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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="pt">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">JTnMbRYDtLjDrLKbP3RH8th</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020000800031</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20190218</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20190218</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Caracter&#237;sticas Cl&#237;nicas da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente vs. Refrat&#225;ria em uma Popula&#231;&#227;o de Hipertensos Afrodescendentes</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3745-0753</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Macedo</surname>
            <given-names>Cristiano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Aras</surname>
            <given-names>Roque</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Macedo</surname>
            <given-names>Isabella Sales de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Professor Edgard Santos</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Professor Edgard Santos &#8211; Cardiologia, Salvador- BA - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo - Faculdade de Medicina,S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold> Cristiano Macedo &#8226; Hospital Universit&#225;rio Professor Edgard Santos &#8211; Cardiologia - Rua Augusto Viana, s/n. CEP 40110-040, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>crbm@terra.com.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Macedo C, Aras Junior R; Acquisition of data: Macedo C, Macedo IS; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Macedo C, Aras Junior R, Macedo IS; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Macedo C.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesses</p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>115</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>31</fpage>
      <lpage>39</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamentos</title>
          <p> Afrodescendentes t&#234;m sido associados a uma maior gravidade da hipertens&#227;o arterial e maior incid&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares. Caracter&#237;sticas na apresenta&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o resistente (HR) ou hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria (HRf), especificamente nessa etnia, n&#227;o t&#234;m sido devidamente estudadas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> O estudo compara caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e epidemiol&#243;gicas e preval&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares em afrodescendentes com diagn&#243;stico de HR ou de HRf. M&#233;todos: Estudo transversal realizado em ambulat&#243;rio de refer&#234;ncia para pacientes com Hipertens&#227;o Grave. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia foi de 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Avaliados 146 pacientes consecutivos, dos quais 68,7% eram do sexo feminino. A m&#233;dia de idade foi de 61,8 anos, sendo 88,4% afrodescendentes (pardos ou negros). 51% apresentavam HRf. Houve alta preval&#234;ncia de fatores de risco cardiovascular: 34,2% tinham diabetes, 69,4% dislipidemia, 36,1% obesidade e 38,3% hist&#243;ria de tabagismo. Fun&#231;&#227;o renal reduzida foi observada em 34,2%. Eventos cardiovasculares pr&#233;vios ocorreram em 21,8% para infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e em 19,9% para acidente vascular cerebral. O escore de risco de Framingham foi moderado/alto em 61%. Os pacientes com HRf eram mais jovens (m&#233;dia de idade de 59,38&#177;11,69 anos <italic>versus</italic> 64,10&#177;12,23 anos, p=0,02), tinham mais dislipidemia (83,8 <italic>versus</italic> 66,7%, p=0,021) e acidente vascular cerebral (30,4 <italic>versus</italic> 12,3%, p=0,011) quando comparados aos com HR. O uso de combina&#231;&#227;o de ACEi/BRA+CCB+Diur&#233;tico, clortalidona e espironolactona tamb&#233;m foi mais frequente em indiv&#237;duos com HRf.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> Afrodescendentes com HR apresentaram alto risco cardiovascular, alta preval&#234;ncia de HRf, maior frequ&#234;ncia de dislipidemia e de acidente vascular cerebral, compat&#237;vel com alta incid&#234;ncia de les&#227;o a &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2020; 115(1):31-39)</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Grupo com Ancestrais do Continente Africano/gen&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Estudo Comparativo</kwd>
        <kwd>Epidemiologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>Acidente Vascular Cerebral</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="38"/>
        <page-count count="9"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A alta propor&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS) que n&#227;o atingem as metas terap&#234;uticas adequadas tem impacto direto sobre a morbidade, a mortalidade, a incapacidade e os custos com sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Mesmo com o uso adequado de anti-hipertensivos, um n&#250;mero significativo de pacientes permanece com press&#227;o arterial (PA) elevada, condi&#231;&#227;o caracterizada como Hipertens&#227;o Resistente (HR) e definida como a persist&#234;ncia da PA elevada apesar do uso de tr&#234;s drogas anti-hipertensivas de diferentes classes, ou quando o controle da PA ocorre apenas com o uso de quatro ou mais drogas, incluindo-se sempre um diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Um subgrupo de pacientes com HR exibe uma apresenta&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica de aparente maior gravidade, na qual a PA n&#227;o &#233; controlada mesmo com o uso de cinco ou mais medicamentos, situa&#231;&#227;o atualmente definida como Hipertens&#227;o Refrat&#225;ria (HRf).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> O uso de uma associa&#231;&#227;o de Inibidor da Enzima Conversora da Angiotensina (IECA) ou Bloqueador do Receptor de Angiotensina (BRA), Bloqueador dos Canais de C&#225;lcio (BCC) e diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico tem sido recomendado como a base da terapia farmacol&#243;gica da HR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A estimativa da real preval&#234;ncia da HR &#233; incerta, dificultada pela presen&#231;a de fatores que determinam a pseudorresist&#234;ncia, como ades&#227;o inadequada &#224; terap&#234;utica e ao efeito do jaleco branco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Alguns estudos relatam uma propor&#231;&#227;o de 11 a 33% de hipertensos resistentes entre aqueles com HAS variando de acordo com as caracter&#237;sticas da popula&#231;&#227;o e dos crit&#233;rios de defini&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A preval&#234;ncia de HRf entre os pacientes com HR &#233; ainda menos conhecida, estimada entre 3 e 31% em alguns estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Diferen&#231;as fisiopatol&#243;gicas nos mecanismos envolvidos na resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento da hipertens&#227;o na HR e na HRf t&#234;m sido descritas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Alguns estudos apontam para um aparente pior progn&#243;stico, maior preval&#234;ncia de les&#227;o a &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo e risco aumentado de eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes com HR quando comparados a pacientes com hipertens&#227;o n&#227;o resistente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Em indiv&#237;duos negros, a hipertens&#227;o tende a manifestar-se de forma mais grave, apresentando maior dificuldade de controle e maior probabilidade de complica&#231;&#245;es e les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> H&#225;, no entanto, uma lacuna na literatura na avalia&#231;&#227;o da associa&#231;&#227;o entre HR e indiv&#237;duos de ascend&#234;ncia africana,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> a qual pode ser atribu&#237;da a fatores gen&#233;ticos, ambientais ou mesmo fatores locais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O presente estudo tem como objetivo, portanto, comparar caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e epidemiol&#243;gicas e preval&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares em afrodescendentes com diagn&#243;stico de HR ou de HRf. Aprimorar o conhecimento dessas caracter&#237;sticas nessa popula&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica, incluindo aspectos demogr&#225;ficos, sociais, &#233;tnicos, condi&#231;&#245;es de acesso a servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de e distribui&#231;&#227;o de medicamentos, poder&#225; contribuir para o planejamento de estrat&#233;gias visando reduzir o impacto negativo dessa importante condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica na sa&#250;de desses indiv&#237;duos.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Trata-se de um estudo transversal, realizado em ambulat&#243;rio de refer&#234;ncia para Doen&#231;a Cardiovascular Hipertensiva Grave em um Hospital Universit&#225;rio da cidade de Salvador, Bahia. A popula&#231;&#227;o foi composta por pacientes adultos com diagn&#243;stico de HR acompanhados regularmente no ambulat&#243;rio entre novembro de 2012 e dezembro de 2015. A amostra foi por conveni&#234;ncia, sendo selecionados consecutivamente durante as visitas de rotina todos os pacientes que concordaram em participar do estudo, assinando um termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido. O estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica local, estando em conformidade com a resolu&#231;&#227;o 466/12 da Ag&#234;ncia Nacional de Sa&#250;de Suplementar (ANS).</p>
