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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">F5BDXsNWzSjbwzqfV6WPQbF</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2020000600805</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2020005007208</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200279</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200279</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>O Cora&#231;&#227;o e a COVID-19: O que o Cardiologista Precisa Saber</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1418-9361</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Isabela Bispo Santos da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3339-8866</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bittar</surname>
            <given-names>Cristina Salvadori</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rizk</surname>
            <given-names>Stephanie Itala</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ara&#250;jo</surname>
            <given-names>Ant&#244;nio Everaldo de</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Karen Alc&#226;ntara Queiroz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Machado</surname>
            <given-names>Theuran Inahja Vicente</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7309-5333</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Andrade</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Thereza de Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gonz&#225;lez</surname>
            <given-names>Thalita Barbosa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ar&#233;valo</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea Nataly Galarza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Juliano Pinheiro de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bacal</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0737-6188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lacerda</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Guimar&#227;es de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0711-7995</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barberato</surname>
            <given-names>Silvio Henrique</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chagas</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Carlos Palandri</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4505-3344</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ramires</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Antonio Franchini</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5645-2055</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hajjar</surname>
            <given-names>Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo - Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeir</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro &#8211; Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o de Medicina Tropical Doutor Heitor Vieira Dourado</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Manaus</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AM</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o de Medicina Tropical Doutor Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">CardioEco Centro de Diagn&#243;stico Cardiovascular</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">CardioEco Centro de Diagn&#243;stico Cardiovascular, Curitiba, PR - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Quanta Diagn&#243;stico </institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Quanta Diagn&#243;stico &#8211; Ecocardiografia, Curitiba, PR - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o do ABC</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Santo Andr&#233;</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Funda&#231;&#227;o do ABC, Santo Andr&#233;, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>8</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o Hajjar &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 251. CEP 01246-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>ludhmila@usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Costa IBSS, Bacal F, Oliveira GMM, Lacerda MVG, Barberato SH, Chagas ACP, Rochitte CE, Ramires JAF,Kalil Filho R, Hajjar LA; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Costa IBSS, Bittar CS, Rizk SI, Everaldo Filho A, Queiroz KA, Machado TIV, Andrade FTA, Ar&#233;valo ANG, Gonz&#225;lez TB, Almeida JP; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Costa IBSS, Bittar CS, Rizk SI, Everaldo Filho A, Queiroz KA, Machado TIV, Andrade FTA, Lopes MACQ, Ar&#233;valo ANG, Gonz&#225;lez TB, Almeida JP; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Costa IBSS, Lopes MACQ, Bacal F, Oliveira GMM, Lacerda MVG, Barberato SH, Chagas ACP, Rochitte CE, Ramires JAF,Kalil Filho R, Hajjar LA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesses</p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>11</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>114</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>805</fpage>
