (e.g., previous stroke, advanced age, low body mass index, and increased risk of bleeding), clopidogrel is indicated, and platelet activity should be evaluated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Remdesivir, an antiretroviral under investigation for use with COVID-19, was used during the Ebola epidemic. Despite its promise, in a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study, it did not result in better mortality outcomes than placebo. Although there was a trend toward symptom reductions, it was not significant.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> No cardiotoxicity or other important drug interactions have been reported for this drug.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.2. Hydroxychloroquine and Chloroquine</title>
          <p>Hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine are frequently used in patients with malaria and other systemic inflammatory diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. Apparently, they can block viral entry into cells, in addition to stimulating immunomodulation, attenuating the production of cytokines, and inhibiting autophagy and lysosomal activity in the host. They may also have antithrombotic properties, especially against antiphospholipid antibodies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>These drugs have been used in previous SARS and MERS epidemics, and there is evidence of their efficacy. A Chinese study of 100 patients with COVID-19 found that chloroquine was associated with radiological improvement, increased viral clearance, and decreased disease progression. Despite its promising results, the study had several limitations and can be interpreted in different ways.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> In other observational studies, hydroxychloroquine, associated or not with azithromycin, did not result in favorable outcomes. No decrease was found in mortality or intubation time, and no difference in seroconversion was found in patients with mild to moderate disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Several studies are ongoing about the impact of hydroxychloroquine and/or chloroquine.</p>
          <p>Although generally well tolerated, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine can have serious side effects, such as prolonging the QT interval and inducing hypoglycemia, retinopathy and neuropsychiatric disorders. However, no interaction with antiplatelet agents or anticoagulants has been reported.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3. Corticosteroids</title>
          <p>Methylprednisolone is another medication that can be considered during severe cases of COVID-19 and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Although it is known to cause water retention, hydrolytic changes and hypertension, interaction with antiplatelets or anticoagulants has not been reported.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4. Heparins</title>
          <p>A Chinese study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> of 449 hospitalized COVID-19 patients found that a prescription strategy of enoxaparin 40-60 mg/day or unfractionated heparin 10,000-15,000 U/day resulted in 28-day mortality benefits in two subgroups. In one of these groups, which consisted of patients with criteria for sepsis-induced coagulopathy &gt; 4 (increased prothrombin time, decreased platelet count, and increased SOFA-Score), there was a difference of 40% vs. 64.2% (p = 0.029). The other subgroup, which consisted of patients with &gt; 6 times the normal D-dimer concentration, there was a difference of 32.8% vs. 52.4% (p = 0.017). This demonstrates that chemical prophylaxis for VTE or full anticoagulation therapy should be considered on a case-by-case basis in all hospitalized patients with COVID-19, and a careful search should be made for thrombotic events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5. Immunoglobulins and Anti-IL6 Antibodies</title>
          <p>Immunoglobulin use depends on two mechanisms: viral neutralization and immunomodulation. One intriguing application of viral neutralization is convalescent serum or plasma. Since this therapy has pleiotropic effects that result in suppressed inflammation, this therapy can potentially alleviate disease severity in the hyperinflammatory phase. More robust evidence is needed to confirm these findings. Likewise, it may be that COVID-19 patients with a cytokine storm can benefit from monoclonal antibodies targeting interleukin-6 receptor, since it has been successful in mitigating inflammation in transplanted patients. Although this could be reflected in the patient&#8217;s thrombotic state, there is still no concrete evidence about it.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Although anti-interleukin-6 receptor antibodies increase CYP3A4 expression, there are no dose-adjustment recommendations regarding patients using antiplatelet agents or anticoagulants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Recommendations</title>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1. Anticoagulants</title>
          <p>The decision to prescribe low molecular weight heparin or prophylactic unfractionated heparin for VTE or as full anticoagulation therapy should be made on a case-by-case basis, and should always be considered in hospitalized high-risk VTE patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Based on expert consensus and the results of a few retrospective studies, when anticoagulation is not contraindicated, anticoagulant therapy can be considered for use in patients with severe COVID-19 and signs of sepsis-induced coagulopathy and/or very high D-dimer levels in association with other biomarkers that denote severity. This strategy requires the use of strict institutional protocols that allow for surveillance and rapid intervention when complications arise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It is possible that anticoagulant therapy is more beneficial when initiated in the pre-thrombotic phase than in advanced cases, when the risk of bleeding is greater. When opting for anticoagulation, it would seem reasonable to use low molecular weight heparin as the drug of choice in stable patients with normal creatinine clearance (subcutaneous dose of 1 mg/kg every 12 hours). In case of shock or creatinine clearance below 50 mL/min/m<sup>2</sup>, unfractionated intravenous heparin (18 IU/kg/h) is preferable, targeting an activated partial thromboplastin time between 1.5 and 1.8. However, there is no evidence to support the wide use of heparin in therapeutic doses for COVID-19. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> illustrates a suggested assessment and therapeutic strategy for this group of patients based on current evidence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; <italic>Management suggestion and flowchart for assessing anticoagulant therapy in critically ill patients with COVID-19.</italic></title>
