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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">9f9JbfSVx7mrVFjnsXwDLBt</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020000900263</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20190368</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20190368</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>N&#237;veis S&#233;ricos do BDNF na Prote&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular e em Resposta ao Exerc&#237;cio</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9651-5372</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Trombetta</surname>
            <given-names>Ivani Credidio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>DeMoura</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Roberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Cleber Rene</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carbonari-Brito</surname>
            <given-names>Renato</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1544-3499</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cepeda</surname>
            <given-names>Felipe Xerez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lemos</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Ribeiro</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Nove de Julho</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Nove de Julho (UNINOVE), S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola de Educa&#231;&#227;o F&#237;sica</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pol&#237;cia Militar do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola de Educa&#231;&#227;o F&#237;sica da Pol&#237;cia Militar do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Ivani Credidio Trombetta &#8226; Universidade Nove de Julho (UNINOVE) - Rua Vergueiro, 235/249. CEP 01504-001, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>ivani.trombetta@gmail.com</email> , <email>ivani.trombetta@uni9.pro.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#245;es dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Trombetta IC, Lemos Jr. JR; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Trombetta IC, DeMoura JR, Alves CR, Carbonari-Brito R, Cepeda FX, Lemos Jr. JR; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual: Trombetta IC, Lemos Jr. JR.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesses</p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>115</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>263</fpage>
      <lpage>269</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) s&#227;o atualmente a maior causa de morte no Brasil e no mundo. Em 2016 as DCV foram respons&#225;veis por mais de 17 milh&#245;es de mortes, representando 31% de todas as mortes em n&#237;vel global. Mecanismos moleculares e gen&#233;ticos podem estar envolvidos na prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular e devem ser considerados nas novas abordagens terap&#234;uticas. Nesse sentido, recentes estudos t&#234;m relatado que o Fator Neurotr&#243;fico Derivado do Enc&#233;falo (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, BDNF) est&#225; reduzido em indiv&#237;duos predispostos a desenvolverem DCV, e que o treinamento f&#237;sico aer&#243;bio aumenta as quantidades de BDNF circulante. O BDNF &#233; uma neurotrofina encontrada em altas concentra&#231;&#245;es no hipocampo e c&#243;rtex cerebral, sendo considerada mol&#233;cula-chave na manuten&#231;&#227;o da plasticidade sin&#225;ptica e na sobreviv&#234;ncia das c&#233;lulas neuronais. Al&#233;m da plasticidade neuronal, BDNF tamb&#233;m &#233; importante na fun&#231;&#227;o vascular, promovendo angiog&#234;nese por meio da regula&#231;&#227;o por esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ROS). Entretanto, uma variante do gene do BDNF em humanos, o polimorfismo Val66Met (substitui&#231;&#227;o do amino&#225;cido valina por uma metionina na posi&#231;&#227;o 66 do c&#243;don), que ocorre em 20-30% da popula&#231;&#227;o caucasiana, pode afetar as concentra&#231;&#245;es de BDNF no plasma e sua atividade em todos os tecidos perif&#233;ricos contendo receptores tirosina quinase B (TrkB), como o endot&#233;lio. De fato, recentemente observamos que o polimorfismo Val66Met prejudica a reatividade vascular e o BDNF circulante em resposta ao treinamento f&#237;sico. Dessa forma, apresentaremos a seguir uma discuss&#227;o sobre os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de BDNF na prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, a variante gen&#233;tica Val66Met na reatividade vascular e o efeito do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>BDNF</kwd>
        <kwd>Fator Neurotr&#243;fico Derivado do Enc&#233;falo</kwd>
        <kwd>Endot&#233;lio Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Crescimento Neural</kwd>
        <kwd>Plasticidade Neuronal</kwd>
        <kwd>Polimorfismo</kwd>
        <kwd>Exerc&#237;cio F&#237;sico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa</funding-source>
          <award-id>302809/2018-0</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</funding-source>
          <award-id>2015/03274-0</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</funding-source>
          <award-id>2016/16831-7</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <funding-statement>Fontes de financiamento</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="67"/>
        <page-count count="7"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>As principais causas de morte por doen&#231;as n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis s&#227;o por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV). Mundialmente, as mortes por DCV aumentaram 12,5% entre 2005 e 2015, chegando a 17,9 milh&#245;es de mortes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No Brasil, a mortalidade por DCV representou 28% do total de &#243;bitos ocorridos nos &#250;ltimos cinco anos, atingindo 38% dos &#243;bitos na faixa et&#225;ria produtiva (18 a 65 anos).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As DCV mais relevantes em termos de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica s&#227;o as doen&#231;as card&#237;acas (doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca) e cerebrovasculares. Os fatores de risco para DCV s&#227;o bem conhecidos (entre eles, obesidade, dislipidemia, diabetes e sedentarismo). No entanto, a sua base molecular &#233; complexa e est&#225; ligada a uma ampla gama de vias biol&#243;gicas, incluindo o metabolismo de lip&#237;dios e glicose, inflama&#231;&#227;o, reparo vascular e angiog&#234;nese.</p>
