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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">ppZHhz5H9yytzsfRnzY6Gmv</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020000800127</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20190207</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20190207</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>S&#237;ndrome Cardiorrenal Aguda: Qual Crit&#233;rio Diagn&#243;stico Utilizar e sua Import&#226;ncia para o Progn&#243;stico?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7586-8694</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Leite</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;a de Melo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7443-7270</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno Ferraz de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marques</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233; Casarsa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Petriz</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Luiz Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1883-6546</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Albuquerque</surname>
            <given-names>Denilson Campos de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9891-676X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Spineti</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Pimenta de Mello</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0034-4981</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Jorge</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1654-4531</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Villacorta</surname>
            <given-names>Humberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2284-8251</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense - Faculdade de Medicina - P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luiz</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luiz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto D&#8217;Or de Pesquisa e Ensino</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto D&#8217;Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold> Andr&#233;a de Melo Leite &#8226; Universidade Federal Fluminense - Faculdade de Medicina &#8211; P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares &#8211; Av. Marqu&#234;s do Paran&#225;, 303. CEP 24230-030, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>andreamelo@cardiol.br</email> , <email>andreamelocardiologia@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Leite AM, Gomes BFO, Albuquerque DC, Spineti PPM, Martins WA; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Leite AM; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Leite AM, Gomes BFO, Marques AC, Petriz JLF, Albuquerque DC, Spineti PPM, Villacorta H, Martins WA; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Leite AM, Gomes BFO, Marques AC, Petriz JLF, Albuquerque DC, Spineti PPM, Jorge AJL, Villacorta H, Martins WA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesses</p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>115</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>127</fpage>
      <lpage>133</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A indefini&#231;&#227;o de crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal aguda (SCRA) impacta em diferentes resultados progn&#243;sticos. Objetivou-se avaliar os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos da SCRA e o impacto no progn&#243;stico. Procedeu-se &#224; revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica utilizando-se a metodologia PRISMA e os crit&#233;rios PICO nas bases MEDLINE, EMBASE e LILACS. A pesquisa incluiu artigos originais do tipo ensaio cl&#237;nico, coorte, caso-controle e meta-an&#225;lises publicados no per&#237;odo de janeiro de 1998 at&#233; junho de 2018. N&#227;o foi encontrada na literatura nem nas diretrizes de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca uma defini&#231;&#227;o clara dos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos da SCRA. O crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico mais comumente utilizado &#233; o aumento da creatinina s&#233;rica de pelo menos 0,3 mg/dl em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; basal. Entretanto, existem controv&#233;rsias na defini&#231;&#227;o de creatinina basal e de qual deveria ser a creatinina s&#233;rica de refer&#234;ncia dos pacientes cr&#237;ticos. Esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica sugere que os crit&#233;rios de SCRA devem ser revistos para que se inclua o diagn&#243;stico de SCRA na admiss&#227;o hospitalar. A creatinina s&#233;rica de refer&#234;ncia deve refletir a fun&#231;&#227;o renal basal antes do in&#237;cio da inj&#250;ria renal aguda.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome Cardiorrenal</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Renal</kwd>
        <kwd>Creatinina</kwd>
        <kwd>Progn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="67"/>
        <page-count count="7"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) &#233; um desafio cl&#237;nico e um problema epidemiol&#243;gico em progress&#227;o em todo o mundo, com elevada morbimortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No estudo ARIC,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> as taxas de letalidade em 30 dias, 1 ano e 5 anos ap&#243;s hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC foram 10,4%, 22,0% e 42,3%, respectivamente. O I Registro Brasileiro de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (BREATHE),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> estudo observacional com 1263 pacientes de diferentes regi&#245;es do Brasil, mostrou uma mortalidade hospitalar de 12,6%.</p>
      <p>A s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal, definida como um processo de inj&#250;ria renal ocasionada por IC, foi descrita pela primeira vez em 1951<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> e categorizada no ano de 2008 em cinco subtipos ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal tipo 1, ou s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal aguda (SCRA), caracteriza-se pela inj&#250;ria renal aguda (IRA) ocasionada por IC descompensada (ICD). Alguns autores referem-se &#224; SCRA por piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal no paciente com IC ( <italic>Worsening Renal Function - WRF</italic> ). Este fen&#244;meno &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o frequente, acometendo 11% a 40% das interna&#231;&#245;es por ICD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Subtipos de s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Tipo</th>
                <th>Nome</th>
                <th>Mecanismo</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>1</td>
                <td align="center">SCR aguda</td>
                <td align="center">IRA induzida por disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca aguda</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2</td>
                <td align="center">SCR cr&#244;nica</td>
                <td align="center">IRA progressiva secund&#225;ria &#224; IC cr&#244;nica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>3</td>
                <td align="center">S&#237;ndrome renoc&#225;rdica aguda</td>
                <td align="center">IC aguda precipitada por IRA</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>4</td>
                <td align="center">S&#237;ndrome renoc&#225;rdica cr&#244;nica</td>
                <td align="center">IC secund&#225;ria &#224; IRC</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>5</td>
                <td align="center">SCR secund&#225;ria</td>
                <td align="center">Disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e renal por doen&#231;as sist&#234;micas</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>SCR: s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal; IRA: inj&#250;ria renal aguda; IRC: insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Adaptado de Di Lullo et al.<sup>40</sup></italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>A piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal &#233; avaliada pelo aumento da creatinina s&#233;rica, geralmente &gt;26,5 &#956;mol/l, equivalente a 0,3 mg/dl, e/ou aumento de 25% na creatinina ou queda de 20% na taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular (TFG).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> O crit&#233;rio de aumento absoluto da creatinina em 0,3 mg/dl tem sido adotado pela maioria dos autores como ponto de corte arbitrado para definir a SCRA.</p>