      <p>Foram considerados como tendo HR os pacientes com PA n&#227;o controlada (press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica &#8211; PAS&#8805;140mmHg e/ou press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica &#8211; PAD&#8805;90mmHg), apesar do uso de tr&#234;s anti-hipertensivos com a&#231;&#245;es sin&#233;rgicas nas doses m&#225;ximas recomendadas e toleradas, sendo um deles preferencialmente um diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico, ou aqueles com PA controlada, utilizando 4 drogas anti-hipertensivas sin&#233;rgicas e em doses adequadas, incluindo tamb&#233;m um diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Pacientes com PAS&#8805;140mmHg e/ou PAD&#8805;90mmHg em uso de cinco ou mais classes de anti-hipertensivos foram considerados portadores de HRf.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A medida da press&#227;o arterial foi realizada durante a consulta m&#233;dica de rotina, ap&#243;s cinco minutos de repouso, com as costas apoiadas em posi&#231;&#227;o sentada, pernas n&#227;o cruzadas e o bra&#231;o apoiado ao n&#237;vel do cora&#231;&#227;o. Duas medidas foram realizadas, uma antes e outra ap&#243;s a entrevista, com intervalo m&#237;nimo de cinco minutos. A m&#233;dia das duas aferi&#231;&#245;es foi utilizada como valor de refer&#234;ncia para a PA do paciente. As aferi&#231;&#245;es foram realizadas com um esfigmoman&#244;metro oscilom&#233;trico autom&#225;tico Omron HEM 711 DLX, validado pela <italic>British Hypertension Society</italic> (BHS) e pela <italic>Association for Advancement of Medical Instrumentation</italic> (AAMI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Uma equipe treinada coletou, atrav&#233;s de entrevista estruturada e revis&#227;o dos prontu&#225;rios, informa&#231;&#245;es sobre dados demogr&#225;ficos e cl&#237;nicos, avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nico-cardiol&#243;gica, hist&#243;rico de eventos cardiovasculares, medicamentos, exames laboratoriais e fatores relacionados ao estilo de vida. O risco cardiovascular (RCV) foi estimado pelo escore de risco de Framingham (ERF). A etnia foi autodeclarada de acordo com os padr&#245;es brasileiros de branco, preto ou pardo. A presen&#231;a de eventos cardiovasculares pr&#233;vios foi definida por hist&#243;ria positiva de acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) ou infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) relatado pelo participante ou familiar e/ou quando presente no prontu&#225;rio. A taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular (TFG) foi estimada pela equa&#231;&#227;o de Cockcroft-Gault (GFRe-CG).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Para os indiv&#237;duos com sobrepeso ou obesidade, utilizou-se o fator de corre&#231;&#227;o sugerido por Saracino et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> (GFRe-CGcorrected) A fun&#231;&#227;o renal foi considerada anormal quando TFG&lt;60 ml/min. Para a classifica&#231;&#227;o de sobrepeso e obesidade foi considerado o valor de &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) maior que 25 e 30kg/m<sup>2</sup>, respectivamente.</p>
      <p>Como parte do protocolo de atendimento e seguimento, no m&#237;nimo uma Monitora&#231;&#227;o Ambulatorial da Press&#227;o Arterial (MAPA) &#233; realizada para avaliar a possibilidade do efeito do avental branco como causa de poss&#237;vel pseudorresist&#234;ncia ao tratamento da HAS. Para avaliar a ades&#227;o &#224; terapia, utilizou-se o question&#225;rio de Morisky (MMAS-8). O n&#237;vel de ades&#227;o foi determinado pela pontua&#231;&#227;o resultante da soma de todos os acertos: alta ades&#227;o (8 pontos), m&#233;dia ades&#227;o (6 a &lt;8 pontos) e baixa ades&#227;o (&lt;6 pontos).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>Para an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica, foram utilizados o software Microsoft Office Excel 2010 e o SPSS (vers&#227;o 20.0). Foi realizada uma an&#225;lise descritiva univariada das caracter&#237;sticas da popula&#231;&#227;o investigada e uma an&#225;lise bivariada (teste do &#967;<sup>2</sup> de Pearson) para estimar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre a vari&#225;vel dependente (HR ou HRf) e a vari&#225;vel independente principal (Presen&#231;a de Aterosclerose, Hipertrofia Ventricular Esquerda e Eventos Cardiovasculares &#8212; IAM ou AVC). As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas estudas (PAS, PAD, tempo de diagn&#243;stico de HAS e tempo de seguimento ambulatorial) apresentaram distribui&#231;&#227;o normal pelo teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov e foram comparadas entre os grupos HR e HRf atrav&#233;s do teste t de <italic>Student</italic> n&#227;o pareado. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas t&#234;m suas frequ&#234;ncias representadas em percentuais e as vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas s&#227;o apresentadas em suas m&#233;dias e desvio-padr&#227;o. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia admitido foi de 5%.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>Foram avaliados 146 pacientes, dos quais 68,7% eram do sexo feminino e 88,4% eram de ascend&#234;ncia africana (pardos e negros), com m&#233;dia de idade de 61,8&#177;12,1 anos. A m&#233;dia de tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o foi de 21,2&#177;12,5 anos (mediana=18 anos), e os pacientes eram acompanhados no ambulat&#243;rio h&#225; uma m&#233;dia de 11,1&#177;8,5 anos (mediana=10 anos). Houve alta preval&#234;ncia de fatores de risco para doen&#231;a cardiovascular: 34,2% dos indiv&#237;duos apresentou <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic> , 69,4% dislipidemia, 36,1% obesidade, 38,3% hist&#243;ria de tabagismo e 61% risco moderado/alto risco para eventos cardiovasculares pelo ERF. Hist&#243;ria de IAM pr&#233;vio foi encontrada em 21,8% dos participantes e acidente vascular cerebral em 19,9%. Anormalidade da fun&#231;&#227;o renal (TFG&lt;60mL/min) foi identificada em 34,2%. A PAS foi considerada controlada em 29,5% e a PAD em 50,4% da popula&#231;&#227;o total estudada, com m&#233;dia de 152,1&#177;28,0 e 88,0&#177;7,6 mmHg, respectivamente, para PAS e PAD. Os participantes utilizaram uma m&#233;dia de 4,8&#177;1,1 agentes anti-hipertensivos, sendo que 80,8% deles receberam prescri&#231;&#227;o da combina&#231;&#227;o recomendada de inibidores da ECA ou BRA + BCC + diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico, independentemente da associa&#231;&#227;o com outras drogas. Ades&#227;o boa ou moderada &#224; terapia de acordo com o question&#225;rio MMAS-8 foi encontrada em 61% dos pacientes.</p>
      <p>Ap&#243;s a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos participantes de acordo com a forma fenot&#237;pica de apresenta&#231;&#227;o da HAS, 51% foram categorizados como HRf. A idade foi significativamente menor entre os pacientes com HRf quando comparados aos pacientes com HR (m&#233;dia de idade=59,4&#177;11,7 anos <italic>versus</italic> 64,1&#177;12,2 anos, respectivamente, p=0,02). A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> mostra a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes de acordo com a classifica&#231;&#227;o como HR ou HRf. Em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o, o grupo HRf apresentou maior propor&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos com idade at&#233; 60 anos, dislipidemia e hist&#243;ria de AVC. Al&#233;m disso, o grupo HRf apresentou m&#233;dias mais altas de PA, e o tempo m&#233;dio de diagn&#243;stico de HAS tendeu a ser maior em pacientes com HRf; no entanto, isso n&#227;o alcan&#231;ou signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas sociodemogr&#225;ficas e cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes atendidos em um centro de refer&#234;ncia, de acordo com a hipertens&#227;o resistente ou refrat&#225;ria</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="17%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="3">Caracter&#237;sticas</th>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th colspan="2">Hipertens&#227;o</th>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th>HR</th>
                <th>HRf</th>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th style="font-weight:normal">N</th>
                <th style="font-weight:normal">%</th>
                <th>%</th>
                <th>%</th>
                <th style="font-weight:normal">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Idade (anos)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>At&#233; 60</td>
                <td align="center">69</td>
                <td align="center">46,9</td>
                <td align="center">38,0</td>
                <td align="center">59,2</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>60 ou mais</td>
                <td align="center">75</td>
                <td align="center">51,0</td>
                <td align="center">62,0</td>
                <td align="center">40,8</td>
                <td align="center">0,012<sup>*</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Sexo</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Masculino</td>
                <td align="center">46</td>
                <td align="center">31,3</td>
                <td align="center">32,9</td>
                <td align="center">31,0</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Feminino</td>
                <td align="center">100</td>
                <td align="center">68,7</td>
                <td align="center">67,1</td>
                <td align="center">69,0</td>
                <td align="center">0,724</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Etnia</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Brancos</td>
                <td align="center">12</td>
                <td align="center">8,2</td>
                <td align="center">12,9</td>
                <td align="center">4,3</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Negros</td>
                <td align="center">60</td>
                <td align="center">40,8</td>
                <td align="center">41,4</td>
                <td align="center">41,4</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pardos</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
                <td align="center">47,6</td>
                <td align="center">45,7</td>
                <td align="center">54,3</td>
                <td align="center">0,17<sup>&#8224;</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>IMC (kg/m</bold>
                  <sup>
                    <bold>2</bold>
                  </sup>
                  <bold>)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o obeso</td>
                <td align="center">86</td>
                <td align="center">58,5</td>
                <td align="center">62,3</td>
                <td align="center">61,2</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Obeso</td>
                <td align="center">53</td>
                <td align="center">36,1</td>
                <td align="center">37,7</td>
                <td align="center">38,8</td>
                <td align="center">0,898<sup>&#8225;</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Diabetes Mellitus</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">86</td>
                <td align="center">58,9</td>
                <td align="center">56,9</td>
                <td align="center">69,0</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sim</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
                <td align="center">34,2</td>
                <td align="center">43,1</td>
                <td align="center">31,0</td>