      <lpage>816</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Frente &#224; pandemia da doen&#231;a causada pelo novo coronav&#237;rus (COVID-19), o manejo do paciente com fator de risco e/ou doen&#231;a cardiovascular &#233; desafiador nos dias de hoje. As complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares evidenciadas nos pacientes com COVID-19 resultam de v&#225;rios mecanismos, que v&#227;o desde les&#227;o direta pelo v&#237;rus at&#233; complica&#231;&#245;es secund&#225;rias &#224; resposta inflamat&#243;ria e tromb&#243;tica desencadeada pela infec&#231;&#227;o. O cuidado adequado do paciente com COVID-19 exige aten&#231;&#227;o ao sistema cardiovascular em busca de melhores desfechos.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Coronavirus</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-a9</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Cora&#231;&#227;o/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Pandemias</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome de Desconforto Respirat&#243;rio do Adulto</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
        <kwd>Assist&#234;ncia ao Paciente</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="67"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O mundo hoje vive a pandemia da doen&#231;a causada pelo novo coronav&#237;rus (COVID-19), afec&#231;&#227;o que surgiu em dezembro de 2019 na cidade de Wuhan, prov&#237;ncia de Hubei, na China.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Os casos iniciais foram descritos como pneumonia de r&#225;pida evolu&#231;&#227;o para s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo (SDRA).</p>
      <p>Esse novo v&#237;rus, denominado SARS-CoV-2 (do ingl&#234;s: <italic>severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2</italic> ), &#233; o s&#233;timo coronav&#237;rus identificado at&#233; o momento e difere dos outros coronav&#237;rus que causam resfriado comum e pneumonia leve (229E, OC43, NL63 e HKU1). O SARS-CoV-2 assemelha-se aos v&#237;rus da s&#237;ndrome aguda respirat&#243;ria grave por coronav&#237;rus (SARS) e da s&#237;ndrome aguda respirat&#243;ria grave do Oriente M&#233;dio (MERS), ocorridas na China em 2002-2003 e no Oriente M&#233;dio em 2012, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Embora existam semelhan&#231;as filogen&#233;ticas entre o SARS-CoV-2 e os coronav&#237;rus zoon&#243;ticos que causaram a SARS e a MERS, a transmissibilidade do SARS-CoV-2 &#233; muito maior, contribuindo para uma dissemina&#231;&#227;o da infec&#231;&#227;o at&#233; dez vezes mais r&#225;pida que a do SARS-CoV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> O n&#250;mero b&#225;sico de reprodu&#231;&#227;o (R0) da doen&#231;a &#233; de 2,78, ou seja, cada indiv&#237;duo infectado tem a capacidade de transmitir a doen&#231;a para em m&#233;dia 3 pessoas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Em estudo recente publicado na revista <italic>Science</italic> , em modelo matem&#225;tico, postulou-se que cerca de 85% das transmiss&#245;es da COVID-19 ocorram por indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em decorr&#234;ncia da r&#225;pida dissemina&#231;&#227;o, a COVID-19 foi declarada uma pandemia pela Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de (OMS) em 11 de mar&#231;o de 2020.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Atualmente, a COVID-19 afeta mais de 181 pa&#237;ses em todo o mundo e o n&#250;mero de casos cresce de forma exponencial. At&#233; 2 de abril de 2020, havia um total de 1.015.403 casos registrados globalmente e 53.030 mortes, o que resulta em uma taxa de letalidade de 5,2%. Na mesma data, o Brasil computava 8.044 casos confirmados e 324 &#243;bitos, com mortalidade de 4%. Dados brasileiros iniciais mostram que 90% dos &#243;bitos ocorreram em pessoas com idade maior de 60 anos e 84% dos pacientes apresentavam pelo menos uma comorbidade, sendo que 51% tinham doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV) e 37,7% tinham diabetes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A an&#225;lise de 44.672 casos confirmados de COVID-19 em Wuhan evidenciou uma taxa de letalidade geral de 2,3%. Por&#233;m, a letalidade foi maior em DCV (10,5%), diabetes (7,3%) e hipertens&#227;o arterial (6%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m foram descritas complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares decorrentes da COVID-19, como inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica (20% dos casos), arritmias (16%), miocardite (10%), al&#233;m de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) e choque (at&#233; 5% dos casos).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; auxiliar o cl&#237;nico, o emergencista, o cardiologista e o intensivista na assist&#234;ncia aos pacientes com COVID-19, propondo um algoritmo de avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular para a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de complica&#231;&#245;es, al&#233;m de recomendar protocolos de tratamento de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares nesses pacientes.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Consequ&#234;ncias da COVID-19 no sistema cardiovascular</title>
        <p>Dados recentes da pandemia da COVID-19 descrevem que o v&#237;rus pode afetar o sistema cardiovascular com manifesta&#231;&#245;es diversas como inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica, IC, s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo (ST), arritmias, miocardite e choque.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> O dano ao sistema cardiovascular &#233; provavelmente multifatorial e pode resultar tanto de um desequil&#237;brio entre alta demanda metab&#243;lica e baixa reserva card&#237;aca quanto de inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica e trombog&#234;nese, podendo ainda ocorrer por les&#227;o direta card&#237;aca pelo v&#237;rus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Esse dano ao sistema cardiovascular decorrente da COVID-19 ocorre principalmente nos pacientes com fatores de risco cardiovascular (idade avan&#231;ada, hipertens&#227;o e diabetes) ou com DCV pr&#233;via.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> sumariza a resposta inflamat&#243;ria gerada a partir da infec&#231;&#227;o viral que leva &#224; les&#227;o do sistema cardiovascular e dos pulm&#245;es, com eleva&#231;&#227;o de d&#237;mero-D, procalcitonina, prote&#237;na C reativa, ferritina, troponina e NT-proBNP, e que culmina em complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares e &#243;bito.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>