      <p>A etiologia principal das DCV &#233; a aterosclerose, um complexo processo inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico da parede arterial que envolve o recrutamento e ativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas na les&#227;o intimal. Essa ativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas endoteliais por citocinas inflamat&#243;rias e lipoprote&#237;nas oxidadas, seguida pelo aumento da ades&#227;o de mon&#243;citos circulantes no sangue ao endot&#233;lio e a migra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares para a camada neo-&#237;ntima em desenvolvimento, leva ao desenvolvimento da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, obstruindo progressivamente o l&#250;men vascular e reduzindo o fluxo sangu&#237;neo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Adicionalmente, na aterosclerose ocorre a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, caracterizada pela redu&#231;&#227;o da biodisponibilidade de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) na parede dos vasos sangu&#237;neos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial &#233; um marcador de risco cardiovascular e est&#225; presente nas DCV, como hipertens&#227;o arterial, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Diversos fatores t&#234;m sido associados com a modula&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo endot&#233;lio dependente, tais como a biodisponibilidade de L-arginina, de tetraidrobiopterina (BH4), &#237;ndices de LDL-colesterol e o fator de crescimento endotelial vascular (VEGF), entre outros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora a prote&#237;na fator neurotr&#243;fico derivado do enc&#233;falo (BDNF) esteja diretamente relacionada com a sa&#250;de dos neur&#244;nios,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> estudos experimentais translacionais e cl&#237;nicos v&#234;m demonstrando sua forte rela&#231;&#227;o com o sistema vascular. De fato, inicialmente as neurotrofinas tiveram suas a&#231;&#245;es identificadas basicamente no desenvolvimento e amadurecimento do sistema nervoso. No entanto, desde o final dos anos 1990, surgiram fortes evid&#234;ncias na literatura que as neurotrofinas est&#227;o implicadas em importantes fun&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, um importante estudo demonstrou a rela&#231;&#227;o do BDNF circulante com o sistema vascular, especificamente com a angiog&#234;nese, por meio da regula&#231;&#227;o por esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ROS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Portanto, al&#233;m da fun&#231;&#227;o no sistema nervoso, evid&#234;ncias acumuladas sugerem que o BDNF tamb&#233;m &#233; importante para o sistema cardiovascular.</p>
      <p>Devido &#224; rela&#231;&#227;o do BDNF com a angiog&#234;nese, com o aumento da vasodilata&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o tecidual, ele &#233; mais um elo importante entre estilo de vida e sa&#250;de vascular, com repercuss&#245;es na estrutura cerebral e fun&#231;&#227;o cognitiva em adultos idosos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Um estilo de vida que inclua engajamento cognitivo, pr&#225;tica regular de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico e dieta saud&#225;vel &#233; estrat&#233;gia chave para manter a sa&#250;de cerebral durante o envelhecimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nesse contexto, v&#225;rios estudos demonstraram que o exerc&#237;cio &#233; um dos principais fatores no aumento dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de BDNF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> e que o aumento dos n&#237;veis do BDNF &#233; o elemento chave que liga o exerc&#237;cio aos benef&#237;cios cognitivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Entretanto, as varia&#231;&#245;es na concentra&#231;&#227;o de BDNF circulante, inclusive seu aumento em resposta ao treinamento f&#237;sico,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> podem ser explicadas por uma variante gen&#233;tica do BDNF, um polimorfismo funcional de nucleot&#237;deo &#250;nico (SNP), respons&#225;vel pela substitui&#231;&#227;o do amino&#225;cido Valina por uma Metionina na posi&#231;&#227;o 66 do c&#243;don. O polimorfismo Val66Met, condi&#231;&#227;o que ocorre em 20-30% da popula&#231;&#227;o caucasiana,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> prejudica a secre&#231;&#227;o regulada e o tr&#225;fego intracelular de BDNF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Estas novas descobertas t&#234;m aberto um novo campo de investiga&#231;&#227;o em medicina cardiovascular e terap&#234;utica.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Fator Neurotr&#243;fico Derivado do Enc&#233;falo (BDNF)</title>
        <p>O BDNF &#233; a neurotrofina mais expressa no sistema nervoso central, encontrada em altas concentra&#231;&#245;es no hipocampo e c&#243;rtex cerebral. &#201; mol&#233;cula-chave envolvida na manuten&#231;&#227;o da plasticidade sin&#225;ptica e na sinaptog&#234;nese do hipocampo, local de aquisi&#231;&#227;o e consolida&#231;&#227;o da mem&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A produ&#231;&#227;o e secre&#231;&#227;o alteradas de BDNF foram demonstradas em v&#225;rias doen&#231;as neurodegenerativas, como Alzheimer e Parkinson.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Em indiv&#237;duos cognitivamente normais, a concentra&#231;&#227;o de BDNF no l&#237;quido cefalorraquidiano diminui ao longo da vida na aus&#234;ncia de dem&#234;ncia, sendo que a menor concentra&#231;&#227;o de BDNF no l&#237;quido cefalorraquidiano foi associada fortemente com mem&#243;ria prejudicada e menor fun&#231;&#227;o executiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Conhecimentos atuais apontam para o fato de que a cogni&#231;&#227;o anormal est&#225; associada &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o BDNF no hipocampo, sendo esse um fator determinante do preju&#237;zo de fatores como aprendizagem, depress&#227;o, humor, transtornos de ansiedade e esquizofrenia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Enquanto o BDNF promove sobreviv&#234;ncia neuronal e real&#231;a a plasticidade sin&#225;ptica pela ativa&#231;&#227;o de seu receptor tirosina-quinase B (TrkB), seu predecessor pr&#243;-BDNF atua de maneira antag&#244;nica, resultando em apoptose celular ao interagir com o receptor p75 das neurotrofinas (p75NTR). Essa importante fun&#231;&#227;o demonstra que ambos est&#227;o envolvidos em diferentes fun&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O BDNF &#233; produzido pr&#233;-sinapticamente nos corpos celulares dos neur&#244;nios sensoriais projetados no corno dorsal, enquanto que no hipocampo &#233; produzido predominantemente pelos dendritos p&#243;s-sin&#225;pticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Perifericamente, o BDNF s&#233;rico &#233; encontrado nas plaquetas do plasma sangu&#237;neo e &#233; formado pelas c&#233;lulas do endot&#233;lio vascular e pelas c&#233;lulas sangu&#237;neas mononucleadas perif&#233;ricas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Seu potencial terap&#234;utico &#233; caracterizado por sua capacidade de atravessar livremente a barreira hemato-encef&#225;lica em ambas as dire&#231;&#245;es, via alta capacidade de satura&#231;&#227;o do sistema transportador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> No sistema nervoso perif&#233;rico, o BDNF ainda apresenta um papel adicional, atuando na regenera&#231;&#227;o axonal. Vale ressaltar que o gene BDNF e seu receptor TrkB s&#227;o expressos n&#227;o s&#243; no enc&#233;falo, mas tamb&#233;m em outros locais do organismo, tais como cora&#231;&#227;o, pulm&#245;es e tecido endotelial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> demonstrando sua funcionalidade em outros &#243;rg&#227;os e tecidos do organismo.</p>