                <td align="center">0,144</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Tabagismo</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">87</td>
                <td align="center">59,6</td>
                <td align="center">58,2</td>
                <td align="center">63,9</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sim</td>
                <td align="center">54</td>
                <td align="center">37,0</td>
                <td align="center">41,8</td>
                <td align="center">36,1</td>
                <td align="center">0,869</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Dislipidemia</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">34</td>
                <td align="center">23,1</td>
                <td align="center">33,3</td>
                <td align="center">16,2</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sim</td>
                <td align="center">102</td>
                <td align="center">69,4</td>
                <td align="center">66,7</td>
                <td align="center">83,8</td>
                <td align="center">0,021</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>TFG&lt;60mL/min</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">79</td>
                <td align="center">54,1</td>
                <td align="center">65,5</td>
                <td align="center">65,6</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sim</td>
                <td align="center">41</td>
                <td align="center">34,2</td>
                <td align="center">34,5</td>
                <td align="center">34,4</td>
                <td align="center">0,275</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>Escore de Risco de Framingham</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Baixo risco</td>
                <td align="center">45</td>
                <td align="center">30,8</td>
                <td align="center">31,3</td>
                <td align="center">33,8</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Moderado/Alto risco</td>
                <td align="center">89</td>
                <td align="center">61,0</td>
                <td align="center">68,7</td>
                <td align="center">66,2</td>
                <td align="center">0,753<sup>&#167;</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Ades&#227;o &#224; terap&#234;utica (MMAS 8)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Baixa</td>
                <td align="center">44</td>
                <td align="center">30,1</td>
                <td align="center">33,8</td>
                <td align="center">32,4</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Moderada/Alta</td>
                <td align="center">89</td>
                <td align="center">61.0</td>
                <td align="center">66,2</td>
                <td align="center">67,6</td>
                <td align="center">0,855<sup>//</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>IAM pr&#233;vio</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">104</td>
                <td align="center">71,2</td>
                <td align="center">78,5</td>
                <td align="center">77,9</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sim</td>
                <td align="center">29</td>
                <td align="center">19,9</td>
                <td align="center">21,5</td>
                <td align="center">22,1</td>
                <td align="center">0,942</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>AVC pr&#233;vio</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">105</td>
                <td align="center">71,9</td>
                <td align="center">87,7</td>
                <td align="center">12,3</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sim</td>
                <td align="center">29</td>
                <td align="center">19,9</td>
                <td align="center">69,6</td>
                <td align="center">30,4</td>
                <td align="center">0,011</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Uso da tr&#237;ade (BRA/IECA+BCC+Diur&#233;tico)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
                <td align="center">20,4</td>
                <td align="center">25,4</td>
                <td align="center">9,9</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sim</td>
                <td align="center">116</td>
                <td align="center">79,6</td>
                <td align="center">74,6</td>
                <td align="center">90,1</td>
                <td align="center">0,015</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>HR: hipertens&#227;o resistente; HRf: hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; TFG: taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular; MMAS 8: question&#225;rio de Morisky; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio; AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; BRA: bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina; BCC: bloqueador do canal de c&#225;lcio. <sup>*</sup>Valor de P para distribui&#231;&#227;o de 60 anos ou mais ou menores de 60 anos entre HR versus HRf; <sup>&#8224;</sup>Valor de p para distribui&#231;&#227;o da etnia entre HR versus HRf; <sup>&#8225;</sup>Valor de P para distribui&#231;&#227;o de obesos (IMC&#8805;30) e n&#227;o obesos (IMC&lt;30) entre HR versus HRf; <sup>&#167;</sup>Valor de p para distribui&#231;&#227;o de baixo risco e moderado/alto risco pelo Escore de Risco de Framingham entre HR versus HRf; <sup>//</sup>Valor de p para distribui&#231;&#227;o de baixa ades&#227;o e moderada/alta ades&#227;o pelo escore de Morisky entre HR versus HRf.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica, tempo de diagn&#243;stico e tempo de seguimento dos pacientes atendidos em um centro de refer&#234;ncia, de acordo com a hipertens&#227;o resistente ou refrat&#225;ria</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="3">Caracter&#237;sticas</th>
                <th colspan="2">Hipertens&#227;o</th>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>HR</th>
                <th>HRf</th>
                <th>Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>M&#233;dia (DP)</th>
                <th>M&#233;dia (DP)</th>
                <th> </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>PAS (mmHg)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">145,8 (24,8)</td>
                <td align="center">158,7 (29,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,008</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>PAD (mmHg)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">84,3 (14,1)</td>
                <td align="center">92,0 (20,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,012</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico de HAS (anos)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">19,2 (11,9)</td>
                <td align="center">23,12 (13,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,078</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Tempo de acompanhamento (anos)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">10,7 (6,1)</td>
                <td align="center">11,38 (10,3)</td>
                <td align="center">0,665</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>
                <italic>PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; HR: hipertens&#227;o resistente; HRf: hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria; HAS: hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica; DP: desvio padr&#227;o.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso de anti-hipertensivos, houve maior propor&#231;&#227;o de uso de BRA e, portanto, menor propor&#231;&#227;o de uso de IECA. Houve tamb&#233;m uma maior frequ&#234;ncia de uso de BCC e betabloqueadores em indiv&#237;duos com HRf, quando comparados &#224; HR ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ). A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref> mostra que o uso da combina&#231;&#227;o de ACEi/BRA+BCC+diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico foi significativamente maior em pacientes com HRf. A espironolactona foi utilizada por 49,3% dos participantes. Entre os pacientes que utilizaram um diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico, 34,5% dos pacientes usaram clortalidona como op&#231;&#227;o. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3</xref> mostra que o uso de clortalidona e espironolactona tamb&#233;m foi significativamente maior entre indiv&#237;duos com HRf.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; <italic>Propor&#231;&#227;o do uso de medica&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva, de acordo com hipertens&#227;o resistente ou refrat&#225;ria. IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina; BRA: bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina; BCC: bloqueador do canal de c&#225;lcio; B-Bloq: betabloqueador; HR: hipertens&#227;o resistente; HRf: hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria.</italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-01-0031-90218-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; <italic>Propor&#231;&#227;o de uso concomitante de drogas anti-hipertensivas (tr&#237;ade Inibidor da Convers&#227;o da Angiotensina ou Bloqueador do Receptor da Angiotensina + Bloqueador do Canal de C&#225;lcio + Diur&#233;tico), de acordo com hipertens&#227;o resistente ou refrat&#225;ria. HR: hipertens&#227;o resistente; HRf: hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria; P=0,015; para diferen&#231;a de distribui&#231;&#227;o do uso da tr&#237;ade de anti-hipertensivos (IECA ou BRA+BCC+Diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico) entre HR versus HRf.</italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-01-0031-90218-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>
              <italic>Propor&#231;&#227;o de uso concomitante de clortalidona e espironolactona, de acordo com hipertens&#227;o resistente ou refrat&#225;ria. HR: hipertens&#227;o resistente; HRf: hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria; P &lt; 0,001; para diferen&#231;a de frequ&#234;ncia do uso de clortalidona entre HR versus HRf; P &lt; 0,001; para diferen&#231;a de frequ&#234;ncia do uso de espironolactona entre HR versus HRf.</italic>