                <italic>Coronav&#237;rus e o Cora&#231;&#227;o. Os pacientes com fatores de risco e/ou doen&#231;a cardiovascular s&#227;o mais propensos a desenvolver formas graves e complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas a COVID-19. O quadro pulmonar manifesta-se inicialmente por s&#237;ndrome gripal (com tosse e febre), evolui para pneumonia (dispneia, hipoxemia, taquipneia) e, em alguns casos, para s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo. A resposta do organismo ao v&#237;rus leva a um quadro de inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, na qual se observa eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios (PCR, procalcitonina, d&#237;mero-d, IL-6, ferritina, DHL) e de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica / disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca (troponina/NT-proBNP), que predisp&#245;e a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda, miocardite, trombose e arritmias. As complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares pioram a resposta do organismo ao v&#237;rus, levando a choque, fal&#234;ncia de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os e morte.</italic>
              </title>
              <p>
                <italic>AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria; DHL: desidrogenase l&#225;ctica; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; PCR: prote&#237;na C reativa; IL-6: interleucina-6; SDRA: s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo.</italic>
              </p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-05-0805-00279-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Na resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica provocada pela COVID-19, observam-se concentra&#231;&#245;es mais altas de citocinas que est&#227;o relacionadas &#224; inj&#250;ria do sistema cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> O aumento de troponina &#233; acompanhado de eleva&#231;&#227;o de outros marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, como d&#237;mero-D, ferritina, interleucina-6 (IL-6), desidrogenase l&#225;ctica (DHL), prote&#237;na C reativa, procalcitonina e contagem de leuc&#243;citos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Zhou et al. mostraram que os pacientes que evolu&#237;ram a &#243;bito apresentaram n&#237;veis mais altos de d&#237;mero-D, IL-6, ferritina e DHL, al&#233;m de linfopenia, sugerindo que esses marcadores inflamat&#243;rios possam ter implica&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas. D&#237;mero-D na admiss&#227;o maior que 1&#181;g/ml foi preditor independente de mortalidade nessa popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Al&#233;m da eleva&#231;&#227;o dos marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, nos pacientes com COVID-19 tamb&#233;m se observa aumento nos n&#237;veis de BNP ou NT-proBNP, marcadores de disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. Pacientes com inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica tiveram n&#237;veis mais altos de NT-proBNP, com correla&#231;&#227;o linear positiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Esse achado refor&#231;a que aqueles que apresentam inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica est&#227;o mais propensos a desenvolver comprometimento da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Numa meta-an&#225;lise de quatro estudos, incluindo um total de 341 pacientes, os n&#237;veis de troponina I foram significativamente maiores naqueles com a forma grave da COVID-19 em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles com a forma n&#227;o grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Os pacientes com inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica internaram mais em unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI) (22,2% vs. 2,0%), tiveram maior incid&#234;ncia de IC (52% vs 12%) e maior taxa de &#243;bito (59% vs. 1%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Shi et al. avaliaram 416 pacientes internados por COVID-19 e observaram que a inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica, definida pela eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de troponina maior que o percentil 99 do valor de refer&#234;ncia, &#233; complica&#231;&#227;o frequente (19,7%) nesses pacientes e est&#225; associada com aumento de mortalidade e SDRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> No modelo de an&#225;lise multivariada, inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica e SDRA foram preditores independente de mortalidade (HR de 4,26 e 7,89, respectivamente).