      <p>O registro norte-americano ADHERE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> &#233; um estudo observacional com mais de 100 mil pacientes admitidos com ICD. Nesse registro, aproximadamente 35% dos pacientes apresentaram disfun&#231;&#227;o renal moderada a grave.</p>
      <p>A piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal ocorre em 30% a 50% dos casos de ICD, dependendo da defini&#231;&#227;o utilizada, e est&#225; associada com maior tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, despesas de sa&#250;de elevadas e maior mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Entretanto, a aus&#234;ncia de uma defini&#231;&#227;o consensual para a SCRA contribui para a falta de clareza em seu diagn&#243;stico e tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Um desafio &#233; a escolha de qual creatinina s&#233;rica utilizar para determinar o cumprimento dos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos da SCRA. Idealmente, a creatinina s&#233;rica de refer&#234;ncia deve refletir a fun&#231;&#227;o renal basal antes do in&#237;cio da IRA. Na maioria das vezes, essa informa&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o est&#225; dispon&#237;vel, levando ao uso de valores de refer&#234;ncia substitutos que podem influenciar o diagn&#243;stico e a gravidade da SCRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Esta revis&#227;o foi conduzida conforme a metodologia <italic>Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses</italic> (PRISMA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> A pesquisa incluiu artigos originais do tipo ensaio cl&#237;nico, coorte, caso-controle e meta-an&#225;lises publicados no per&#237;odo de janeiro de 1998 at&#233; junho de 2018, com textos na &#237;ntegra, em ingl&#234;s, espanhol e portugu&#234;s, nas bases de dados MEDLINE, EMBASE e LILACS. A pesquisa foi realizada com os seguintes descritores: ( <italic>cardiorenal syndrome</italic> ) OR <italic>(worsening renal function)</italic> AND ( <italic>heart failure</italic> ) AND ( <italic>diagnosis</italic> ) AND ( <italic>prognosis</italic> ).</p>
      <p>Este estudo baseou-se nos crit&#233;rios PICO (Popula&#231;&#227;o, Interven&#231;&#227;o, Controle e Resultados). No presente estudo procedeu-se &#224; revis&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos da SCRA e sua implica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica nos desfechos mortalidade hospitalar e mortalidade ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar, assim como no tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Foram exclu&#237;dos relatos de caso e modelos experimentais animais.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>Preencheram os crit&#233;rios de pesquisa 368 resumos. Outros 9 artigos foram recuperados em outras fontes, sendo eliminados 278 resumos em duplicata nas bases de dados. Foram avaliados 99 resumos e selecionados 61, dos quais 35 foram exclu&#237;dos por n&#227;o atenderem aos crit&#233;rios previamente estabelecidos (PICO). Portanto, 26 artigos de texto completo foram avaliados em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; qualidade cient&#237;fica. Desses, 4 foram exclu&#237;dos por n&#227;o preencherem os crit&#233;rios, resultando em um total de 22 artigos analisados ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; <italic>Fluxograma dos estudos avaliados (metodologia PRISMA<sup>17</sup>).</italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-01-0127-90207-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o temporal da s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal aguda</title>
        <p>Estudos com acesso aos n&#237;veis pr&#233;-admissionais de creatinina s&#233;rica revelaram que a IRA esteve presente na admiss&#227;o da emerg&#234;ncia em cerca de um ter&#231;o dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Outros 50% dos pacientes apresentaram IRA nas primeiras 48 horas. Tayaka et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> em estudo comparando as altera&#231;&#245;es da fun&#231;&#227;o renal at&#233; o quarto dia de interna&#231;&#227;o e ap&#243;s o quinto dia de interna&#231;&#227;o, observaram que os pacientes com les&#227;o renal tardia apresentaram maior mortalidade em um ano ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar. Uma an&#225;lise <italic>post hoc</italic> do estudo Pr&#233;-RELAX demonstrou que a queda na press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica nas primeiras 48 horas de terapia vasodilatadora foi um preditor independente de IRA at&#233; o quinto dia de interna&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Esses resultados sugerem que a redu&#231;&#227;o na press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o renal relacionada &#224; terapia seja um dos principais mecanismos que levam &#224; IRA nos primeiros dias de interna&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>A SCRA pode ser classificada em intermitente ou persistente. A SCRA intermitente ocorre quando h&#225; flutua&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de creatinina durante a interna&#231;&#227;o com redu&#231;&#227;o dos seus valores at&#233; o momento da alta hospitalar. A SCRA persistente ocorre quando a eleva&#231;&#227;o da creatinina ou a queda na TFG persiste at&#233; o momento da alta hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Incid&#234;ncia da s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal aguda</title>
        <p>Existe uma grande variabilidade entre os estudos quanto &#224; incid&#234;ncia de SCRA, cuja estimativa varia entre 19% e 45%. Essa varia&#231;&#227;o pode ser atribu&#237;da aos diferentes crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos empregados, aos diferentes crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o e exclus&#227;o, ao tamanho amostral de cada estudo, al&#233;m das diferen&#231;as cl&#237;nicas das popula&#231;&#245;es estudadas. A maioria dos estudos refere-se a an&#225;lises retrospectivas, secund&#225;rias e/ou <italic>post hoc</italic> de grandes bancos de dados<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> ou a ensaios cl&#237;nicos de terapia medicamentosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos da s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal aguda</title>
        <p>O primeiro trabalho a avaliar o impacto da piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal em idosos internados com ICD, no ano de 2000, adotou como crit&#233;rio o aumento da creatinina em 0,3 mg/dl.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Outro estudo demonstrou que aumentos de creatinina durante a interna&#231;&#227;o da ordem de 0,1 mg/dl estavam associados a maior mortalidade hospitalar e tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o. Nesse estudo, um aumento &#8805;0,3 mg/dl apresentou melhor sensibilidade e especificidade para prever &#243;bito (81% e 62%, respectivamente) e tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o maior que dez dias (64% e 65%, respectivamente).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O aumento absoluto da creatinina em 0,3 mg/dl tem sido adotado pela maioria dos autores como crit&#233;rio para definir a SCRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Entretanto, outros autores discordam desse crit&#233;rio por ele n&#227;o considerar o grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o renal pr&#233;via, sugerindo o uso de uma das tr&#234;s diferentes classifica&#231;&#245;es para defini&#231;&#227;o de IRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Essas defini&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o s&#227;o espec&#237;ficas para ICD, tendo sido desenvolvidas para defini&#231;&#227;o e classifica&#231;&#227;o de IRA em diferentes cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos.</p>
        <p>A classifica&#231;&#227;o de RIFLE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> foi proposta em 2004 para definir e estratificar a gravidade da IRA. O acr&#244;nimo RIFLE foi criado a partir das primeiras letras de <italic>Risk</italic> (risco), <italic>Injury</italic> (inj&#250;ria/les&#227;o), <italic>Failure</italic> (fal&#234;ncia), <italic>Loss</italic> (perda da fun&#231;&#227;o renal) e <italic>End-stage renal disease</italic> (doen&#231;a renal em est&#225;gio terminal). A gravidade da IRA &#233; determinada pelo par&#226;metro mais alterado (varia&#231;&#227;o da creatinina, TFG e d&#233;bito urin&#225;rio).</p>