                <p>
                  <italic>RR: respiratory rate; SIC: sepsis-induced coagulopathy; INR: international normalized ratio; SOFA: sequential organ failure assessment; DIC: disseminated intravascular coagulation; ULN: upper limit of normal.</italic>
                </p>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-02-0292-00424-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>The European Society of Cardiology recommended full anticoagulation in all patients with signs of severity, e.g., respiratory rate &gt; 24 bpm, arterial oxygen saturation &lt; 90%, high C-reactive protein, high or rising D-dimer levels, and high fibrinogen levels. With respect to D-dimer levels, the recommendation is full anticoagulation when &gt; 3,000 ng/mL, chemical prophylaxis alone when &lt; 500 ng/mL, and 40 mg enoxaparin every 12 hours when between 500 and 3,000 ng/mL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Prophylaxis for thromboembolism, which should be continued after hospital discharge, must also be individualized with either low molecular weight heparin or new anticoagulants, assessing the risk/benefit of thrombotic events vs. bleeding ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; <italic>Recommendations regarding the use of anticoagulants in patients with COVID-19.</italic></title>
                <p>
                  <italic>VTE: venous thromboembolism; TP: prothrombin time.</italic>
                </p>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-02-0292-00424-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Although there is no specific evidence regarding COVID-19, it is reasonable to consider individualizing the risk stratification of thromboembolic and hemorrhagic events and extending drug prophylaxis for up to 45 days in patients with reduced mobility, cancer, previous VTE, high D-dimer levels (i.e., &gt; 2 times the upper limit of normal).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding patients who have been using anticoagulants for any reason, the medication should be continued whenever possible. However, if the patient is hospitalized for COVID-19-associated pneumonia, continuation must be determined on a case-by-case basis. Since there may be changes in the pharmacokinetics of medications, renal failure, liver failure, thrombocytopenia, and disseminated intravascular coagulation in critically ill patients, parenteral anticoagulation with low molecular weight heparin or unfractionated heparin is preferable if there are no contraindications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
          <p>There is an interaction between lopinavir-ritonavir and oral anticoagulants. It is not advisable to administer rivaroxaban and edoxaban concomitantly. In patients using warfarin, apixaban doses should be reduced and there should more frequent monitoring of prothrombin time. Thus, in patients who have been using oral anticoagulants and must continue using them after admission, it is advisable to administer low molecular weight heparin in the parenteral form. It should be remembered that if patients evolve to blood dyscrasia or disseminated intravascular coagulation, the risk of bleeding must be considered when continuing these medications, since they are suspended in almost all cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2. Antiplatelet Agents</title>
          <p>Patients who use antiplatelet agents for chronic coronary disease should continue taking them. In hospitalized patients on dual antiplatelet therapy, the prescription should be individualized ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; <italic>Recommendations regarding the use of antiplatelet agents in patients with COVID-19.</italic></title>
                <p>
                  <italic>PCI: percutaneous coronary intervention; DAPT: double antiplatelet therapy.</italic>
                </p>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-02-0292-00424-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Given the high risk of bleeding in patients after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) complicated by COVID-19, a shorter duration of dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) may be beneficial in this population in addition to the preferential use of clopidogrel in those at high risk of bleeding, although the risk of stent thrombosis vs. bleeding should always be considered. To counterbalance the increased risk of bleeding associated with DAPT, more recent studies have provided evidence in favor of early withdrawal of acetylsalicylic acid after PCI, which mainly reduces bleeding rates. Among patients on DAPT, continuing the P2Y<sub>12</sub>inhibitor in monotherapy (preferably ticagrelor) may be a reasonable strategy when a PCI was performed more than 3 months ago. Due to a lack of evidence, DAPT should not be discontinued for those who received a PCI less than 3 months ago.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>If the patient requires antivirals, there is an interaction between lopinavir-ritonavir and clopidogrel and ticagrelor, and these medications should be avoided or platelet activity evaluated. Prasugrel can be administered with caution, unless there are contraindications. Interactions with intravenous antiplatelet agents such as cangrelor have not been reported.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Expert consensus recommends taking proactive measures or even discontinuing all antiplatelet therapy in patients with platelet counts &lt; 100,000/&#956;L and &lt; 50,000/&#956;L, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> There is, however, a more current recommendation that suggests switching to monotherapy if the count is &lt; 50,000/&#956;L and suspending therapy if the count is &lt; 25,000/&#956;L, always considering ischemic risk vs. bleeding risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3. Thrombolytics</title>
          <p>Both the American Heart Association and the European Society of Cardiology indicate the use of thrombolysis as the first option in suspected/confirmed COVID-19 patients with acute myocardial infarction and ST-segment elevation, both in centers without hemodynamic services and in those with hemodynamic services that have not made adequate preparations to avoid contaminating the team.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