            </title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-01-0031-90218-gf03.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>O grupo de indiv&#237;duos predominantemente de ascend&#234;ncia africana com HR &#233; uma popula&#231;&#227;o com alto RCV, o que &#233; mostrado por uma alta propor&#231;&#227;o de participantes (51%) categorizados como HRf, uma apresenta&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica associada a uma maior gravidade de HAS de acordo com estudos pr&#233;vios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> A preval&#234;ncia de HRf foi estimada em um n&#250;mero limitado de estudos, variando de cerca de 3% em uma popula&#231;&#227;o geral de indiv&#237;duos com HAS a at&#233; 31%, em indiv&#237;duos com HR verdadeira com acompanhamento em uma cl&#237;nica especializada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Esses estudos, no entanto, n&#227;o usaram uma defini&#231;&#227;o padr&#227;o de HRf. Sabe-se que a predomin&#226;ncia de etnias negras e pardas est&#225; relacionada &#224; gravidade da hipertens&#227;o e provavelmente contribuiu para a alta preval&#234;ncia de HRf em nossa amostra.</p>
      <p>A etnia negra tem sido frequentemente associada &#224; HR. Cushman et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> relataram uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre etnia afro-americana e resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo, ao avaliar dados do estudo ALLHAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Essa associa&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m foi descrita no estudo brasileiro ELSA, onde a etnia negra foi associada &#224; HR em uma popula&#231;&#227;o em tratamento para HAS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Por sua vez, com base nos dados da coorte do estudo REGARDS, onde a etnia afro-americana foi o principal preditor de HR, Calhoun et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> relataram que, em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; HR, as raz&#245;es de preval&#234;ncia para HRf foram significativamente maiores em negros (RP=3,00; IC 95%=1,68-5,37).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Esses dados apoiam nossos achados de uma alta preval&#234;ncia de HRf em uma popula&#231;&#227;o com a maioria dos indiv&#237;duos de ascend&#234;ncia africana. A predomin&#226;ncia de pardos e negros em nossa amostra pode ser atribu&#237;da ao fato de se tratar de um ambulat&#243;rio p&#250;blico, atendendo &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o de baixa renda, que em nossa regi&#227;o &#233; composta por uma maioria de etnias pardas e negras.</p>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia de obesidade (36,1%), hist&#243;ria de tabagismo (37%), <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic> (34,2%) e dislipidemia (69,4%) reflete uma popula&#231;&#227;o de alto RCV, como seria de se esperar em indiv&#237;duos com HR. Esse alto RCV em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m &#233; demonstrado pela avalia&#231;&#227;o do ERF, onde 61% dos indiv&#237;duos foram categorizados como risco moderado/alto. Esses achados s&#227;o consistentes com outros estudos que demonstraram associa&#231;&#227;o de HR com sexo feminino, idade avan&#231;ada e obesidade<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Calhoun et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> relataram um ERF m&#233;dio de 17,5% em pacientes com HRf e 11,7% em pacientes com HR, com risco de eventos coronarianos e acidente vascular cerebral em 10 anos de 20,8% em HRf e 16,2% em indiv&#237;duos com HR, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Tamb&#233;m contribuindo para o aumento do RCV na popula&#231;&#227;o de nosso estudo, houve uma alta preval&#234;ncia de fun&#231;&#227;o renal anormal, demonstrada por uma TFG estimada de &lt;60ml/min em 34,2% dos indiv&#237;duos e uma alta propor&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares pr&#233;vios (IAM e AVC). Isso sugere que a presen&#231;a de les&#227;o em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo deve ser frequente nesses pacientes. Muntner et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> comparando participantes do estudo ALLHAT com e sem HR, tamb&#233;m observaram alto risco de doen&#231;a coronariana (RR=1,44; IC95%=1,18-1,76), AVC (RR=1,57; IC95%=1,18-2,08) e doen&#231;a renal em est&#225;gio terminal (RR=1,95; IC95%=1,11-3,41) naqueles com HR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em nosso estudo, &#224; semelhan&#231;a de outras publica&#231;&#245;es,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> houve uma preval&#234;ncia significativamente maior de AVC pr&#233;vio em pacientes com HRf, que tiveram PA m&#233;dias significativamente maiores e uma maior frequ&#234;ncia de dislipidemia. A frequ&#234;ncia de outros fatores de risco, bem como ERF e ades&#227;o terap&#234;utica por MMAS-8 foram semelhantes nos dois subgrupos. Esses dados sugerem que a persist&#234;ncia da PA elevada, provavelmente mais do que os demais fatores de RCV, parece ter um papel fundamental nesse desfecho desfavor&#225;vel nos portadores de HRf. A hiperatividade simp&#225;tica, mecanismo proposto para a persist&#234;ncia da PA n&#227;o controlada em pacientes com HRf,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> poderia estar associada a uma maior incid&#234;ncia de AVC nesses indiv&#237;duos. A dislipidemia e sua associa&#231;&#227;o &#237;ntima com a aterosclerose tamb&#233;m podem contribuir negativamente para o progn&#243;stico de pacientes com HRf e precisam ser melhor avaliadas em outros estudos.</p>
      <p>Apesar da alta m&#233;dia de idade, observou-se uma propor&#231;&#227;o significativamente menor de indiv&#237;duos com mais de 60 anos entre os pacientes com HRf, apesar da tend&#234;ncia de maior tempo de diagn&#243;stico de HAS dentre estes. Achados semelhantes foram descritos em outros estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Esses dados provavelmente est&#227;o associados aos poss&#237;veis mecanismos imbricados na fisiopatologia da HRf, atribuindo a esse grupo de indiv&#237;duos caracter&#237;sticas que implicam no desenvolvimento mais precoce e maior gravidade da HAS.</p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao predom&#237;nio do sexo feminino, baseado no estudo ALLHAT, Cushman et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> encontraram maior dificuldade no controle da HAS em mulheres negras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Em um estudo populacional realizado na Su&#233;cia, Holmqvist et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m relataram que as mulheres tinham uma maior preval&#234;ncia de HR, exceto quando avaliaram especificamente o subgrupo com HR controlada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> O presente achado de maior propor&#231;&#227;o de mulheres em nossa amostra de indiv&#237;duos com HR deve ser interpretado com cautela, pois pode ser superestimada pelos aspectos culturais brasileiros, uma vez que as mulheres tendem a buscar mais os cuidados com a sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> No entanto, esse fato pode identificar um problema que mere&#231;a maior aten&#231;&#227;o, a fim de incentivar uma melhor avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e da terapia anti-hipertensiva utilizada nestes indiv&#237;duos. Em contraste, alguns autores relataram uma maior preval&#234;ncia de HR entre os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; terapia, observou-se um grande uso das v&#225;rias classes de anti-hipertensivos dispon&#237;veis e uma grande propor&#231;&#227;o de participantes utilizou a combina&#231;&#227;o de IECA ou BRA, BCC e diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico, conforme recomendado na literatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Essa combina&#231;&#227;o foi prescrita com maior frequ&#234;ncia em pacientes com HRf, provavelmente devido &#224; maior dificuldade em obter o controle da PA nesses pacientes. As prescri&#231;&#245;es de espironolactona como o quarto f&#225;rmaco a ser introduzido na terapia anti-hipertensiva bem como a op&#231;&#227;o da clortalidona como o diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico de escolha, devido &#224; sua a&#231;&#227;o mais prolongada, tamb&#233;m t&#234;m sido recomendadas na literatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Alguns autores at&#233; sugerem que o uso dessas drogas deva participar dos crit&#233;rios de defini&#231;&#227;o para HRf.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Em nosso estudo, aproximadamente um ter&#231;o dos pacientes estava recebendo clortalidona, enquanto quase metade usavam espironolactona. Ambos foram usados significativamente com maior frequ&#234;ncia em pacientes com HRf (47,9% dos pacientes com HRf usavam clortalidona e 77,5% espironolactona, versus 11,5 e 22,5% dos HR, respectivamente), o que pode corroborar uma prov&#225;vel classifica&#231;&#227;o adequada de HRf em uma boa parte dos pacientes. A relativamente baixa prefer&#234;ncia pela clortalidona como diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico pode ser justificada pelo fato de ser um servi&#231;o p&#250;blico e a droga n&#227;o participar da lista governamental de distribui&#231;&#227;o gratuita de anti-hipertensivos, enquanto a hidroclorotiazida &#233; distribu&#237;da gratuitamente. Tamb&#233;m &#233; poss&#237;vel que alguns dos participantes n&#227;o estejam em uso de espironolactona devido a efeitos adversos e/ou contraindica&#231;&#245;es para esse medicamento. Entretanto, a frequ&#234;ncia de uso de clortalidona e espironolactona em nosso trabalho foi, de certa forma, semelhante &#224; de outros estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> No entanto, h&#225; uma clara necessidade de estimular o uso mais frequente desses medicamentos, que, de acordo com as evid&#234;ncias atuais, seriam mais adequados para o tratamento da HR.</p>