        <p>A classifica&#231;&#227;o proposta pela <italic>Acute Kidney Injury Network</italic> (AKIN)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> exclui os est&#225;gios de perda da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e doen&#231;a renal terminal e os crit&#233;rios baseados na TFG. O estadiamento deve ser realizado ap&#243;s corre&#231;&#227;o da volemia do paciente, com exclus&#227;o da obstru&#231;&#227;o do trato urin&#225;rio e considerando-se o crit&#233;rio mais alterado. Em 2012, a classifica&#231;&#227;o proposta pelo grupo <italic>Kidney Disease &#8211; Improving Global Outcomes</italic> (KDIGO)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> trouxe algumas modifica&#231;&#245;es &#224; classifica&#231;&#227;o anterior, adicionando para o terceiro est&#225;gio a redu&#231;&#227;o da TFG para valores inferiores a 35ml/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup> em pacientes menores de 18 anos e excluindo a necessidade de aumento m&#237;nimo de 0,5 mg/dl para pacientes com creatinina superior a 4 mg/dl.</p>
        <p>Uma coorte que avaliou 637 interna&#231;&#245;es por ICD com seguimento de 30 dias e 1 ano comparou o crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico do aumento de creatinina &#8805;0,3 mg/dl com os crit&#233;rios KDIGO, RIFLE e AKIN quanto &#224; predi&#231;&#227;o dos desfechos morte, reinterna&#231;&#227;o por IC ou in&#237;cio de di&#225;lise. O desempenho dos quatro crit&#233;rios foi semelhante na determina&#231;&#227;o de eventos adversos. Os benef&#237;cios do uso dos sistemas de classifica&#231;&#227;o de IRA (RIFLE, AKIN, KDIGO) residem na possibilidade de identificar os pacientes com graus mais graves de IRA que passar&#227;o por eventos adversos em 30 dias e 1 ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Os diferentes crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos de IRA encontrados na literatura est&#227;o resumidos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> .</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Crit&#233;rios usados pelas classifica&#231;&#245;es RIFLE34, AKIN35, KDIGO36 e WRF11 para definir inj&#250;ria renal aguda</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Crit&#233;rios</th>
                  <th>WRF</th>
                  <th colspan="2">RIFLE</th>
                  <th>AKIN</th>
                  <th>KDIGO</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Anos</td>
                  <td align="center">2002</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">2004</td>
                  <td align="center">2007</td>
                  <td align="center">2012</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Classifica&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">Aumento da CrS</td>
                  <td align="center">Aumento da CrS</td>
                  <td align="center">Queda na TFG</td>
                  <td align="center">Aumento da CrS</td>
                  <td align="center">Aumento da CrS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Est&#225;gio 1 / Risco</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 0,3 mg/dl</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 1,5x CrB</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 25%</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 1,5-1,9x CrB ou &#8805; 0,3 mg/dl</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 1,5x CrB ou &#8805; 0,3 mg/dl</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Est&#225;gio 2 / Inj&#250;ria</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 2x CrB</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 50%</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 2-2,9x CrB</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 2x CrB</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">Est&#225;gio 3 / Fal&#234;ncia</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 3x CrB</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 75%</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 3x CrB</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 3x CrB</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Ou CrS &#8805; 4mg/dl e aumento de 0,5mg/dl</td>
                  <td align="center">Ou CrS &#8805; 4mg/dL e aumento de 0,5mg/dl ou in&#237;cio de di&#225;lise</td>
                  <td align="center">Ou CrS &#8805; 4mg/dl</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Per&#237;odo m&#237;nimo para que IRA ocorra</td>
                  <td align="center">Aumento da CrS em qualquer momento da interna&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Varia&#231;&#245;es da CrS em 1-7 dias por mais de 24 h</td>
                  <td align="center">Altera&#231;&#245;es agudas da sCr em 48 h durante a interna&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">Eleva&#231;&#227;o &#8805; 1,5x CrB em 7 dias, ou aumento m&#237;nimo de 0,3 mg/dl na CrS em 48 h</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>
                  <italic>WRF (worsening renal function), piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal; IRA, inj&#250;ria renal aguda; CrS: creatinina s&#233;rica; TFG: taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular; CrB: creatinina basal.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <attrib>
                <italic>Fonte: Adaptada de Roy et al.<sup>32</sup></italic>
              </attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>O crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico mais comumente utilizado &#233; o aumento da creatinina s&#233;rica de pelo menos 0,3 mg/dl ou pelo menos 25% nos primeiros cinco dias de interna&#231;&#227;o, o que difere da defini&#231;&#227;o atual do KDIGO para IRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a defini&#231;&#227;o da piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal n&#227;o inclui IRA na admiss&#227;o, que est&#225; associada a mortalidade e eventos cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Abordagens comuns para o diagn&#243;stico de SCRA incluem o uso das seguintes refer&#234;ncias de creatinina basal, a partir da qual o aumento de creatinina define essa s&#237;ndrome: a) creatinina admissional; b) a menor creatinina durante a interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar; c) valores de creatinina s&#233;rica de outras interna&#231;&#245;es; ou d) medidas ambulatoriais de creatininemia. Os crit&#233;rios originais do RIFLE n&#227;o especificaram como escolher a creatinina de refer&#234;ncia, mas recomendaram a imputa&#231;&#227;o de um valor calculado a partir de uma TFG estimada de 75ml/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup>. Abordagens alternativas incluem a avalia&#231;&#227;o da varia&#231;&#227;o da creatinina nas primeiras 48 horas para reduzir a necessidade do valor pr&#233;-hospitalar (AKIN) ou a menor creatinina s&#233;rica da interna&#231;&#227;o, quando ausente a medida ambulatorial de creatinina (KDIGO).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Siew et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> estudaram 4.863 pacientes hospitalizados e avaliaram tr&#234;s refer&#234;ncias de creatinina basal: MDRD ( <italic>Modification of Diet in Renal Disease</italic> ), creatinina admissional e a menor creatinina da interna&#231;&#227;o. O MDRD e o <italic>nadir</italic> superestimaram a incid&#234;ncia em pelo menos 50%, enquanto a taxa de interna&#231;&#227;o foi subestimada em 46%. O uso da creatinina da admiss&#227;o como refer&#234;ncia tem a menor sensibilidade para o diagn&#243;stico de IRA adquirida no hospital e n&#227;o inclui o diagn&#243;stico de IRA iniciada antes da chegada ao hospital. Alguns autores consideraram como refer&#234;ncia a creatinina da pr&#233;-admiss&#227;o hospitalar (ambulatorial) quando dispon&#237;vel, mas apenas alguns deles definiram o tempo de validade m&#225;ximo da medida ambulatorial at&#233; a interna&#231;&#227;o. Por&#233;m, o valor ambulatorial da creatinina poucas vezes est&#225; dispon&#237;vel.</p>