        <p>O gene BDNF est&#225; localizado no bra&#231;o curto (p) do cromossomo 11 (11p13) e compreende 11 exons e 9 promotores funcionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um polimorfismo funcional de ocorr&#234;ncia natural no gene do BDNF humano no nucleot&#237;deo 196 (G/A) codifica uma substitui&#231;&#227;o de amino&#225;cido valina pela metionina na posi&#231;&#227;o 66 (Val66Met ou Met66Met). Este polimorfismo resulta em menor produ&#231;&#227;o e menores quantidades circulantes de BDNF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> e tem sido associado a maior suscetibilidade de dist&#250;rbios neurodegenerativos. Funcionalmente, os polimorfismos Met66Met e Val66Met causam preju&#237;zos no tr&#225;fego intracelular e na secre&#231;&#227;o regulada em neur&#244;nios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>De fato, a heran&#231;a desse polimorfismo tem sido associada com pior desempenho cognitivo em idosos saud&#225;veis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> e prejudica a mem&#243;ria de indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o polimorfismo Val66Met leva a um volume hipocampal 4 a 11% menor, observado por resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica em adultos saud&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>BNDF e Fun&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular</title>
        <p>A liga&#231;&#227;o entre as doen&#231;as card&#237;acas e deteriora&#231;&#227;o cognitiva tem sido reportada na literatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Alguns autores acreditam que o mecanismo da &#8220;dem&#234;ncia cardiog&#234;nica&#8221; envolva a hipoperfus&#227;o cerebral cr&#244;nica devido &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o no d&#233;bito card&#237;aco por v&#225;rias doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Embora a associa&#231;&#227;o entre dist&#250;rbios cognitivos e fatores de risco cardiovascular seja complexa e possivelmente mediada por diferentes mecanismos, a presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es microvasculares cerebrais, clinicamente manifestas ou silenciosas, est&#227;o envolvidas. Adicionalmente, recente estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> forneceu novos insights sobre o potencial mecanismo molecular pelo qual a doen&#231;a card&#237;aca induza a disfun&#231;&#227;o cerebral. Esses autores, estudando um modelo de camundongo transg&#234;nico que tem superexpress&#227;o card&#237;aca espec&#237;fica de microRNA-1-2 (miR-1-2), observaram que a superexpress&#227;o card&#237;aca do miR-1 tamb&#233;m induziu a anormalidades comportamentais que est&#227;o associadas &#224; regula&#231;&#227;o negativa da express&#227;o do BDNF no hipocampo. A compreens&#227;o mais ampla da forma pelo qual as doen&#231;as card&#237;acas afetam a fun&#231;&#227;o cognitiva pode levar a novas estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas.</p>
        <p>A import&#226;ncia dos n&#237;veis circulantes do BDNF na prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular ficou evidente no estudo prospectivo de coorte do <italic>Framingham Heart Study</italic> (FHS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Para avaliar uma rela&#231;&#227;o potencialmente causal entre os n&#237;veis de BDNF e DCV, foi realizada uma an&#225;lise de randomiza&#231;&#227;o mendeliana usando as metas do exemplo CARDIoGRAM (Gene de Doen&#231;a da Art&#233;ria Coron&#225;ria Gen&#244;mica-Replica&#231;&#227;o Ampla e Meta-An&#225;lise). Nesse estudo, realizado com uma grande amostra de base comunit&#225;ria, os investigadores observaram que n&#237;veis mais elevados de BDNF est&#227;o associados a menor risco de eventos cardiovasculares e morte, independente dos fatores de risco padr&#227;o, incluindo marcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o de baixo grau, &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC), atividade f&#237;sica e depress&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>De fato, um papel importante do BDNF no sistema cardiovascular &#233; a promo&#231;&#227;o da angiog&#234;nese vascular e aumento na densidade capilar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Estudos revelaram que o BDNF atua nas c&#233;lulas endoteliais promovendo a neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o em resposta a est&#237;mulos hip&#243;xicos por meio da via de Akt.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A primeira evid&#234;ncia do envolvimento do BDNF no processo de angiog&#234;nese veio do estudo de Donovan et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> sobre o desenvolvimento do mioc&#225;rdio embrion&#225;rio, no qual foi evidenciado que a superexpress&#227;o do BDNF est&#225; associada a um aumento da densidade capilar. Recentemente, um elegante estudo experimental demonstrou, pela primeira vez, que o BDNF promove a forma&#231;&#227;o de tubos angiog&#234;nicos por meio da gera&#231;&#227;o de ROS derivados da NADPH oxidase (NOX) pela transdu&#231;&#227;o de sinal do receptor TrkB, provavelmente via ativa&#231;&#227;o de Akt, resultando na migra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas endoteliais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> O estudo sugere que: TrkB &#8658; NADPH oxidase 2 (Nox2) &#8658; ROS &#8658; Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>De fato, o BDNF tem sido consistentemente implicado na angiog&#234;nese e na manuten&#231;&#227;o da integridade vascular. Especificamente no endot&#233;lio, al&#233;m da liga&#231;&#227;o do BDNF com seu receptor de alta afinidade TrkB<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> h&#225;, tamb&#233;m, a express&#227;o do receptor p75, cuja liga&#231;&#227;o com o pr&#243;-BDNF tem sido relacionada com apoptose de m&#250;sculos lisos vasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Considerando a localiza&#231;&#227;o conjugada do BDNF-TrkB e pr&#243;-BDNF-p75 no endot&#233;lio e devido &#224; atua&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica antag&#244;nica existente entre o BDNF e pr&#243;-BDNF, &#233; importante se levar em conta o equil&#237;brio entre plasticidade/sobreviv&#234;ncia e apoptose sobre o fluxo sangu&#237;neo perif&#233;rico atrav&#233;s da raz&#227;o BDNF/pr&#243;-BDNF.</p>
        <p>Mais recentemente, a liga&#231;&#227;o entre esse neurotr&#243;fico e a prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular foi evidenciada em estudo de Okada et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> realizado com camundongos knockout condicionais de BDNF, nos quais a express&#227;o do BDNF foi sistemicamente reduzida. Nesse estudo os autores demonstraram que um mecanismo mediado pelo Sistema Nervoso Central est&#225; envolvido na regula&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca ap&#243;s o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio. Os insultos isqu&#234;micos s&#227;o transmitidos do cora&#231;&#227;o para o Sistema Nervoso Central atrav&#233;s de fibras nervosas aferentes card&#237;acas ap&#243;s o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, aumentando assim a express&#227;o neuronal do BDNF. Um aumento no BDNF circulante promove a sobreviv&#234;ncia dos cardiomi&#243;citos e est&#225; associado ao aumento da express&#227;o de fatores pr&#243;-angiog&#234;nicos. Comparativamente, os animais knockout tiveram maior dano mioc&#225;rdico ap&#243;s o infarto experimental em compara&#231;&#227;o com camundongos do tipo selvagem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Neste contexto, o polimorfismo Val66Met pode afetar as concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de BDNF e, consequentemente, influenciar a atividade dos tecidos que contenham os receptores TrkB, sejam eles neur&#244;nios ou mesmo tecidos perif&#233;ricos, como as c&#233;lulas endoteliais vasculares.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>BDNF e Efeitos Cognitivos do Exerc&#237;cio</title>