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Em estudo recente publicado por Guo et al., 27,8% de 187 pacientes apresentavam eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina. A mortalidade foi de 7,6% em pacientes sem DCV e com n&#237;veis normais de troponina, de 13,3% em pacientes com DCV e troponina normal, de 37,5% em pacientes sem DCV e troponina elevada, e de 69,4% em pacientes com DCV e troponina alterada. Houve forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre n&#237;veis altos de troponina e aumento de prote&#237;na C reativa e de NT-proBNP. Pacientes com n&#237;veis aumentados de troponina tiveram maior incid&#234;ncia de arritmias ventriculares e maior necessidade de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, como IC, miocardite, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdico, choque e arritmias, tamb&#233;m s&#227;o frequentes em pacientes com inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica. Em uma coorte com 150 pacientes, 7% deles desenvolveram dano mioc&#225;rdio e IC irrevers&#237;veis, associados a eleva&#231;&#245;es significativas dos n&#237;veis de troponina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Arritmias malignas (taquicardia ventricular com degenera&#231;&#227;o para fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica) foram observadas com maior frequ&#234;ncia nos grupos com eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de troponina (11,5% vs 5,2%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Pacientes com COVID-19, quando apresentam a forma grave da doen&#231;a, podem evoluir rapidamente para quadro com importante comprometimento cardiovascular, choque e fal&#234;ncia m&#250;ltipla de &#243;rg&#227;os. Nas coortes chinesas com pacientes internados, at&#233; 20% evolu&#237;ram para quadros graves com choque.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Miocardite pode estar relacionada a fal&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda nos pacientes com COVID-19. Foram descritos casos de miocardite relacionada &#224; COVID-19, como miocardite fulminante, de r&#225;pida evolu&#231;&#227;o e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular importante, associada a edema mioc&#225;rdico difuso. Altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas e eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina estavam presentes nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Apesar de n&#227;o haver relato de ST diretamente relacionada &#224; COVID-19, postula-se que alguns casos de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular nesses pacientes possam decorrer dessa s&#237;ndrome. A ST &#233; complica&#231;&#227;o frequente em indiv&#237;duos com resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica exacerbada, funcionando o estresse e a gravidade da infec&#231;&#227;o viral como gatilho para a ST.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Intera&#231;&#227;o do SARS-CoV-2 com a enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina 2</title>
        <p>Alguns estudos sugerem que a les&#227;o ao sistema cardiovascular secund&#225;ria ao v&#237;rus possa estar relacionada &#224; enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina 2 (ECA2).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> A ECA2 est&#225; relacionada ao sistema imune e presente em alta concentra&#231;&#227;o no pulm&#227;o e no cora&#231;&#227;o. A ECA2 regula negativamente o sistema renina angiotensina pela inativa&#231;&#227;o da angiotensina-2 e provavelmente tem um papel protetor contra o desenvolvimento de insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria e sua progress&#227;o. O SARS-CoV-2 cont&#233;m quatro prote&#237;nas estruturais principais: a prote&#237;na <italic>spike</italic> (S), a prote&#237;na nucleocaps&#237;deo (N), a prote&#237;na membrana (M) e o envelope proteico (E). O v&#237;rus liga-se por meio da prote&#237;na <italic>spike</italic> ao receptor da ECA2 e, por meio dessa liga&#231;&#227;o, entra na c&#233;lula hospedeira ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref> ), onde ocorre a inativa&#231;&#227;o da ECA2, o que favorece a les&#227;o pulmonar. Como a ECA2 apresenta concentra&#231;&#245;es elevadas no cora&#231;&#227;o, les&#245;es potencialmente graves ao sistema cardiovascular podem ocorrer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>
                <italic>O SARS-CoV-2 liga-se por meio da prote&#237;na spike da superf&#237;cie viral ao receptor da ECA2 humana ap&#243;s a ativa&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na spike pela TMPRSS2.SARS-CoV: Coronav&#237;rus da s&#237;ndrome respirat&#243;ria aguda grave; SARS-COV-2: Coronav&#237;rus da s&#237;ndrome respirat&#243;ria aguda grave 2; COVID-19: doen&#231;a do coronav&#237;rus 2019; ECA2,:enzima conversora de angiotensina-2; TMPRSS2: serina protease transmembrana-2.</italic>
              </title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-05-0805-00279-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Pacientes com DCV preexistente parecem ter n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos aumentados da ECA2, o que pode contribuir para as manifesta&#231;&#245;es mais graves nessa popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Da mesma forma, indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o arterial apresentariam maior express&#227;o da ECA2 secund&#225;ria ao uso de inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina (IECA) ou bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina II (BRA), o que potencialmente aumentaria a susceptibilidade &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Entretanto, os estudos atuais em humanos apresentaram limita&#231;&#245;es: a) avaliaram um n&#250;mero pequeno de indiv&#237;duos em uso dessas medica&#231;&#245;es, e b) grande parte dos analisados era de idosos, fator confundidor importante, uma vez que a idade avan&#231;ada aumenta a susceptibilidade &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m de esse ser o principal fator de mau progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outro ponto a ser considerado &#233; que, apesar de a ECA2 e a ECA serem enzimas com estruturas hom&#243;logas, os s&#237;tios de ativa&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o distintos e, dessa forma, a inibi&#231;&#227;o da ECA n&#227;o teria efeito direto sobre a atividade da ECA2; essa enzima tem papel bem reconhecido na recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular em pacientes com les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, por sua inibi&#231;&#227;o da atividade da angiotensina II.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Por outro lado, sugere-se que a angiotensina II seja respons&#225;vel pelo dano card&#237;aco do coronav&#237;rus e a administra&#231;&#227;o de ECA2 recombinante normalizaria os n&#237;veis de angiotensina II. Estudos est&#227;o sendo realizados com ECA2 recombinante e com losartana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A recomenda&#231;&#227;o atual &#233; que os IECA e os BRA sejam mantidos nos pacientes que j&#225; est&#227;o em uso regular dessas medica&#231;&#245;es pelo claro benef&#237;cio do controle press&#243;ricos e da diminui&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade naqueles com IC, como evidenciado em estudos randomizados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Nas formas graves da COVID-19, deve-se avaliar individualmente a estabilidade hemodin&#226;mica e a fun&#231;&#227;o renal antes de decidir pela manuten&#231;&#227;o ou suspens&#227;o das medica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A doen&#231;a cardiovascular como grupo de risco para forma grave de COVID-19</title>
        <p>Pacientes com fatores de risco cardiovasculares (idade avan&#231;ada, hipertens&#227;o e diabetes), assim como aqueles com DCV (doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria, cardiomiopatias e doen&#231;a cerebrovascular) est&#227;o suscet&#237;veis a desenvolver a forma grave da doen&#231;a e complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, sendo classificados como grupo de risco. Aproximadamente 80% dos pacientes com a forma grave da doen&#231;a t&#234;m alguma comorbidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> apresenta um resumo dos principais estudos que caracterizam as comorbidades cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes com COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Resumo das caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas dos principais estudos sobre COVID-19</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="17%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Autor</th>
                  <th>N</th>
                  <th>Tipo</th>
                  <th>Idade (anos)</th>
                  <th>Comorbidades</th>
                  <th>Principais achados</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Huang et al. 2020<sup>17</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">41</td>
                  <td align="center">Prospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">49 (41-58)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DM: 8 (20%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- HAS: 6 (15%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DCV: 6 (15%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DPOC: 1 (2%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- C&#226;ncer: 1 (2%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- 13 (32%) interna&#231;&#227;o em UTI</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- 5 (12%) IM, sendo que 4 (31%) foram para UTI</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- 3 (7%) choque e 12 (29%) SDRA</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Mortalidade: 6 (15%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Wang et al. 2020<sup>30</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">69</td>
                  <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">42 (35-62)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- HAS: 9 (13%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DCV: 8 (12%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DM: 7 (10%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DPOC: 4 (6%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- C&#226;ncer: 4 (6%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o: 44 (65.7%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Mortalidade: 5 (7,5%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Pacientes com DM, HAS e DCV apresentavam mais hipoxemia (SatO<sub>2</sub> &lt; 90%) - N&#227;o avaliado IM</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Chen et al. 2020<sup>31</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">99</td>
                  <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">55 (21-82)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DCV: 40 (40%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DM: 12 (12%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- C&#226;ncer: 1 (1%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- 57 (58%) hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, 17 (17%) SDRA, 4 (4%) choque</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Mortalidade: 11 (11%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Dos &#243;bitos, 63% tinham &gt; 60 anos e 33% HAS</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Wang et al. 2020<sup>9</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">138</td>