        <p>O crit&#233;rio RIFLE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> n&#227;o define especificamente qual seria a refer&#234;ncia de creatinina basal. O crit&#233;rio de IRA mais recente, KDIGO, sugere como refer&#234;ncia a menor creatinina s&#233;rica durante a interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Poucos estudos consideraram a fun&#231;&#227;o renal basal correlacionada com creatinina ascendente durante o epis&#243;dio de IRA.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>O uso de biomarcadores na caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal aguda</title>
        <p>Apesar de a creatinina ser o pilar do diagn&#243;stico da SCRA, ela apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es como marcador da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, especialmente em pacientes cr&#237;ticos. Seu n&#237;vel s&#233;rico &#233; influenciado por fatores como sexo, idade, peso e massa muscular. Al&#233;m disso, a creatinina eleva-se somente 24 horas ap&#243;s um dano renal e sua concentra&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o aumenta significativamente at&#233; que cerca de metade da fun&#231;&#227;o renal esteja comprometida. Portanto, a creatinina &#233; considerada um marcador lento de IRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Existem controv&#233;rsias na defini&#231;&#227;o de creatinina basal dos pacientes cr&#237;ticos, visto que nessa condi&#231;&#227;o existem altera&#231;&#245;es na nutri&#231;&#227;o, perda de massa muscular e sobrecarga h&#237;drica.</p>
        <p>Biomarcadores de qualidade s&#227;o aqueles que possuem aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica, com papel reconhecido na fisiopatologia da s&#237;ndrome. H&#225; incentivo para a pesquisa de biomarcadores mais fidedignos para o diagn&#243;stico precoce da SCRA. A mol&#233;cula de les&#227;o renal-1 (KIM-1), a lipocalina associada &#224; gelatinase de neutr&#243;filos (NGAL), a interleucina 18 (IL-18), e a cistatina C (Cys-C) s&#227;o alguns dos novos marcadores de les&#227;o renal alvos de estudos. No entanto, nenhum dos tr&#234;s marcadores tubulares citados previu com precis&#227;o o agravamento da fun&#231;&#227;o renal nos pacientes com ICD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estima-se que microalbumin&#250;ria esteja presente em 20% a 30% dos pacientes com IC. Dois estudos demonstraram associa&#231;&#227;o com mortalidade em pacientes com micro ou macroalbumin&#250;ria comparados &#224;queles com excre&#231;&#227;o normal de albumina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na SCRA, o paciente piora clinicamente e desenvolve olig&#250;ria, apesar dos n&#237;veis elevados de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos, que t&#234;m sabidamente efeito diur&#233;tico. &#201; importante lembrar que o NT-proBNP &#233; reduzido em pacientes submetidos a hemodi&#225;lise por membranas de alto fluxo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O ST2 (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>Suppression of Tumorigenicity 2</italic> ) &#233; um biomarcador de congest&#227;o menos influenciado pela fun&#231;&#227;o renal do que o NT-ProBNP e pode acrescentar informa&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>M&#233;todos de imagem no diagn&#243;stico da s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal aguda</title>
        <p>O exame de imagem com avalia&#231;&#227;o das ondas de fluxo venoso e arterial renal pode sinalizar um agravamento da fun&#231;&#227;o antes de ocorrer um aumento da creatinina s&#233;rica, fornecendo uma avalia&#231;&#227;o vi&#225;vel e n&#227;o invasiva da hemodin&#226;mica renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Implica&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas da s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal aguda</title>
        <p>A SCRA est&#225; associada com maior mortalidade por todas as causas e cardiovascular em curto e longo prazos, tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o prolongado,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> reinterna&#231;&#245;es,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> progress&#227;o para os est&#225;gios da doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> e maiores custos com a sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A SCRA parece ser mais grave em pacientes com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE) reduzida em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles com FEVE preservada, atingindo uma incid&#234;ncia de 70% naqueles com choque cardiog&#234;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o comprometimento da fun&#231;&#227;o renal &#233; encontrado como um fator de risco independente para mortalidade em 1 ano em pacientes com IC aguda, incluindo aqueles com infarto do mioc&#225;rdio com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Uma justificativa seria que um decl&#237;nio agudo da fun&#231;&#227;o renal n&#227;o atua simplesmente como um marcador de gravidade da doen&#231;a, mas tamb&#233;m acelera altera&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares atrav&#233;s da ativa&#231;&#227;o de vias inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dois estudos mostraram que o risco de mau progn&#243;stico permanece independentemente se a SCRA foi intermitente ou persistente<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> e que mesmo discretas altera&#231;&#245;es da fun&#231;&#227;o renal podem alterar o risco de morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Alguns estudos demonstraram que a SCRA persistente, quando comparada com a intermitente, apresenta pior progn&#243;stico ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar e eleva&#231;&#245;es transit&#243;rias da creatinina n&#227;o se relacionaram com pior progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No estudo ADHERE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> 59% dos homens e 68% das mulheres apresentaram disfun&#231;&#227;o renal moderada a grave no momento da hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Pacientes com piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal durante a interna&#231;&#227;o apresentaram maior mortalidade hospitalar. Pacientes cuja interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar &#233; precipitada pela SCRA t&#234;m maior mortalidade hospitalar, maior tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, mais reinterna&#231;&#245;es e maiores taxas de mortalidade p&#243;s-alta comparados a pacientes com outros fatores precipitantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> A SCRA persistente em 1 ano ap&#243;s a alta mostrou-se um preditor significativo de mortalidade cardiovascular e mortalidade por todas as causas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pelo menos um quarto dos pacientes hospitalizados com ICD pode desenvolver SCRA, dependendo do crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico utilizado. Entre os pacientes com IC hospitalizados, um aumento na creatinina s&#233;rica &#233; um dos mais importantes preditores de sobrevida<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> e a mortalidade aumenta progressivamente com o incremento da creatinina s&#233;rica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nem todas as altera&#231;&#245;es da fun&#231;&#227;o renal t&#234;m a mesma relev&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica. O aumento da creatinina s&#233;rica concomitantemente com melhora dos sintomas e perda de peso n&#227;o est&#225; associado a um desfecho desfavor&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> A IRA indica que ocorreu les&#227;o renal, que pode ser revers&#237;vel ou n&#227;o, enquanto que a piora dos marcadores da fun&#231;&#227;o renal pode representar um decl&#237;nio funcional da TFG sem rela&#231;&#227;o direta com um desfecho adverso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A SCRA intermitente reflete uma redu&#231;&#227;o revers&#237;vel na TFG e parece menos prejudicial do que a SCRA persistente. Paradoxalmente, nos casos de SCRA na admiss&#227;o, a diminui&#231;&#227;o da creatinina durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o pode estar associada a desfechos adversos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Considerando a congest&#227;o renal como o principal mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico da SCRA, espera-se um efeito ben&#233;fico dos diur&#233;ticos no progn&#243;stico. Uma an&#225;lise <italic>post hoc</italic> do ensaio cl&#237;nico DOSE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> mostrou que a melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal quando associada ao tratamento inadequado da congest&#227;o associou-se com pior progn&#243;stico.</p>