        <p>H&#225; muitas evid&#234;ncias de que o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico, principalmente o aer&#243;bio, tem efeito ben&#233;fico em dom&#237;nios cognitivos, particularmente nas fun&#231;&#245;es executivas e de mem&#243;ria e reduz a atrofia hipocampal no final da idade adulta, e que o BDNF est&#225; fortemente envolvido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos e de interven&#231;&#227;o refor&#231;am a ideia de usar a atividade f&#237;sica como uma estrat&#233;gia para aumentar a neuroplasticidade em condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> V&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m demonstrado que o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico n&#227;o apenas causa mudan&#231;as estruturais no c&#233;rebro, mas tamb&#233;m protege contra o decl&#237;nio cognitivo relacionado ao envelhecimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico ativa cascatas moleculares e celulares que promovem a plasticidade neuronal e a neurog&#234;nese, induzindo a express&#227;o do gene que codifica o BDNF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> As concentra&#231;&#245;es perif&#233;ricas de BDNF aumentam tanto no exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico agudo como no cr&#244;nico, sendo que a magnitude desse aumento parece ser dependente da intensidade do exerc&#237;cio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Adicionalmente, maiores benef&#237;cios cognitivos s&#227;o obtidos quanto maior for a dura&#231;&#227;o do programa e da sess&#227;o de exerc&#237;cios e quanto mais idosos forem os indiv&#237;duos, sendo que as mulheres apresentam maiores benef&#237;cios que os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> A diferen&#231;a entre os g&#234;neros no BDNF do l&#237;quido cefalorraquidiano a favor das mulheres pode ser devido a efeitos hormonais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> j&#225; que os receptores estrog&#234;nicos se localizam nas c&#233;lulas que expressam o BDNF e seu receptor TrkB, sendo que o estrog&#234;nio regula a express&#227;o de BDNF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Interessantemente, esse benef&#237;cio do exerc&#237;cio ocorre mesmo em homens adultos jovens. Isso foi evidenciado num estudo de coorte com homens jovens suecos alistados no servi&#231;o militar aos 18 anos (n=1.221.727),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> no qual foi encontrada significativa associa&#231;&#227;o positiva entre a aptid&#227;o cardiovascular e desempenho cognitivo ap&#243;s o ajuste para fatores de confus&#227;o relevantes.</p>
        <p>Em grande parte, os benef&#237;cios do exerc&#237;cio sobre a produ&#231;&#227;o do BDNF e a plasticidade neuronal est&#227;o relacionados ao aumento da vasculariza&#231;&#227;o cerebral e muscular. De fato, em uma recente revis&#227;o<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> os autores evidenciaram que os benef&#237;cios cognitivos decorrentes da boa aptid&#227;o cardiovascular est&#227;o relacionados ao aumento da circula&#231;&#227;o cerebral e &#224; angiog&#234;nese. Essa importante adapta&#231;&#227;o permite o aumento do fluxo e a regula&#231;&#227;o positiva das neurotrofinas no nicho neurog&#234;nico do hipocampo, fen&#244;meno que ocorre mesmo ap&#243;s as sess&#245;es agudas de exerc&#237;cios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Especificamente, estudos sobre o efeito do exerc&#237;cio agudo e cr&#244;nico sobre a concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de BDNF ainda trazem resultados controversos. Por exemplo, em estudo comparando os efeitos cr&#244;nicos e agudos do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico sobre a concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de BDNF, ficou demonstrado que uma &#250;nica sess&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio foi capaz induzir aumento transit&#243;rio nos n&#237;veis de BDNF, por&#233;m os mesmos resultados n&#227;o foram alcan&#231;ados em um per&#237;odo maior de treinamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Em contrapartida, em outro estudo onde a amostra foi submetida a 6 meses de treinamento, foi encontrada tend&#234;ncia de aumento na concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de BDNF, al&#233;m de melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o cognitiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Resultado semelhante foi encontrado em um estudo longitudinal com idosos, que apresentou como resultado aumento no volume de partes do hipocampo e, de acordo com os autores, esse fato est&#225; relacionado com o aumento nos n&#237;veis de BDNF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Esses resultados aparentemente controversos podem ser dependentes do curso temporal dos benef&#237;cios do exerc&#237;cio especificamente nos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de BDNF ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio, isto &#233;, se logo ap&#243;s uma &#250;nica sess&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio agudo, se ap&#243;s uma sess&#227;o ap&#243;s um programa de exerc&#237;cio regular (mostrando altera&#231;&#245;es na libera&#231;&#227;o de BDNF depois de repetidas sess&#245;es de exerc&#237;cio) ou altera&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de BDNF no repouso ap&#243;s um programa de exerc&#237;cios regulares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> De fato, isso foi evidenciado na recente meta-an&#225;lise sobre os efeitos do exerc&#237;cio no BDNF s&#233;rico,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> que concluiu que o exerc&#237;cio regular intensificou o efeito de uma sess&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio nos n&#237;veis de BDNF (g de Hedges=0,59; <italic>P</italic> =0,02). Por&#233;m, os resultados indicaram um menor efeito do exerc&#237;cio regular nos n&#237;veis de BDNF em repouso (g de Hedges=0,27; <italic>P</italic> =0,005). Existem evid&#234;ncias confi&#225;veis de estudos em humanos indicando que cada epis&#243;dio de exerc&#237;cio resulta em uma dose-resposta de BDNF e que a magnitude dessa resposta pode ser aumentada ao longo do tempo atrav&#233;s de exerc&#237;cios regulares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
        <p>H&#225; grande corpo de evid&#234;ncias que demonstra que o exerc&#237;cio atua em diversas e poderosas vias neuroprotetoras, que podem convergir para promover a sa&#250;de cerebral continuada at&#233; a velhice. Esses benef&#237;cios ocorrem seja em resposta a atividades agudas, seja na pr&#225;tica regular, e ocorre tanto em resposta aos exerc&#237;cios de alta intensidade como em exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bios de intensidade moderada, aumentando os n&#237;veis de fatores neurotr&#243;ficos circulantes e a neurotransmiss&#227;o, exercendo efeitos ben&#233;ficos sobre o humor e fun&#231;&#245;es cognitivas em indiv&#237;duos de todas as idades.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>BDNF e Efeitos Cardiovasculares do Exerc&#237;cio</title>