      <p>Por sua caracter&#237;stica transversal, nosso estudo tem algumas limita&#231;&#245;es, uma vez que n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel estabelecer uma rela&#231;&#227;o de causalidade e temporalidade entre algumas associa&#231;&#245;es encontradas, por exemplo, uma maior preval&#234;ncia de AVC entre aqueles com HRf. Os dados aqui apresentados, no entanto, t&#234;m valor em levantar hip&#243;teses a serem comprovadas em estudos longitudinais com maior poder estat&#237;stico. Essa amostra de conveni&#234;ncia &#233; derivada de uma popula&#231;&#227;o atendida em um ambulat&#243;rio de refer&#234;ncia para pacientes hipertensos graves, com alto RCV, e pode ter superestimado as preval&#234;ncias e associa&#231;&#245;es descritas. Outro aspecto importante refere-se ao fato de que alguns pacientes com pseudorresist&#234;ncia podem ter sido inclu&#237;dos, o que tamb&#233;m poderia superestimar as preval&#234;ncias encontradas. No entanto, esses pacientes s&#227;o acompanhados em um ambulat&#243;rio espec&#237;fico, a maioria por um longo per&#237;odo (m&#233;dia acima de 10 anos) e com tempo m&#233;dio de diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o por mais de 20 anos. Eles passam por reavalia&#231;&#245;es frequentes, incluindo a MAPA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> e o escore de Morisky,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> para avaliar o efeito do avental branco e a ades&#227;o &#224; terapia, respectivamente. Isso poderia minimizar a ocorr&#234;ncia de indiv&#237;duos com pseudorresist&#234;ncia nessa amostra. Alguns outros importantes estudos, contudo, t&#234;m avaliado pacientes com resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento da HAS, definindo-os como hipertensos resistentes ou refrat&#225;rios aparentes e encontrado associa&#231;&#245;es relevantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> A classifica&#231;&#227;o dos indiv&#237;duos quanto &#224; cor da pele foi autorreferida, conforme recomendado em estudos em popula&#231;&#245;es brasileiras que envolvem essa vari&#225;vel,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> poderia levar a vieses, devido &#224; grande miscigena&#231;&#227;o &#233;tnica da popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira. Contudo, o perfil &#233;tnico da amostra estudada &#233; condizente com o da popula&#231;&#227;o local e com o da que historicamente frequenta a unidade de sa&#250;de onde foi realizado o estudo. A estratifica&#231;&#227;o dos indiv&#237;duos como resistentes ou refrat&#225;rios levou em considera&#231;&#227;o o controle da PA e o n&#250;mero de medicamentos prescritos, desconsiderando se estavam ou n&#227;o utilizando clortalidona e espironolactona, o que pode, segundo alguns autores, ter superestimado a preval&#234;ncia de HRf.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>Indiv&#237;duos com HR acompanhados nesse ambulat&#243;rio de refer&#234;ncia para tratamento de casos graves de HAS eram em sua maioria afrodescendentes, com alta preval&#234;ncia de fatores de risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e, consequentemente, alto risco cardiovascular segundo o ERF. Encontramos uma alta propor&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos com a forma mais grave de apresenta&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica de resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento da hipertens&#227;o, definida como HRf, que apresentou maior frequ&#234;ncia de dislipidemia e hist&#243;ria de AVC compat&#237;vel com uma frequ&#234;ncia possivelmente maior de dano a &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo. Outros estudos mais abrangentes devem ser realizados para melhorar o conhecimento sobre as caracter&#237;sticas dessa popula&#231;&#227;o de alto risco, contribuindo para a defini&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias adequadas de preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
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        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de Cristiano Macedo pela Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal da Bahia.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica do Hospital Ana Nery sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 138.371. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento</p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Clinical Characteristics of Resistant vs. Refractory Hypertension in a Population of Hypertensive Afrodescendants</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3745-0753</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Macedo</surname>
            <given-names>Cristiano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Aras</surname>
            <given-names>Roque</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Macedo</surname>
            <given-names>Isabella Sales de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Professor Edgard Santos &#8211; Cardiologia, Salvador- BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo - Faculdade de Medicina, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing Address:</bold> Cristiano Macedo &#8226; Hospital Universit&#225;rio Professor Edgard Santos &#8211; Cardiologia - Rua Augusto Viana, s/n. Postal Code 40110-040, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil E-mail: crbm@terra.com.br</corresp>
        <fn id="fn1001">
          <p>Author contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Macedo C, Aras Junior R; Acquisition of data: Macedo C, Macedo IS; Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Macedo C, Aras Junior R, Macedo IS; Statistical analysis and writing of the manuscript: Macedo C.</p>
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p>Afrodescendants have been associated with a greater severity of arterial hypertension and a higher incidence of cardiovascular complications. Characteristics in the presentation of resistant hypertension (RH) or refractory hypertension (RfH), specifically in this ethnic group, have not been properly studied.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p>The study compares clinical and epidemiological characteristics and prevalence of cardiovascular events in people of African descent diagnosed with RH or RfH.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p>Cross-sectional study carried out in a referral clinic for patients with severe hypertension. The level of significance was 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p>146 consecutive patients were evaluated, of which 68.7% were female. The average age was 61.8 years, with 88.4% of Afrodescendants (mixed race or black). 51% had RfH. There was a high prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors: 34.2% of subjects had diabetes, 69.4% dyslipidemia, 36.1% obesity, and 38.3% history of smoking. Reduced renal function was seen in 34.2%. Previous cardiovascular events occurred in 21.8% for myocardial infarction and in 19.9% for stroke. The Framingham&#8217;s risk score was moderate/high at 61%. RfH patients were younger (mean age 59.38&#177;11.69 years versus 64.10&#177;12.23 years, p=0.02), had more dyslipidemia (83.8 versus 66.7%, p=0.021), and stroke (30.4 versus 12.3%, p=0.011) when compared to those with RH. The use of a combination of ACEi/ARB+CCB+Diuretic, chlortalidone and spironolactone was also more frequent in individuals with RfH.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p>Africandescendant people with RH had a high cardiovascular risk, a high prevalence of RfH, a higher frequency of dyslipidemia and stroke, compatible with a high incidence of injury to target organs. (Arq Bras Cardiol.2020; 115(1):31-39)</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Hypertension/complications</kwd>
        <kwd>African Continental Ancestry Grup/genetic</kwd>
        <kwd>Comparative Stuy</kwd>
        <kwd>Epidemiology</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>Stroke</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>The high proportion of individuals with systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) who do not reach the appropriate therapeutic goals has a direct impact on morbidity, mortality, disability and health costs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Even with the proper use of antihypertensive drugs, a significant number of patients remain with high blood pressure (BP), a condition characterized as Resistant Hypertension (HR) and defined as the persistence of high BP despite the use of three antihypertensive drugs of different classes, or when BP control occurs only with the use of four or more drugs, always including a thiazide diuretic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A subgroup of patients with HR exhibits a phenotypic presentation of apparently greater severity, in which BP is not controlled even with the use of five or more drugs, a situation currently defined as Refractory Hypertension (RfH).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The use of an association of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitor (ACEI) or Angiotensin Receptor Blocker (BRA), Calcium Channel Blocker (BCC) and thiazide diuretic has been recommended as the basis of HR pharmacological therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The estimate of the real prevalence of RH is uncertain, hampered by the presence of factors that determine pseudoresistance, such as inadequate adherence to therapy and the white coat effect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Some studies report a proportion of 11 to 33% of resistant hypertensive patients among those with SAH varying according to the characteristics of the population and the definition criteria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> The prevalence of RfH among patients with RH is even less known, estimated between 3 and 31% in some studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pathophysiological differences in the mechanisms involved in resistance to the treatment of hypertension in RH and RfH have been described.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Some studies point to an apparent worse prognosis, higher prevalence of injury to target organs and increased risk of cardiovascular events in patients with RH when compared to patients with non-resistant hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> In black individuals, hypertension tends to manifest itself more severely, presenting greater difficulty in control and greater probability of complications and damage to target organs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> There is, however, a gap in the literature in the evaluation of the association between RH and individuals of African descent,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> which can be attributed to genetic, environmental or even local factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The present study aims, therefore, to compare clinical and epidemiological characteristics and prevalence of cardiovascular events in people of African descent diagnosed with RH or RfH. Improving the knowledge of these characteristics in this specific population, including demographic, social, ethnic aspects, conditions of access to health services and distribution of medicines, may contribute to the planning of strategies aimed at reducing the negative impact of this important clinical condition on the health of these individuals.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>This is a cross-sectional study, carried out in a reference outpatient clinic for Severe Hypertensive Cardiovascular Disease at a University Hospital in the city of Salvador, Bahia. The population consisted of adult patients with a diagnosis of RH followed up regularly at the clinic between November 2012 and December 2015. The sample was made by convenience, being consecutively selected during routine visits all patients who agreed to participate in the study, signing an informed consent form. The study was approved by the local Ethics Committee, complying with resolution 466/12 of the National Supplementary Health Agency ( <italic>Ag&#234;ncia Nacional de Sa&#250;de Suplementar</italic> &#8211; ANS).</p>