        <p>Outros estudos mostraram que, na terap&#234;utica com diur&#233;ticos e hemoconcentra&#231;&#227;o, a piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal tem menor impacto progn&#243;stico do que em pacientes com congest&#227;o persistente e aus&#234;ncia de hemoconcentra&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Esse achado deve-se em parte a fatores de confundimento na avalia&#231;&#227;o da creatinina s&#233;rica. No contexto do tratamento da congest&#227;o, a eleva&#231;&#227;o da creatinina s&#233;rica pode resultar de outros mecanismos independentes da redu&#231;&#227;o da TFG, como a hemoconcentra&#231;&#227;o que reduz a distribui&#231;&#227;o da creatinina. Essa altera&#231;&#227;o renal &#233; inofensiva e transit&#243;ria, denominada pseudo-IRA. O conceito de pseudo-IRA pode explicar porque os biomarcadores de les&#227;o tubular foram pobres preditores de SCRA, posto que em estudos anteriores n&#227;o houve a distin&#231;&#227;o entre IRA e pseudo-IRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Durante a terap&#234;utica diur&#233;tica agressiva, o aumento da creatinina s&#233;rica ocorreu em 22% dos pacientes com ICD sem aumento de biomarcadores, sugerindo uma propor&#231;&#227;o potencialmente alta de pseudo-IRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
        <p>N&#227;o &#233; f&#225;cil determinar se a terap&#234;utica &#233; eficaz e a pseudo-IRA pode induzir a descontinua&#231;&#227;o inapropriada do tratamento. &#201; importante avaliar os par&#226;metros cl&#237;nicos de perfus&#227;o, d&#233;bito urin&#225;rio, perda de peso e hemoconcentra&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, os biomarcadores s&#227;o promissores para orientar a terapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> A mensura&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e de outros par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos pode ajudar a garantir uma terapia diur&#233;tica adequada e direcionada<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> e permitir um melhor entendimento do quadro de SCRA.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>As diferentes refer&#234;ncias de creatinina s&#233;rica basal limitam a capacidade de fazer compara&#231;&#245;es precisas entre estudos e alteram as estimativas de diagn&#243;stico da SCRA, superestimando ou subestimando.</p>
      <p>Os autores deste artigo sugerem que os crit&#233;rios de SCRA devem ser revisados para que se inclua o diagn&#243;stico de SCRA na admiss&#227;o hospitalar. A creatinina de refer&#234;ncia deve refletir a fun&#231;&#227;o renal basal antes do in&#237;cio da IRA.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
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    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento</p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Acute Cardiorenal Syndrome: Which Diagnostic Criterion to Use And What is its Importance for Prognosis?</article-title>
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          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7586-8694</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Leite</surname>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
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        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7443-7270</contrib-id>
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            <surname>Gomes</surname>
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            <sup>2</sup>
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        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marques</surname>
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            <sup>2</sup>
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        <contrib contrib-type="author">
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            <surname>Petriz</surname>
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            <sup>2</sup>
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        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
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            <sup>3</sup>
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            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
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        <contrib contrib-type="author">
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            <surname>Jorge</surname>
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        <contrib contrib-type="author">
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        <contrib contrib-type="author">
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            <surname>Martins</surname>
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        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense - Faculdade de Medicina - P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luiz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto D&#8217;Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing Addresss:</bold> Andr&#233;a de Melo Leite &#8226; Universidade Federal Fluminense - Faculdade de Medicina - P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares &#8211; Av. Marqu&#234;s do Paran&#225;, 303. Postal Code 24230-030, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil E-mail: andreamelo@cardiol.br, andreamelocardiologia@gmail.com</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Leite AM, Gomes BFO, Albuquerque DC, Spineti PPM, Martins WA; Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript: Leite AM; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Leite AM, Gomes BFO, Marques AC, Petriz JLF, Albuquerque DC, Spineti PPM, Villacorta H, Martins WA; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Leite AM, Gomes BFO, Marques AC, Petriz JLF, Albuquerque DC, Spineti PPM, Jorge AJL, Villacorta H, Martins WA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>The absence of a consensus about the diagnostic criteria for acute cardiorenal syndrome (ACRS) affects its prognosis. This study aimed at assessing the diagnostic criteria for ACRS and their impact on prognosis. A systematic review was conducted using PRISMA methodology and PICO criteria in the MEDLINE, EMBASE and LILACS databases. The search included original publications, such as clinical trials, cohort studies, case-control studies, and meta-analyses, issued from January 1998 to June 2018. Neither literature nor heart failure guidelines provided a clear definition of the diagnostic criteria for ACRS. The serum creatinine increase by at least 0.3 mg/dL from baseline creatinine is the most used diagnostic criterion. However, the definition of baseline creatinine, as well as which serum creatinine should be used as reference for critical patients, is still controversial. This systematic review suggests that ACRS criteria should be revised to include the diagnosis of ACRS on hospital admission. Reference serum creatinine should reflect baseline renal function before the beginning of acute kidney injury.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiorenal Syndrome</kwd>
        <kwd>Renal Insufficiency</kwd>
        <kwd>Creatinine</kwd>
        <kwd>Prognosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Systematic Review</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Heart failure (HF) is a clinical challenge and a growing epidemiological problem worldwide, with high morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In the ARIC study,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> the case fatality rates within 30 days, 1 year and 5 years from hospitalization due to HF were 10.4%, 22.0% and 42.3%, respectively. The I Brazilian Registry of Heart Failure (BREATHE),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> an observational study with 1263 patients from different Brazilian regions, has shown in-hospital mortality of 12.6%.</p>