                  <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">56 (42-68)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- HAS: 43 (31,2%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DCV: 20 (14,5%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DM: 14 (10,1%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- C&#226;ncer: 10 (7,2%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- AVC: 7 (5,1%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- 36 (26%) interna&#231;&#227;o em UTI, preval&#234;ncia elevada de fatores de risco</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- 12 (8,7%) choque, 23 (16,7%) arritmias, 27 (19,6%) SDRA e 10 (7,2%) IM</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Mortalidade: 6 (4,3%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Zhang et al. 2020<sup>29</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">140</td>
                  <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">57 (20&#8211;83)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- HAS: 42 (30%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DM: 17 (12,1%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DAC: 7 (5%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Arritmias:5(3,6%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Comparando grupo grave x n&#227;o grave: mediana idade 64 vs 51.5, p &lt; 0,001 comorbidades 79,3% vs 53,7%, p =0,002 d&#237;mero-D 0,4 vs 0,2, p&lt;0,001</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Guo et al. 2020<sup>10</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">187</td>
                  <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">58,5 (&#177;14,7)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- HAS: 61 (32,6%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DAC: 21 (11,2%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- IC: 8 (4,3%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DM: 28 (15%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DPOC: 4 (2,1%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- C&#226;ncer: 13 (7%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- 52 (27,8%) IM</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Comparando tropo nl x tropo elevada: HAS 27% vs 63,5%, p 0.001 DAC 3% vs 32,7%, p &lt;0.001 IC 0% vs 15,4%, p &lt;0,001</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- 43 mortes, sendo 31 (59,6%) no grupo IM</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Mortalidade: 13,3% DCV sem IM e 69,4% DCV com IM</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Zhou et al 2020<sup>12</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">191</td>
                  <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">56 (46-67)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- HAS: 58 (30%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DM: 36 (19%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DAC: 15 (8%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DPOC: 6 (3%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- C&#226;ncer: 2(1%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- IM: 24/145 (17%), mais elevada em pacientes que evolu&#237;ram a &#243;bito (22,2 [5,6-83,1] vs 3,0 [1,1-5,5], p &lt;0,001)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- IC 44 (23%), choque 38 (20%), SDRA 59 (31%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- 54 (28%) &#243;bitos, 67% com comorbidades</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Shi et al. 2020<sup>11</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">416</td>
                  <td align="center">Prospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">64 (21-95)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- HAS: 127 (30.5%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DM: 60 (14,4%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DAC: 44 (10,6%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- AVC: 22 (5,3%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- IC: 17 (4,1%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- C&#226;ncer: 9 (2,2%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- 82 (19,7%) IM</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Preval&#234;ncia alta de HAS, DM, DAC e IC nos pacientes com IM</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- IM esteve relacionada com maior mortalidade: (42 de 82 [51,2%] vs 15 de 334 [4,5%]; p &lt; 0,001)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- IM esteve associada com SDRA: (48 de 82 [58,5%] vs 49 de 334 [14,7%]; p &lt; 0,001)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Guan et al. 2020<sup>32</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">1099</td>
                  <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">47 (35-58)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DPOC: 12 (1,1%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DM: 81 (7,4%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- HAS: 165 (15%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- DAC: 27 (2,5%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- AVC: 15 (1,4%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- C&#226;ncer: 10 (0,9%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Os pacientes graves: HAS 41 (23,7%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Eleva&#231;&#227;o de CK-MB 90/657 (13,7%) -</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>12 (1,1%) choque, 37 (3,4%) SDRA, 1029 (93,6%) hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es, 55 (5%) admiss&#227;o em UTI</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- Mortalidade: 15 (1,4%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>