        <p>Patients with uncontrolled BP (systolic blood pressure &#8211; SBP 140mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure &#8211; DBP 90mmHg) were considered as having HR, despite the use of three antihypertensive drugs with synergistic actions at the maximum recommended and tolerated doses, being one of them preferably a thiazide diuretic, or those with controlled BP, using 4 synergistic antihypertensive drugs and in adequate doses, including also a thiazide diuretic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Patients with SBP&#8805;140mmHg and/or DBP&#8805;90mmHg using five or more classes of antihypertensive drugs were considered to have RfH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Blood pressure was measured during a routine medical consultation, after five minutes of rest, with the back supported in a sitting position, legs not crossed and the arm supported at heart level. Two measurements were taken, one before and one after the interview, with a minimum interval of five minutes. The average of the two measurements was used as a reference value for the patient&#8217;s BP. The measurements were performed with an Omron HEM 711 DLX automatic oscillometric sphygmomanometer, validated by the British Hypertension Society (BHS) and the Association for Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A trained team collected, through a structured interview and review of medical records, information on demographic and clinical data, clinical-cardiological evaluation, history of cardiovascular events, medications, laboratory tests and factors related to lifestyle. Cardiovascular risk (CVR) was estimated by the Framingham risk score (FRS). Ethnicity was self-declared according to Brazilian standards of white, black or brown. The presence of previous cardiovascular events was defined by a positive history of stroke (stroke) or acute myocardial infarction (AMI) reported by the participant or family member and/or when present in the medical record. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) was estimated using the Cockcroft-Gault equation (GFRe-CG).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> For individuals with overweight or obesity, the correction factor suggested by Saracino et al. (GFRe-CGcorrected).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Renal function was considered abnormal when GFR&lt;60 ml/min. For the classification of overweight and obesity, the value of body mass index (BMI) greater than 25 and 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, respectively, was considered.</p>
        <p>As part of the care and follow-up protocol, at least an Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring (ABPM) is performed to assess the possibility of the white coat effect as a cause of possible pseudo-resistance to the treatment of SAH. The Morisky questionnaire (MMAS-8) was used to assess adherence to therapy. The level of adherence was determined by the score resulting from the sum of all correct answers: high adherence (8 points), average adherence (6 to &lt;8 points) and low adherence (&lt;6 points).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>For statistical analysis, Microsoft Office Excel 2010 software and SPSS (version 20.0) were used. A univariate descriptive analysis of the characteristics of the investigated population and a bivariate analysis (Pearson&#8217;s &#967;<sup>2</sup>test) were performed to estimate the association between the dependent variable (RH or RfH) and the main independent variable (Presence of Atherosclerosis, Left Ventricular Hypertrophy and Events Cardiovascular &#8211; AMI or stroke). The continuous variables studied (SBP, DBP, time of diagnosis of SAH and time of outpatient follow-up) showed normal distribution by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and were compared between the RH and RfH groups using the unpaired Student&#8217;s <italic>t</italic> -test. Categorical variables have their frequencies represented in percentages and continuous variables are presented in their means and standard deviation. The level of significance was set at 5%.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>146 patients were evaluated, of which 68.7% were female and 88.4% were of African descent (mixed race and black), with a mean age of 61.8 &#177; 12.1 years. The mean time since the diagnosis of hypertension was 21.2 &#177; 12.5 years (median = 18 years), and patients had been followed at the clinic for an average of 11.1 &#177; 8.5 years (median = 10 years) ). There was a high prevalence of risk factors for cardiovascular disease: 34.2% of individuals had <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic> , 69.4% dyslipidemia, 36.1% obesity, 38.3% history of smoking and 61% moderate risk/high risk for events cardiovascular diseases by the FRS. History of previous AMI was found in 21.8% of participants and stroke in 19.9%. Abnormality of renal function (GFR&lt;60mL/min) was identified in 34.2%. SBP was considered controlled in 29.5% and DBP in 50.4% of the total population studied, with an average of 152.1&#177;28.0 and 88.0&#177;7.6 mmHg, respectively, for SBP and DBP. Participants used an average of 4.8&#177;1.1 antihypertensive agents, 80.8% of whom received a prescription for the recommended combination of ACE inhibitors or ARB + CCB + thiazide diuretic, regardless of the association with other drugs. Good or moderate adherence to therapy according to the MMAS-8 questionnaire was found in 61% of patients.</p>
        <p>After evaluating the participants according to the phenotypic presentation of SAH, 51% were categorized as RfH. Age was significantly lower among patients with RfH when compared to patients with RH (mean age=59.4&#177;11.7 years <italic>versus</italic> 64.1&#177;12.2 years, respectively, p=0.02). <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> shows the distribution of patients according to the classification as RH or RfH. In our population, the RfH group had a higher proportion of individuals aged up to 60 years, dyslipidemia and a history of stroke. In addition, the RfH group had higher mean BP, and the mean time of diagnosis of SAH tended to be longer in patients with RfH; however, this did not reach statistical significance ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of patients seen at a referral center, according to resistant or refractory hypertension</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="17%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3">Characteristics</th>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th colspan="2">Hypertension</th>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>RH</th>
                  <th>RfH</th>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal">N</th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal">%</th>
                  <th>%</th>
                  <th>%</th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal">p-value</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Age (years)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Up to 60</td>
                  <td align="center">69</td>
                  <td align="center">46.9</td>
                  <td align="center">38.0</td>
                  <td align="center">59.2</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60 or more</td>
                  <td align="center">75</td>
                  <td align="center">51.0</td>
                  <td align="center">62.0</td>
                  <td align="center">40.8</td>
                  <td align="center">0.012<sup>*</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Gender</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Male</td>
                  <td align="center">46</td>
                  <td align="center">31.3</td>
                  <td align="center">32.9</td>
                  <td align="center">31.0</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Female</td>
                  <td align="center">100</td>
                  <td align="center">68.7</td>
                  <td align="center">67.1</td>
                  <td align="center">69.0</td>
                  <td align="center">0.724</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Ethnicity</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>White</td>
                  <td align="center">12</td>
                  <td align="center">8.2</td>
                  <td align="center">12.9</td>
                  <td align="center">4.3</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Black</td>
                  <td align="center">60</td>
                  <td align="center">40.8</td>
                  <td align="center">41.4</td>
                  <td align="center">41.4</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Brown</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                  <td align="center">47.6</td>
                  <td align="center">45.7</td>
                  <td align="center">54.3</td>
                  <td align="center">0.17<sup>&#8224;</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>BMI (kg/m</bold>
                    <sup>
                      <bold>2</bold>
                    </sup>
                    <bold>)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Not obese</td>
                  <td align="center">86</td>
                  <td align="center">58.5</td>
                  <td align="center">62.3</td>
                  <td align="center">61.2</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Obese</td>
                  <td align="center">53</td>
                  <td align="center">36.1</td>
                  <td align="center">37.7</td>
                  <td align="center">38.8</td>
                  <td align="center">0.898<sup>&#8225;</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Diabetes Mellitus</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>No</td>
                  <td align="center">86</td>
                  <td align="center">58.9</td>
                  <td align="center">56.9</td>
                  <td align="center">69.0</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                  <td align="center">34.2</td>
                  <td align="center">43.1</td>
                  <td align="center">31.0</td>
                  <td align="center">0.144</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Smoking</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>No</td>
                  <td align="center">87</td>
                  <td align="center">59.6</td>
                  <td align="center">58.2</td>
                  <td align="center">63.9</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">54</td>