          <p>So far, there is no contraindication for using thrombolytics in this context, and their use should be based on the usual contraindications and should be individualized in situations of electrical or hemodynamic instability, disseminated intravascular coagulation, thrombocytopenia, bleeding and renal or hepatic failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It should be pointed out that differential diagnoses of ST-segment elevation should always be considered, such as myopericarditis, for which thrombolysis should be avoided.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>5. Final Considerations</title>
        <p>Evidence about the interaction of COVID-19 with coagulation and platelet activation systems is still early. There is strong evidence that this pathway could be an important therapeutic target. However, more robust studies are still needed to determine the real importance of prothrombotic mechanisms and the best therapy for this group of patients.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; General recommendations about COVID-19/antiplatelet agents and anticoagulants</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Indication</th>
                  <th>Class of recommendation</th>
                  <th>Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Drug association between antithrombotic therapies and medications used in the treatment of COVID-19</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In patients using lopinavir-ritonavir, prasugrel should be the antiplatelet agent of choice</td>
                  <td align="center">IIB</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In patients using lopinavir-ritonavir, if prasugrel is contraindicated, clopidogrel should be used</td>
                  <td align="center">IIB</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In patients using lopinavir-ritonavir, if clopidogrel is used, platelet activity should be monitored</td>
                  <td align="center">IIB</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ticagrelor should be discouraged in patients using lopinavir-ritonavir</td>
                  <td align="center">IIB</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In patients who are already using anticoagulants and will be using lopinavir-ritonavir, the anticoagulant must be replaced with the parenteral form (heparins)</td>
                  <td align="center">IIA</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In patients who are already using anticoagulants, avoid associating rivaroxaban or edoxaban with lopinavir-ritonavir</td>
                  <td align="center">III</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In patients who are already using anticoagulants with warfarin (and must continue this medication) and lopinavir-ritonavir, prothrombin time should be evaluated more frequently.</td>
                  <td align="center">IIA</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Remdesivir has no significant drug interaction with antiplatelet agents and anticoagulants</td>
                  <td align="center">IIA</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Corticosteroids have no significant drug interaction with antiplatelet agents and anticoagulants</td>
                  <td align="center">IIA</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Immunoglobulins and anti-interleukin-6 antibodies have no significant drug interaction with antiplatelet agents and anticoagulants</td>
                  <td align="center">IIB</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine have no significant drug interaction with antiplatelet agents and anticoagulants</td>
                  <td align="center">IIB</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In patients using hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine, the QT interval should be monitored</td>
                  <td align="center">IA</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>The use of anticoagulants in patients with COVID-19</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Chemical prophylaxis for thromboembolic events should be performed for all inpatients</td>
                  <td align="center">IIA</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Full anticoagulation should be considered in special cases after assessing the risk/benefits, e.g., using the sepsis-induced coagulopathy score or D-dimer &gt;6 normal</td>
                  <td align="center">IIB</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In patients who are already using anticoagulants, the medication should be continued whenever possible</td>
                  <td align="center">IIA</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Consider extending chemical prophylaxis for thromboembolic events up to 45 days after discharge for at-risk patients</td>
                  <td align="center">IIB</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>The use of antiplatelet agents in patients with COVID-19</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>The medication patients with chronic coronary disease should be continued</td>
                  <td align="center">IIA</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In patients using dual antiplatelet therapy post-angioplasty (with a PCI more than 3 months ago) monotherapy may be considered, as long as the risk of bleeding and stent thrombosis is considered.</td>
                  <td align="center">IIA</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Development: Study Group on Antithrombotics (Grupo de Estudos de Antitromb&#243;ticos &#8211; GEAT) of the Clinical Cardiology Department (Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica &#8211; DCC) of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; SBC)</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Norms and Guidelines Council: Brivaldo Markman Filho, Antonio Carlos Sobral Sousa, Aurora Felice Castro Issa, Bruno Ramos Nascimento, Harry Correa Filho, Marcelo Luiz Campos Vieira</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Norms and Guidelines Coordinator: Brivaldo Markman Filho</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>How to cite this Statement:</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>
            <italic>Soeiro AM, Leal TCAT, Pereira MP, Lima EG, Figueiredo ACBS, Petriz JLF, et al. Position Statement on the Use of Antiplatelet Agents and Anticoagulants in Patients Infected with the New Coronavirus (COVID-19) &#8211; 2020. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2020; 115(2):292-301.</italic>
          </p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <italic><bold>Nota:</bold> These statements are for information purposes and should not replace the clinical judgment of a physician, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for each patient.</italic>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