        <p>No sistema cardiovascular o BDNF pode estar envolvido, pelo menos em parte, nos benef&#237;cios endoteliais vasculares. Al&#233;m disso, estudo recente evidenciou que homens idosos ativos apresentam n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de BDNF significativamente mais altos quando comparados aos seus pares inativos. Nesse estudo o BDNF se correlacionou com o VO<sub>2</sub>m&#225;x (R=0,765; p&lt;0,001). Adicionalmente, houve correla&#231;&#227;o inversa entre o BDNF e o &#237;ndice aterog&#234;nico (TC/HDL), hsCRP e oxLDL. Esses achados demonstram que um alto n&#237;vel de aptid&#227;o cardiorrespirat&#243;ria est&#225; associado a um n&#237;vel mais alto de BDNF circulante, que por sua vez est&#225; relacionado &#224; menor risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
        <p>&#201; poss&#237;vel que os polimorfismos possam influenciar os efeitos ben&#233;ficos do exerc&#237;cio. Recentemente, observamos que a reatividade vascular perif&#233;rica e as respostas s&#233;ricas de BDNF ao treinamento f&#237;sico est&#227;o prejudicadas pelo polimorfismo Val66Met do BDNF, responsividade esta que est&#225; associada &#224;s concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de BDNF em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>
                <italic><bold>&#8211;</bold> Efeito agudo e cr&#244;nico do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico sobre os aspectos cardiovasculares relacionados com o BDNF (Adaptado de Stimpson et al, 2018).</italic>
              </title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-02-0263-90368-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Considerando todo o exposto, a import&#226;ncia do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico em promover a sa&#250;de do c&#233;rebro e cardiovascular est&#225; ganhando reconhecimento, seja na condi&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica do envelhecimento cerebral, seja em indiv&#237;duos afetados pelos est&#225;gios iniciais da neurodegenera&#231;&#227;o. De fato, os v&#225;rios estudos em animais e em humanos sugerem que a atividade f&#237;sica pode reduzir o risco de decl&#237;nio cognitivo e, portanto, um estilo de vida ativo pode ser considerado uma estrat&#233;gia preventiva da deteriora&#231;&#227;o da sa&#250;de cerebral, assim como ocorre com a disfun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular.</p>
        <p>Sem d&#250;vida, com o aumento da longevidade, abordagens preventivas de longo-prazo, com &#234;nfase na promo&#231;&#227;o de h&#225;bitos positivos de sa&#250;de que atrasem a progress&#227;o e o decl&#237;nio cognitivo, s&#227;o cada vez mais importantes. Vale lembrar que al&#233;m de modular o ambiente interno do c&#233;rebro, a pr&#225;tica regular de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico atua diretamente sobre o sistema cardiovascular, imunol&#243;gico e metab&#243;lico, tendo um papel essencial em um estilo de vida saud&#225;vel.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>ICT tem apoio do Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa (CNPq n&#186; 302809/2018-0) e FXC teve apoio da Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (FAPESP n&#186; 2015/03274-0 e 2016/16831-7) e da Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aconselhamento de Pessoal do N&#237;vel Superior (CAPES).</p>
    </ack>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento</p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Serum Levels of BDNF in Cardiovascular Protection and in Response to Exercise</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9651-5372</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Trombetta</surname>
            <given-names>Ivani Credidio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>DeMoura</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Roberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Cleber Rene</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carbonari-Brito</surname>
            <given-names>Renato</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1544-3499</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cepeda</surname>
            <given-names>Felipe Xerez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lemos</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Ribeiro</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Nove de Julho (UNINOVE), S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola de Educa&#231;&#227;o F&#237;sica da Pol&#237;cia Militar do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Ivani Credidio Trombetta &#8226; Universidade Nove de Julho (UNINOVE) - Rua Vergueiro, 235/249. Postal Code 01504-001, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: ivani.trombetta@gmail.com, ivani.trombetta@uni9.pro.br</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Trombetta IC, Lemos Jr. JR; Writing of the manuscript: Trombetta IC, DeMoura JR, Alves CR, Carbonari-Brito R, Cepeda FX, Lemos Jr. JR; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Trombetta IC, Lemos Jr. JR.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is currently the leading cause of death in Brazil and worldwide. In 2016, CVD accounted for more than 17 million deaths, representing 31% of all deaths globally. Molecular and genetic mechanisms may be involved in vascular protection and should be considered in new therapeutic approaches. In this sense, recent studies have reported that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is reduced in individuals predisposed to develop CVD, and that aerobic physical training increases the amounts of circulating BDNF. BDNF is a neurotrophin found at high concentrations in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex and is considered a key molecule for the maintenance of synaptic plasticity and survival of neuronal cells. In addition to neuronal plasticity, BDNF is also important in vascular function, promoting angiogenesis through the regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, a variant of the BDNF gene in humans, the Val66Met polymorphism (substitution of the amino acid valine for a methionine at position 66 of the codon), occurring in 20-30% of the Caucasian population, may affect plasma BDNF concentrations and its activity in all peripheral tissues containing tyrosine kinase B receptors (TrkB), such as the endothelium. Thus, we will present a discussion about the role of serum BDNF levels in cardiovascular protection, Val66Met genetic variant in vascular reactivity and the effect of physical exercise.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>BDNF</kwd>
        <kwd>Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor</kwd>
        <kwd>Endothelium Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Nerve Growth Factors</kwd>
        <kwd>Neuronal Plasticity</kwd>
        <kwd>Polymorphism</kwd>
        <kwd>Exercise</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>The main causes of death from noncommunicable diseases are cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Across the world, CVD deaths increased 12.5% between 2005 and 2015, reaching 17.9 million deaths.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In Brazil, CVD mortality accounted for 28% of all deaths in the last five years, accounting for 38% of all deaths in the productive age range (18 to 65 years).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The most relevant CVD in terms of public health are heart (coronary artery disease and heart failure) and cerebrovascular diseases. Risk factors for CVD are well known (among them, obesity, dyslipidemia, diabetes and sedentary lifestyle). However, its molecular basis is complex and is linked to a wide range of biological pathways, including lipid and glucose metabolism, inflammation, vascular repair and angiogenesis.</p>