                  <td align="center">37.0</td>
                  <td align="center">41.8</td>
                  <td align="center">36.1</td>
                  <td align="center">0.869</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Dyslipidemia</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>No</td>
                  <td align="center">34</td>
                  <td align="center">23.1</td>
                  <td align="center">33.3</td>
                  <td align="center">16.2</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">102</td>
                  <td align="center">69.4</td>
                  <td align="center">66.7</td>
                  <td align="center">83.8</td>
                  <td align="center">0.021</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>GFR&lt;60mL/min</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>No</td>
                  <td align="center">79</td>
                  <td align="center">54.1</td>
                  <td align="center">65.5</td>
                  <td align="center">65.6</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">41</td>
                  <td align="center">34.2</td>
                  <td align="center">34.5</td>
                  <td align="center">34.4</td>
                  <td align="center">0.275</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="2">
                    <bold>Framingham&#8217;s risk score</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Low risk</td>
                  <td align="center">45</td>
                  <td align="center">30.8</td>
                  <td align="center">31.3</td>
                  <td align="center">33.8</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Moderate/high risk</td>
                  <td align="center">89</td>
                  <td align="center">61.0</td>
                  <td align="center">68.7</td>
                  <td align="center">66.2</td>
                  <td align="center">0.753<sup>&#167;</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Adherence to therapy (MMAS 8)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Low</td>
                  <td align="center">44</td>
                  <td align="center">30.1</td>
                  <td align="center">33.8</td>
                  <td align="center">32.4</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Moderate/High</td>
                  <td align="center">89</td>
                  <td align="center">61.0</td>
                  <td align="center">66.2</td>
                  <td align="center">67.6</td>
                  <td align="center">0.855<sup>//</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Previous AMI</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>No</td>
                  <td align="center">104</td>
                  <td align="center">71.2</td>
                  <td align="center">78.5</td>
                  <td align="center">77.9</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">29</td>
                  <td align="center">19.9</td>
                  <td align="center">21.5</td>
                  <td align="center">22.1</td>
                  <td align="center">0.942</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Previous stroke</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>No</td>
                  <td align="center">105</td>
                  <td align="center">71.9</td>
                  <td align="center">87.7</td>
                  <td align="center">12.3</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">29</td>
                  <td align="center">19.9</td>
                  <td align="center">69.6</td>
                  <td align="center">30.4</td>
                  <td align="center">0.011</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Use of the triad (ARB/ACEi+CCB+Diuretic)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>No</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                  <td align="center">20.4</td>
                  <td align="center">25.4</td>
                  <td align="center">9.9</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">116</td>
                  <td align="center">79.6</td>
                  <td align="center">74.6</td>
                  <td align="center">90.1</td>
                  <td align="center">0.015</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic>RH: resistant hypertension; RfH: refractory hypertension; BMI: body mass index; GFR: glomerular filtration rate; MMAS 8: morisky questionnaire; AMI: acute myocardial infarction; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; ACEi: angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor; CCB: Calcium channel blocker.<sup>*</sup>P-value for distribution of subjects aged 60 years old or older or less than 60 years into RH versus RfH;<sup>&#8224;</sup>P-value for ethnicity distribution into RH versus RfH;<sup>&#8225;</sup>P-value for the distribution of obese (BMI&#8805;30) and non-obese (BMI&lt;30) subjects into RH versus RfH;<sup>&#167;</sup>P-value for low and moderate/high risk distribution using the Framingham&#8217;s Risk Score into RH versus RfH;<sup>//</sup>P-value for low and moderate/high adherence distribution by the Morisky score into RH versus RfH.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, diagnosis time and follow-up time for patients seen at a referral center, according to resistant or refractory hypertension</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3">Characteristics</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Hypertension</th>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>RH</th>
                  <th>RfH</th>
                  <th>p- value</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>Mean (SD)</th>
                  <th>Mean (SD)</th>
                  <th> </th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>SBP (mmHg)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">145.8 (24.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">158.7 (29.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.008</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>DBP (mmHg)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">84.3 (14.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">92.0 (20.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.012</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Time since SAH diagnosis (years)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">19.2 (11.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">23.12 (13.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.078</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Follow-up time (years)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">10.7 (6.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">11.38 (10.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.665</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>
                  <italic>SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; RH: resistant hypertension; RfH: refractory hypertension; SAH: systemic arterial hypertension; SD: standard deviation.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Regarding the use of antihypertensive drugs, there was a higher proportion of use of ARB and, therefore, a lower proportion of use of ACEi. There was also a higher frequency of use of CCB and beta-blockers in individuals with RfH, when compared to RH ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> ). <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref> shows that the use of the ACEi/BRA+BCC+thiazide diuretic combination was significantly higher in patients with RfH. Spironolactone was used by 49.3% of the participants. Among patients who used a thiazide diuretic, 34.5% of patients used chlortalidone as an option. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3</xref> shows that the use of chlortalidone and spironolactone was also significantly higher among individuals with RfH.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Proportion of use of antihypertensive medication, according to resistant or refractory hypertension. ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; BRA: angiotensin receptor blocker; BCC: calcium channel blocker; B-Block: beta blocker; RH: resistant hypertension; HRf: refractory hypertension.</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-01-0031-90218-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Proportion of concomitant use of antihypertensive drugs (Angiotensin Conversion Inhibitor triad or Angiotensin Receptor Blocker + Calcium Channel Blocker + Diuretic), according to resistant or refractory hypertension. HR: resistant hypertension; HRf: refractory hypertension; P = 0.015; for difference in distribution of the use of the triad of antihypertensive drugs (ACEI or BRA + BCC + Thiazide diuretic) between HR versus HRf.</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-01-0031-90218-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03001">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>
                <italic>Proportion of concomitant use of chlortalidone and spironolactone, according to resistant or refractory hypertension. HR: resistant hypertension; HRf: refractory hypertension; P &lt;0.001; for the difference in frequency of the use of chlortalidone between HR versus HRf; P &lt;0.001; for difference in frequency of spironolactone use between HR versus HRf.</italic>
              </title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-115-01-0031-90218-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>The group of individuals predominantly of African descent with RH is a population with high CVR, which is shown by a high proportion of participants (51%) categorized as RfH, a phenotypic presentation associated with greater severity of SAH according to previous studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> The prevalence of RfH has been estimated in a limited number of studies, ranging from about 3% in a general population of individuals with SAH to up to 31%, in individuals with true RH with follow-up in a specialized clinic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> These studies, however, did not use a standard definition of RfH. It is known that the predominance of black and brown ethnicities is related to the severity of hypertension and probably contributed to the high prevalence of RfH in our sample.</p>