        <p>Cardiorenal syndrome, defined as kidney injury caused by HF, was first described in 1951<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> and categorized into five types in 2008 ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Type 1 cardiorenal syndrome or acute cardiorenal syndrome (ACRS) is characterized by acute kidney injury (AKI) caused by decompensated HF (DHF). Some authors refer to ACRS as acute worsening of renal function in patients with HF, which is a frequent condition, present in 11% to 40% of hospitalizations due to DHF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Types of cardiorenal syndrome</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Type</th>
                  <th>Name</th>
                  <th>Mechanism</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>1</td>
                  <td align="center">Acute CRS</td>
                  <td align="center">AKI induced by acute cardiac dysfunction</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2</td>
                  <td align="center">Chronic CRS</td>
                  <td align="center">Progressive CKF secondary to chronic HF</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>3</td>
                  <td align="center">Acute renocardiac syndrome</td>
                  <td align="center">Acute HF precipitated by AKI</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>4</td>
                  <td align="center">Chronic renocardiac syndrome</td>
                  <td align="center">HF secondary to CKF</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>5</td>
                  <td align="center">Secondary CRS</td>
                  <td align="center">Myocardial and renal dysfunction due to systemic diseases</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic>CRS: cardiorenal syndrome; AKI: acute kidney injury; CKF: chronic kidney failure; HF: heart failure.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <attrib>
                <italic>Source: Di Lullo et al.<sup>40</sup></italic>
              </attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Worsening of renal function is defined as an absolute increase in serum creatinine by 26.5 &#956;mol/L, equivalent to 0.3 mg/dL, and/or a 25% increase in creatinine or a 20% decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The criterion of absolute 0.3-mg/dL increase in creatinine has been adopted by most authors as the cutoff point to define ACRS.</p>
        <p>The North American ADHERE registry<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> is an observational study with more than 100,000 patients hospitalized with DHF, 35% of whom had moderate to severe renal dysfunction.</p>
        <p>Worsening of renal function occurs in 30% to 50% of patients with DHF, depending on the definition used, and is associated with longer length of hospital stay, as well as higher health care costs and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> However, the absence of a consensus definition of ACRS contributes to the lack of clarity in its diagnosis and treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> The choice of reference serum creatinine to anchor the diagnostic criteria for ACRS is a challenge. Ideally, reference serum creatinine should reflect the baseline renal function before AKI begins. Most of the time, however, that information is not available, leading to the use of surrogate reference values, which can result in misclassification of ACRS regarding its diagnosis and severity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>This review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Data search in the MEDLINE, EMBASE and LILACS databases included the full texts of original publications, such as clinical trials, cohort studies, case-control studies and meta-analyses, issued from January 1998 to June 2018, written in English, Spanish and Portuguese. The database search was conducted with the following descriptors: ( <italic>cardiorenal syndrome</italic> ) OR <italic>(worsening renal function)</italic> AND ( <italic>heart failure</italic> ) AND ( <italic>diagnosis</italic> ) AND ( <italic>prognosis</italic> ).</p>
        <p>This study used the PICO (Population, Intervention, Control and Outcome) framework for literature search and reviewed the diagnostic criteria for ACRS and their prognostic implication for the outcomes &#8216;in-hospital mortality&#8217;, &#8216;mortality after hospital discharge&#8217;, and &#8216;length of hospital stay&#8217;. Case reports and experimental animal models were excluded.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>Regarding database search, 368 abstracts met the established criteria. Other 9 articles were retrieved in other sources, while 278 duplicate abstracts were removed. Of the 99 abstracts left, 61 were selected, 35 of which were excluded for not meeting the previously established criteria (PICO). The full text of the resulting 26 articles was then assessed regarding their scientific quality, and 4 articles were excluded for not meeting the criteria. The remaining 22 articles were analyzed in this study ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Flowchart of the studies assessed (PRISMA methodology<sup>17</sup>).</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-01-0127-90207-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>Temporal classification of acute cardiorenal syndrome</title>
          <p>Studies with access to pre-admission serum creatinine have revealed AKI in one third of the patients presenting to the emergency department,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> while 50% of patients have been reported to develop AKI within the first 48 hours from admission. Tayaka et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> in a study comparing renal function changes up to the fourth day of hospitalization with those from the fifth day onward, have reported higher mortality within 1 year from hospital discharge in patients with late renal injury. A <italic>post hoc</italic> analysis of the Pre-RELAX study has shown that the drop in systolic blood pressure in the first 48 hours of vasodilator therapy was an independent predictor of AKI up to the fifth day of hospitalization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Those results suggest that therapy-related reduction in renal perfusion pressure is one of the major mechanisms leading to AKI in the first days of hospitalization.</p>
          <p>Acute cardiorenal syndrome can be classified into intermittent or persistent. Intermittent ACRS occurs when serum creatinine levels vary during hospitalization with a reduction in its values up to discharge time. Persistent ACRS occurs when either creatinine elevation or GFR decrease persist up to discharge time.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Incidence of acute cardiorenal syndrome</title>
          <p>Studies have shown a large variation in the incidence of ACRS, whose estimates range from 19% to 45%. That variation can be attributed to differences among the studies regarding their diagnostic criteria, their inclusion and exclusion criteria, their sample sizes, and the clinical findings of the populations studied. Most studies involve retrospective, secondary and/or <italic>post hoc</italic> analyses of large databases<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> or clinical trials of drug therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diagnostic criteria for acute cardiorenal syndrome</title>
          <p>The first study to assess the impact of worsening renal function on the elderly admitted with DHF, published in 2000, adopted the 0.3-mg/dL increase in creatinine as the criterion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Another study has shown that 0.1-mg/dL increases in creatinine during hospitalization were associated with higher in-hospital mortality and longer length of hospital stay. In addition, that study reported that creatinine increase &#8805;0.3 mg/dL had higher sensitivity and specificity to predict both death (81% and 62%, respectively) and length of hospital stay longer than 10 days (64% and 65%, respectively).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Absolute creatinine increase by 0.3 mg/dL has been adopted by most authors as the criterion defining ACRS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Some authors, however, disagree, because that criterion does not consider the previous degree of renal dysfunction, and they suggest using one of three different classifications to define AKI,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> which, however, are not specific for DHF and have been developed to define and classify AKI in different clinical scenarios.</p>