        <p>The main etiology of CVD is atherosclerosis, a complex chronic inflammatory process of the arterial wall that involves the recruitment and activation of cells in the lesion of the intima layer. This endothelial cell activation by inflammatory cytokines and oxidized lipoproteins, followed by increased adhesion of circulating blood monocytes to the endothelium and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells into the developing neointimal layer, leads to the development of the atherosclerotic plaque, progressively obstructing the vascular lumen and reducing blood flow.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> In addition, atherosclerosis occurs in endothelial dysfunction, characterized by reduced bioavailability of nitric oxide (NO) on the wall of blood vessels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Endothelial dysfunction is a marker of cardiovascular risk and is present in CVD such as hypertension, coronary artery disease and chronic heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Several factors have been associated with the endothelium-dependent blood flow modulation, such as the bioavailability of L-arginine, tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), LDL-cholesterol and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels, among others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Although the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is directly related to the health of neurons,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> translational and clinical experimental studies have demonstrated their strong association with the vascular system. In fact, initially neurotrophins had their actions identified basically in the development and maturation of the nervous system. However, since the late 1990s, strong evidence has emerged in the literature that neurotrophins are implicated in important cardiovascular functions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> More recently, an important study has demonstrated the association of circulating BDNF to the vascular system, specifically angiogenesis, through the regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Thus, in addition to the nervous system function, accumulated evidence suggests that BDNF is also important for the cardiovascular system.</p>
        <p>Because of the association between BDNF and angiogenesis, increased vasodilation and tissue perfusion, this neurotrophin is another important link between lifestyle and vascular health, with repercussions on brain structure and cognitive function in older adults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> A lifestyle that includes cognitive engagement, regular exercise, and a healthy diet is a key strategy to maintain brain health during the aging process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In this context, several studies have shown that exercise is one of the main factors in increasing serum BDNF levels<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> and that increasing BDNF levels is the key element that links exercise to cognitive benefits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> However, variations in the levels of circulating BDNF, including its increase in response to physical training,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> can be explained by a genetic variant of BDNF, a functional single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), responsible for the substitution of the amino acid Valine to Methionine at position 66 of the codon. The Val66Met polymorphism, a condition that occurs in 20-30% of the Caucasian population,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> impairs both regulated secretion and intracellular traffic of BDNF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> These new findings have opened a new field of research in cardiovascular and therapeutic medicine.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)</title>
          <p>BDNF is the most expressed neurotrophin in the central nervous system, found at high concentrations in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex. It is a key molecule involved in the maintenance of synaptic plasticity and synaptogenesis of the hippocampus, a site of memory acquisition and consolidation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> The altered production and secretion of BDNF have been demonstrated in several neurodegenerative disorders , such as Alzheimer&#8217;s and Parkinson&#8217;s disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> In cognitively normal individuals, the concentration of BDNF in the cerebrospinal fluid decreases throughout life in the absence of dementia, and a lower concentration of BDNF in the cerebrospinal fluid was strongly associated with impaired memory and lower executive function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Current knowledge points to the fact that abnormal cognition is associated with BDNF decrease in the hippocampus, which is a determining factor in the impairment of factors such as learning skills, depression, mood, anxiety disorders and schizophrenia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>While BDNF promotes neuronal survival and enhances synaptic plasticity by activating its tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB), its precursor, proBDNF, acts antagonistically, resulting in cell apoptosis when interacting with the p75 receptor of neurotrophins (p75NTR). This important function demonstrates that both are involved in different physiological functions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The BDNF is produced presynaptically in the cell bodies of the sensory neurons projected in the dorsal horn, whereas in the hippocampus it is produced predominantly by the postsynaptic dendrites.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Peripherally, serum BDNF is found in blood plasma platelets and consists of vascular endothelial cells and peripheral mononuclear blood cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Its therapeutic potential is characterized by its ability to freely cross the blood-brain barrier in both directions via high saturation capacity of the carrier system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> In the peripheral nervous system, BDNF still plays an additional role, acting on axonal regeneration. It is worth mentioning that the BDNF gene and its TrkB receptor are expressed not only in the brain, but also in other parts of the body, such as the heart, lungs and endothelial tissue,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> demonstrating its function in other organs and tissues of the body.</p>