        <p>Black ethnicity has often been associated with RH. Cushman et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> reported an association between African American ethnicity and resistance to antihypertensive treatment, when evaluating data from the ALLHAT study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> This association was also described in the Brazilian study ELSA, where black ethnicity was associated with RH in a population undergoing treatment for SAH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> In turn, based on data from the REGARDS study cohort, where African-American ethnicity was the main predictor of RH, Calhoun et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> reported that, compared to RH, the prevalence ratios for RfH were significantly higher in blacks (PR=3.00; 95% CI=1.68-5.37).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> These data support our findings of a high prevalence of RfH in a population with the majority of individuals of African descent. The predominance of browns and blacks in our sample can be attributed to the fact that it is a public outpatient clinic, serving the low-income population, which in our region is composed of a majority of mixed and black ethnicities.</p>
        <p>The prevalence of obesity (36.1%), history of smoking (37%), <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic> (34.2%), and dyslipidemia (69.4%) reflects a population with a high CVR, as would be expected in individuals with RH. This high CVR in our population is also demonstrated by the evaluation of the FRS, where 61% of individuals were categorized as at moderate/high risk. These findings are consistent with other studies that demonstrated an association of RH with female gender, advanced age, and obesity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Calhoun et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> reported an average FRS of 17.5% in patients with RfH and 11.7% in patients with RH, with risk of coronary events and stroke in 10 years of 20.8% in RfH and 16.2% in individuals with RH, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Also contributing to the increase in CVR in the population of our study, there was a high prevalence of abnormal renal function, demonstrated by an estimated GFR of &lt;60ml/min in 34.2% of the individuals and a high proportion of previous cardiovascular events (AMI and stroke). This suggests that the presence of target organ damage should be frequent in these patients. Muntner et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> by comparing ALLHAT study participants with and without RH, also observed a high risk of coronary disease (RR=1.44; 95% CI=1.18-1.76), stroke (RR=1.57; 95% CI= 1.18-2.08), and end-stage kidney disease (RR=1.95; 95% CI=1.11-3.41) in those with RH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In our study, like other publications,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> there was a significantly higher prevalence of previous stroke in patients with RfH, who had significantly higher mean BP and a higher frequency of dyslipidemia. The frequency of other risk factors, as well as FRS and therapeutic adherence by MMAS-8 were similar in the two subgroups. These data suggest that the persistence of high BP, probably more than the other factors of CVR, seems to have a fundamental role in this unfavorable outcome in patients with RfH. Sympathetic hyperactivity, a mechanism proposed for the persistence of uncontrolled BP in patients with RfH,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> could be associated with a higher incidence of stroke in these individuals. Dyslipidemia and its intimate association with atherosclerosis can also contribute negatively to the prognosis of patients with HRf and need to be better evaluated in other studies.</p>
        <p>Despite the high average age, a significantly lower proportion of individuals over 60 years of age was observed among patients with RfH, despite the trend for longer time of SAH diagnosis among them. Similar findings have been described in other studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> These data are probably associated with the possible mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of RfH, attributing to this group of individuals characteristics that imply in the earlier development and greater severity of SAH.</p>
        <p>Regarding the predominance of females, based on the ALLHAT study, Cushman et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> found greater difficulty in controlling SAH in black women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> In a population study carried out in Sweden, Holmqvist et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> also reported that women had a higher prevalence of RH, except when they specifically assessed the subgroup with controlled RH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> The present finding of a higher proportion of women in our sample of individuals with HR should be interpreted with caution, as it can be overestimated by Brazilian cultural aspects, since women tend to seek more health care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> However, this fact can identify a problem that deserves more attention, in order to encourage a better clinical evaluation and the antihypertensive therapy used in these individuals. In contrast, some authors reported a higher prevalence of RH among men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Regarding therapy, there was a wide use of the various classes of antihypertensive drugs available and a large proportion of participants used the combination of ACEi or ARB, CCB and thiazide diuretic, as recommended in the literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> This combination was prescribed more frequently in patients with RfH, probably due to the greater difficulty in obtaining BP control in these patients. The prescriptions of spironolactone as the fourth drug to be introduced in antihypertensive therapy as well as the option of chlortalidone as the thiazide diuretic of choice, due to its longer duration, have also been recommended in the literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Some authors even suggest that the use of these drugs should participate in the definition criteria for RfH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> In our study, approximately one third of patients were receiving chlortalidone, while almost half were using spironolactone. Both were used significantly more frequently in patients with RfH (47.9% of patients with RfH used chlortalidone and 77.5% spironolactone, <italic>versus</italic> 11.5 and 22.5% of those with RH, respectively), which may corroborate a probable adequate RfH classification in a good number of patients. The relatively low preference for chlortalidone as a thiazide diuretic can be justified by the fact that it is a public service and the drug does not participate in the government list of free distribution of antihypertensive drugs, while hydrochlorothiazide is distributed free of charge. It is also possible that some of the participants are not using spironolactone due to adverse effects and/or contraindications for this medication. However, the frequency of use of chlortalidone and spironolactone in our work was somewhat similar to that of other studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> However, there is a clear need to encourage more frequent use of these drugs, which, according to current evidence, would be more suitable for the treatment of RH.</p>
        <p>Due to its transversal characteristic, our study has some limitations, since it is not possible to establish a causality and temporality relationship between some associations found, for example, a higher prevalence of stroke among those with RfH. The data presented here, however, have value in raising hypotheses to be proven in longitudinal studies with greater statistical power. This convenience sample is derived from a population seen at a referral clinic for severe hypertensive patients, with high CVR, and may have overestimated the prevalences and associations described. Another important aspect refers to the fact that some patients with pseudoresistance may have been included, which could also overestimate the prevalences found. However, these patients are followed up in a specific outpatient clinic, most of them for a long period (over 10 years, on average) and with an average time of diagnosis of hypertension for more than 20 years. They undergo frequent reassessments, including ABPM<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> and the Morisky score,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> to assess the white coat effect and adherence to therapy, respectively. This could minimize the occurrence of individuals with pseudoresistance in this sample. Some other important studies, however, have evaluated patients with resistance to the treatment of SAH, defining them as resistant or apparent refractory hypertensive individuals and have found relevant associations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> The classification of individuals according to skin color was self-reported, as recommended in studies in Brazilian populations that involve this variable,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> could lead to bias, due to the great ethnic mix of the Brazilian population. However, the ethnic profile of the sample studied is consistent with that of the local population and that of those who historically attend the health unit where the study was conducted. The stratification of individuals as resistant or refractory took into account the control of BP and the number of drugs prescribed, disregarding whether or not they were using chlortalidone and spironolactone, which, according to some authors, may have overestimated the prevalence of RfH.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>Individuals with RH followed up at this referral clinic for the treatment of severe cases of SAH were mostly of African descent, with a high prevalence of risk factors for cardiovascular diseases and, consequently, high cardiovascular risk according to the FRS. We found a high proportion of individuals with the most severe form of phenotypic resistance to the treatment of hypertension, defined as RfH, who had a higher frequency of dyslipidemia and a history of stroke compatible with a possibly higher frequency of damage to target organs. Further more comprehensive studies should be carried out to improve knowledge about the characteristics of this high-risk population, contributing to the definition of appropriate prevention and treatment strategies.</p>
      </sec>
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    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Cistiano Macedo, from Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal da Bahia.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hospital Ana Nery under the protocol number 138.371. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of Funding</p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