          <p>The RIFLE (Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss and End-stage renal disease) classification<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> was proposed in 2004 to define and stratify the severity of AKI, which is determined by the most altered parameter (creatinine variation, GFR and urine output).</p>
          <p>The classification proposed by the Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> excludes the stages of &#8216;renal function loss&#8217; and &#8216;end-stage renal disease&#8217;, as well as the &#8216;GFR-based criteria&#8221;. Staging should be performed after correcting the patient&#8217;s blood volume, excluding urinary tract obstruction, and considering the most altered criterion. In 2012, the <italic>Kidney Disease &#8211; Improving Global Outcomes</italic> (KDIGO)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> group proposed a classification modifying the previous one by adding to its third stage GFR reduction to values below 35mL/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>in patients under the age of 18 years and excluding the need for the minimum 0.5-mg/dL increase for patients with creatinine greater than 4 mg/dL.</p>
          <p>A cohort study assessing 637 hospitalizations due to DHF with 30-day and 1-year follow-up assessments has compared the diagnostic criterion of creatinine increase &#8805;0.3 mg/dL with those from KDIGO, RIFLE and AKIN regarding prediction of the following outcomes: &#8216;death&#8217;, &#8216;readmission due to HF&#8217; or &#8216;initiation of dialysis&#8217;. Regarding the ability to determine adverse events, the four criteria performed similarly. The benefit of using the AKI classification systems (RIFLE, AKIN, KDIGO) is the possibility to identify patients with more severe AKI who will have adverse events in 30 days and 1 year.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> summarizes the different diagnostic criteria for AKI found in the literature.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; RIFLE34, AKIN35, KDIGO36 and WRF11 criteria for definition of AKI</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Criteria</th>
                    <th>WRF</th>
                    <th colspan="2">RIFLE</th>
                    <th>AKIN</th>
                    <th>KDIGO</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Years</td>
                    <td align="center">2002</td>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1">2004</td>
                    <td align="center">2007</td>
                    <td align="center">2012</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Classification</td>
                    <td align="center">sCr increase</td>
                    <td align="center">sCr increase</td>
                    <td align="center">GFR decrease</td>
                    <td align="center">sCr increase</td>
                    <td align="center">sCr increase</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Stage 1 / Risk</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 0.3 mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 1.5x bCr</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 25%</td>
                    <td align="center">&gt; 1.5-1.9x bCr or &#8805; 0.3 mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 1.5x bCr or &#8805; 0.3 mg/dL</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Stage 2 / Injury</td>
                    <td align="center">-</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 2x bCr</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 50%</td>
                    <td align="center">&gt; 2-2.9x bCr</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 2x bCr</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="2">Stage 3 / Failure</td>
                    <td align="center">-</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 3x bCr</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 75%</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 3x bCr</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 3x bCr</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">-</td>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">Or sCr &#8805; 4mg/dL and a 0.5-mg/dL increase</td>
                    <td align="center">Or sCr &#8805; 4mg/dL and a 0.5-mg/dL increase or initiation of dialysis</td>
                    <td align="center">Or sCr &#8805; 4mg/dL</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Minimum time for AKI to occur</td>
                    <td align="center">sCr can increase at any time during hospitalization</td>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">sCr changes over 1-7 days for more than 24 h</td>
                    <td align="center">Acute sCr changes within a 48-h period during hospitalization</td>
                    <td align="center">SCr changes &#8805; 1.5x bCr within 7 days, or 0.3-mg/dL minimum increase in sCr within a 48-h period</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>WRF, worsening renal function; AKI, acute kidney injury; sCr, serum creatinine; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; bCr, baseline creatinine.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
                <attrib>
                  <italic>Source: Adapted from Roy et al.<sup>32</sup></italic>
                </attrib>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>The most used diagnostic criterion is serum creatinine increase by at least 0.3 mg/dL or 25% in the first five days of hospitalization, which differs from the current KDIGO definition for AKI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> In addition, the definition of worsening renal function does not include AKI on admission, which is associated with mortality and cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Common approaches to the ACRS diagnosis include the use of the following reference values of baseline creatinine, from which the creatinine increase defines ACRS: a) serum creatinine on admission; b) the lowest creatinine during hospitalization; c) serum creatinine levels of other hospitalizations; or d) outpatient measurements of serum creatinine. The original criteria of the RIFLE classification do not specify the reference creatinine but recommend its calculation from an estimated GFR of 75mL/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>. Other approaches include the assessment of creatinine variation in the first 48 hours from admission, to reduce the need for the pre-hospital value (AKIN), and the lowest serum creatinine during hospitalization, when the outpatient measurement of serum creatinine is absent (KDIGO).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Siew et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> studying 4,863 in-hospital patients, have assessed three reference values of baseline creatinine: MDRD ( <italic>Modification of Diet in Renal Disease</italic> ), serum creatinine on admission, and the lowest creatinine during hospitalization. The use of MDRD and <italic>nadir</italic> creatinine inflated the incidence of AKI by about 50%; in contrast, the use of the admission value underestimated it by 46%. The use of the admission creatinine value as reference has the lowest sensitivity for the diagnosis of AKI acquired at the hospital and does not include the diagnosis of pre-admission AKI. Some authors consider as reference the pre-admission creatinine (outpatient measurement) when available, but only some of them have defined the time of maximum validity of the outpatient measurement up to admission. However, the outpatient value of creatinine is rarely available.</p>
          <p>The RIFLE classification<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> does not define specifically reference baseline creatinine. The most recent AKI criterion, KDIGO, recommends the lowest serum creatinine during hospitalization to be used as reference.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Few studies have considered baseline renal function correlated with increasing creatinine during the AKI episode.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>The use of biomarkers to characterize acute cardiorenal syndrome</title>
          <p>Although creatinine is the pillar of the diagnosis of ACRS, it has limitations as a marker of renal function, mainly in critical patients. Its serum level is influenced by factors, such as sex, age, body weight, and muscle mass. In addition, creatinine increases only 24 hours after kidney injury and its concentration does not increase significantly until half of renal function is impaired. Thus, creatinine is considered a slow marker of AKI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> The definition of baseline creatinine in critical patients is controversial because those patients have nutritional alterations, muscle mass loss and fluid overload.</p>