          <p>The BDNF gene is located on the short arm (p) of chromosome 11 (11p13) and comprises 11 exons and 9 functional promoters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A naturally-occurring functional polymorphism in the human BDNF gene at nucleotide 196 (G/A) encodes a substitution of amino acid valine to methionine at position 66 (Val66Met or Met66Met), which besides resulting in lower production and circulating amounts of BDNF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> has been associated with greater susceptibility to neurodegenerative disorders. Functionally, the Met66Met and Val66Met polymorphisms cause impairments in the intracellular traffic and in regulated secretion in neurons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In fact, the inheritance of this polymorphism has been associated with poor cognitive performance in healthy elderly individuals<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> and memory impairment of individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Additionally, the Val66Met polymorphism leads to 4 to 11% lower hippocampal volume observed by magnetic resonance imaging in healthy adults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>BNDF and Cardiovascular Function</title>
          <p>The link between heart disease and cognitive impairment has been reported in the literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Some authors believe that the mechanism of &#8220;cardiogenic dementia&#8221; involves chronic cerebral hypoperfusion caused by the reduction in cardiac output due to various cardiovascular diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Although the association between cognitive disorders and cardiovascular risk factors is a complex one and possibly mediated by different mechanisms, the presence of clinically manifest or silent cerebral microvascular changes are involved. In addition, a recent study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> provided new insights into the potential molecular mechanism by which heart disease induces brain dysfunction. These authors, studying a transgenic mouse model that has specific microRNA-1-2 (miR-1-2) cardiac overexpression, have observed that cardiac overexpression of miR-1 also induced behavioral abnormalities that are associated with the negative regulation of BDNF expression in the hippocampus. A broader understanding of how heart disease affects cognitive function may lead to new therapeutic strategies.</p>
          <p>The importance of circulating levels of BDNF in cardiovascular protection was evident in the prospective cohort study of the Framingham Heart Study (FHS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> To evaluate a potentially causal association between the levels of BDNF and CVD, a Mendelian randomization analysis was performed using the goals of the CARDIoGRAM (Coronary Artery Disease Genome-Wide Replication and Meta-Analysis) study. In this study, conducted with a large community-based sample, the researchers observed that higher levels of BDNF are associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular events and death, regardless of the standard risk factors, including low-grade inflammation markers, body mass index (BMI), physical activity and depression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In fact, an important role of BDNF in the cardiovascular system is the promotion of vascular angiogenesis and increase in capillary density.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Studies have shown that BDNF acts on endothelial cells promoting neovascularization in response to hypoxic stimuli via the Akt pathway.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The first evidence of BDNF involvement in the angiogenesis process came from the study by Donovan et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> about the development of the embryonic myocardium, in which it was shown that the overexpression of BDNF is associated with an increase in capillary density. Recently, an elegant experimental study demonstrated for the first time that BDNF promotes the formation of angiogenic tubes through the generation of ROS derived from NADPH oxidase (NOX) by TrkB receptor signal transduction, probably via Akt activation , resulting in the migration of endothelial cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The study suggests that: TrkB &#8658; NADPH oxidase 2 (Nox2) &#8658; ROS &#8658; Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In fact, BDNF has been consistently implicated in the angiogenesis and maintenance of vascular integrity. Specifically in the endothelium, besides the binding of BDNF to its high affinity receptor TrkB,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> there is also the expression of the p75 receptor, of which binding to the pro-BDNF has been related to vascular smooth muscle apoptosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Considering the conjugated localization of BDNF-TrkB and pro-BDNF-p75 in the endothelium and due to the antagonistic physiological action between BDNF and pro-BDNF, it is important to take into account the balance between plasticity/survival and apoptosis in peripheral blood flow through the BDNF/pro-BDNF ratio.</p>
          <p>More recently, the link between this neurotrophic and cardiovascular protection was evidenced in the study by Okada et al,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> conducted with conditional BDNF-knockout mice, in which BDNF expression was systemically reduced. In this study, the authors demonstrated that a mechanism mediated by the Central Nervous System is involved in the regulation of cardiac function after myocardial infarction. Ischemic insults are transmitted from the heart to the Central Nervous System through afferent cardiac fibers after the myocardial infarction, thereby increasing BDNF neuronal expression. An increase in circulating BDNF promotes the survival of cardiomyocytes and is associated with increased expression of pro-angiogenic factors. Comparatively, knockout animals had greater myocardial damage after the experimental infarction compared to wild-type mice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In this context, the Val66Met polymorphism can affect serum concentrations of BDNF and, consequently, influence the activity of tissues containing TrkB receptors, be they neurons or even peripheral tissues, such as vascular endothelial cells.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>BDNF and Cognitive Effects of Exercise</title>
          <p>There is much evidence that physical exercise, especially aerobic exercise, has a beneficial effect on cognitive domains, particularly on executive and memory functions and reduces hippocampal atrophy in late adulthood, with BDNF being heavily involved.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Epidemiological and intervention studies reinforce the idea of using physical activity as a strategy to increase neuroplasticity in pathological conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Several studies have shown that exercise not only causes structural changes in the brain, but also protects against aging-related cognitive decline.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Physical exercise activates molecular and cellular cascades that promote neuronal plasticity and neurogenesis, inducing expression of the gene encoding BDNF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Peripheral concentrations of BDNF increase in both acute and chronic aerobic exercise, and the magnitude of this increase seems to be dependent on exercise intensity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In addition, greater cognitive benefits are obtained when the duration of the program and the exercise session are longer, individuals are older, with greater benefits for women than for men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> The difference between genders regarding BDNF levels in cerebrospinal fluid in favor of women may be due to hormonal effects,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> since estrogen receptors are located in cells expressing BDNF and its TrkB receptor, so that estrogen regulates the expression of BDNF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Interestingly, this benefit of exercise occurs even in young adult men. This was evidenced in a cohort study of young Swedish men enlisted in military service at age 18 (n=1,221,727),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> in which a significant positive association was found between cardiovascular fitness and cognitive performance after adjusting for relevant confounders.</p>