          <p>Useful biomarkers are those with clinical applicability and a recognized role in the pathophysiology of ACRS. The search for more reliable biomarkers for the early diagnosis of ACRS is encouraged, and kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), interleukin 18 (IL-18), and cystatin C (Cys-C) are some of the new markers of kidney injury targeted in studies. However, none of the three renal tubular markers cited could predict accurately worsening renal function in patients with DHF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Microalbuminuria is estimated to be present in 20% to 30% of patients with HF. Two studies have shown association with mortality in patients with micro- or macroalbuminuria as compared to those with normal albumin excretion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The clinical condition of patients with ACRS deteriorates and they develop oliguria, despite the high levels of natriuretic peptides, which are known to have a diuretic effect. It is worth noting that NT-proBNP levels are reduced in patients undergoing hemodialysis with high-flux membrane.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The suppression of tumorigenicity-2 (ST2), a biomarker of congestion less influenced by renal function than NT-ProBNP, might be helpful for diagnostic and prognostic information.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Imaging methods for the diagnosis of acute cardiorenal syndrome</title>
          <p>Renal imaging with assessment of the waves of venous and arterial renal flows can signal worsening renal function before serum creatinine levels increase, providing a feasible and non-invasive assessment of renal hemodynamics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prognostic implications of acute cardiorenal syndrome</title>
          <p>Acute cardiorenal syndrome is associated with the following: higher all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in the short and long run; prolonged length of hospital stay;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> re-admissions;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> progression to chronic kidney disease;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> and higher health care costs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Acute cardiorenal syndrome is apparently more severe in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) as compared to those with preserved LVEF, reaching the incidence of 70% in patients with cardiogenic shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> In addition, renal function impairment is an independent risk factor for 1-year mortality in patients with acute HF, including those with ST-elevation myocardial infarction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Moreover, an acute decline in renal function not only acts as a marker of disease severity, but also speeds cardiovascular alterations up by activating inflammatory pathways.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Two studies have shown that the risk of poor prognosis remains independently of the ACRS type (intermittent or persistent)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> and that even mild renal function changes can alter the risk of death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Some studies have shown that persistent ACRS, as compared to intermittent ACRS, has worse prognosis after hospital discharge and that transient creatinine elevations did not relate to worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the ADHERE study,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> 59% of the men and 68% of the women had moderate to severe renal dysfunction on admission, and those with worsening renal function during hospitalization had higher in-hospital mortality. Patients whose hospitalization is precipitated by ACRS have higher in-hospital mortality, longer length of hospital stay, more re-admissions and higher mortality rates after discharge as compared to patients with other precipitating factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Persistent ACRS within 1 year from hospital discharge was a strong predictor of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
          <p>At least one fourth of the patients hospitalized with DHF can develop ACRS, depending on the diagnostic criterion used. Among patients hospitalized with HF, serum creatinine increase is one of the major predictors of survival,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> and mortality increases progressively as serum creatinine increases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Not all changes in renal function have the same prognostic relevance. Serum creatinine elevation concomitantly with symptom improvement and body weight loss is not associated with an unfavorable outcome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> The presence of AKI indicates that a reversible or irreversible kidney lesion has occurred, while worsening renal function markers can represent a functional decline in GFR not directly related to an adverse outcome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Intermittent ACRS reflects a reversible reduction in GFR and seems less harmful than persistent ACRS. Paradoxically, in cases of ACRS on admission, the decrease in creatinine during hospitalization can be associated with adverse outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Considering renal congestion as the major pathophysiological mechanism of ACRS, diuretics are expected to have a beneficial effect on prognosis. A <italic>post hoc</italic> analysis of the DOSE trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> has shown that renal function improvement when associated with inadequate decongestive strategies had a worse prognosis.</p>
          <p>Other studies have shown that, with diuretic therapy and hemoconcentration, worsening renal function has a lower impact on prognosis than in patients with persistent congestion and no hemoconcentration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Those findings are partially due to confounding factors in serum creatinine assessment. In the context of measures of decongestion, the increase in serum creatinine can result from other mechanisms regardless of GFR reduction, such as hemoconcentration that reduces the distribution of creatinine. That renal change is harmless and transient, and named pseudo-AKI. The concept of pseudo-AKI can explain why biomarkers of tubular lesion were poor predictors of ACRS, considering that previous studies have made no distinction between AKI and pseudo-AKI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> During aggressive diuretic therapy, serum creatinine increased in 22% of the patients with DHF without increase in biomarkers, suggesting a potentially high proportion of pseudo-AKI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It is not easy to determine whether the therapy is effective and pseudo-AKI can induce inadequate discontinuation of treatment. It is worth assessing the clinical parameters of perfusion, urine output, body weight loss and hemoconcentration. In addition, biomarkers seem to be good to guide therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Measuring cardiac output and other hemodynamic parameters can help ensure an adequate and directed diuretic therapy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> in addition to enabling better understanding of ACRS.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>The different references of baseline serum creatinine limit the capacity of accurate comparisons between studies and interfere with the estimates of ACRS diagnosis, overestimating or underestimating it.</p>
        <p>This study suggests that the ACRS criteria should be revised to include the diagnosis of ACRS on hospital admission. Reference creatinine should reflect baseline renal function before AKI begins.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Andr&#233;a de Melo Leite, from Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of Funding</p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