          <p>Largely, the benefits of exercise on the production of BDNF and neuronal plasticity are related to increased cerebral and muscle vascularization. In fact, in a recent review<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> the authors have shown that the cognitive benefits of good cardiovascular fitness are related to increased cerebral circulation and angiogenesis. This important adaptation allows increased flow and upregulation of neurotrophins in the neurogenic niche of the hippocampus, a phenomenon that occurs even after acute exercise sessions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Specifically, studies on the acute and chronic effects of exercise on serum BDNF concentration still yield controversial results. For example, in a study comparing the chronic and acute effects of physical exercise on the serum concentrations of BDNF, it was demonstrated that a single exercise session was able to induce a transient increase in BDNF levels, but the same results were not achieved after a longer period of training.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> On the other hand, in another study where the sample was submitted to 6 months of training, a trend in an increase in serum BDNF concentration was found, in addition to an improvement in cognitive function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> A similar result was found in a longitudinal study with the elderly, which resulted in an increase in the volume of hippocampal parts and, according to the authors, this fact is related to the increase in BDNF levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
          <p>These apparently controversial results may be dependent on the duration of the exercise benefits, specifically on post-exercise BDNF plasma levels, i.e., whether they occur soon after a single session of acute exercise, after a session of a regular exercise program (showing changes in BDNF release after repeated exercise sessions) or changes in resting BDNF levels after a regular exercise program.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Indeed, this was evidenced in the recent meta-analysis on the effects of exercise on serum BDNF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> which concluded that regular exercise intensified the effect of an exercise session on BDNF levels (Hedges&#8217; g =0.59; <italic>P</italic> =0.02). However, the results indicated a lower effect of regular exercise on resting BDNF levels (Hedges&#8217; g =0.27; <italic>P</italic> =0.005). There is reliable evidence from human studies indicating that each exercise episode results in a BDNF dose response and that the magnitude of this response can be increased over time through regular exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
          <p>There is a large body of evidence that demonstrates that exercise works on several powerful neuroprotective pathways that can converge to promote continued brain health into senescence. These benefits occur either in response to acute activities or in regular practice and occur both in response to high-intensity exercises and in moderate-intensity aerobic exercises, increasing levels of circulating neurotrophic factors and neurotransmission, exerting beneficial effects on mood and cognitive functions in individuals of all ages.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>BDNF and Cardiovascular Effects of Exercise</title>
          <p>In the cardiovascular system, BDNF is involved, at least in part, in vascular endothelial benefits. In addition, a recent study found that active older men have significantly higher plasma BDNF levels compared to their inactive peers. In this study, BDNF correlated with VO<sub>2</sub>max (R=0.765, p&lt;0.001). Additionally, there was an inverse correlation between BDNF and the atherogenic index (TC / HDL), hsCRP and oxLDL. These findings demonstrate that a higher level of cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with a higher level of circulating BDNF, which in turn is related to lower cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <p>However, it is possible that polymorphisms may influence the beneficial effects of exercise. We have recently observed that peripheral vascular reactivity and serum BDNF responses to physical training are impaired by the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism, a responsiveness that is associated with serum BDNF concentrations in healthy individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Considering all of the above, the importance of physical exercise in promoting brain and cardiovascular health is gaining recognition, whether in the physiological condition of the brain aging process or in individuals affected by the early stages of neurodegeneration. In fact, the various animal and human studies suggest that physical activity may reduce the risk of cognitive decline, and therefore, an active lifestyle may be considered a preventive strategy for brain health deterioration, just as it occurs with cardiovascular dysfunction.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; <italic>Acute and chronic effect of physical exercise on cardiovascular aspects related to BDNF (Adapted from Stimpson et al, 2018).</italic></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-02-0263-90368-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Undoubtedly, with increasing longevity, long-term preventive approaches, with an emphasis on promoting positive health habits that delay cognitive decline and its progression, are increasingly important. It is worth remembering that in addition to modulating the internal brain environment, the regular practice of physical exercise acts directly on the cardiovascular, immune and metabolic systems, playing an essential role in a healthy lifestyle.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgements</title>
        <p>ICT is supported by the Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa (CNPq#302809/2018-0) and FXC was supported by the Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (FAPESP#2015/03274-0 and #2016/16831-7) and by the Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aconselhamento de Pessoal do N&#237;vel Superior (CAPES).</p>
      </ack>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of Funding</p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