                  <italic>DM: diabetes mellitus; HAS: hipertens&#227;o arterial; DCV: doen&#231;a cardiovascular; DPOC: doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica; AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; IM: inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica; nl; normal; tropo: troponina; SDRA: s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio; UTI: unidade de terapia intensiva.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Meta-an&#225;lise recente que incluiu oito estudos da China, com 46.248 pacientes infectados, mostrou que as comorbidades mais prevalentes foram hipertens&#227;o (17 &#177; 7%) e diabetes mellitus (8 &#177; 6%), seguidas por DCV (5 &#177; 4%). Wang et al. avaliaram apenas pacientes hospitalizados por COVID-19 e observaram maior preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o (31,2%), DCV (19,6%) e diabetes (10,1%),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> refor&#231;ando que os indiv&#237;duos com essas comorbidades apresentam forma mais grave da COVID-19, com maior necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar. Esses pacientes evolu&#237;ram com mais hipoxemia e maior necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o em UTI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Idade avan&#231;ada, de modo semelhante, est&#225; relacionada &#224; forma grave da doen&#231;a. A mediana de idade nesses estudos variou de 42 a 64 anos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> sendo maior em pacientes graves (64 vs 51,5).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> A idade tamb&#233;m foi mais elevada nos internados em UTI e naqueles com hipoxemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares tamb&#233;m foram frequentes nos pacientes do grupo de risco. Aqueles com DCV cursam com eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina e maiores taxas de choque e arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Guo et al. avaliaram uma coorte com 187 pacientes e observaram que aqueles com inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica tinham elevada preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o (63%vs 28%), diabetes (30,8% vs 8,9%), doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria (32,7% vs 3%) e IC (15,4% vs 0%), al&#233;m de serem mais idosos (mediana 71,4 anos).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em uma coorte de 191 pacientes, Zhou et al. avaliaram as caracter&#237;sticas daqueles que evolu&#237;ram a &#243;bito comparadas &#224;s daqueles que receberam alta hospitalar. Nessa coorte, os pacientes que evolu&#237;ram a &#243;bito tinham maior preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o (48%), diabetes (31%) e DCV (24%). A idade avan&#231;ada foi preditor independente de mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A taxa de mortalidade aumenta com o avan&#231;ar da idade, sendo de 1,3% nos paciente com idade entre 50 e 59 anos, 3,6% naqueles entre 60 e 69 anos, 8% entre 70 e 79 anos e 14,8% em maiores de 80 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Estudos populacionais mostram taxa de mortalidade geral de 6% em hipertensos, 7,3% em diab&#233;ticos e 10,5% em pacientes com DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outro grupo de risco s&#227;o os pacientes com c&#226;ncer, que apresentam um maior risco de infec&#231;&#227;o devido ao comprometimento das defesas do hospedeiro e &#224;s sequelas do tratamento antineopl&#225;sico. Na China, entre os casos confirmados de COVID-19, a preval&#234;ncia de c&#226;ncer variou de 1% a 7%, sendo esse n&#250;mero superior &#224; incid&#234;ncia geral de c&#226;ncer no pa&#237;s que &#233; de 0,2% (201,7/100.000 pessoas).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Esses pacientes evolu&#237;ram mais para forma grave da doen&#231;a em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles sem c&#226;ncer (39% vs 8%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Entre os indiv&#237;duos com c&#226;ncer submetidos a quimioterapia ou cirurgia recente, 75% desenvolveram doen&#231;a grave em compara&#231;&#227;o com 43% daqueles sem tratamento recente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Algoritmo de avalia&#231;&#227;o do sistema cardiovascular</title>
        <p>Apesar de n&#227;o haver recomenda&#231;&#245;es formais sobre a avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular do paciente com infec&#231;&#227;o suspeita ou confirmada por SARS-CoV-2, acredita-se que seja ben&#233;fica em: a) pacientes que tenham DCV preexistente ou fatores de risco cardiovasculares; b) pacientes que apresentem sinais e sintomas cardiovasculares (dispneia, choque, dor precordial, altera&#231;&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fica ou aumento de &#225;rea card&#237;aca); c) presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#227;o em biomarcadores como d&#237;mero-D, troponina, NT-proBNP e ferritina; e d) pacientes com necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o. Aqueles com DCV s&#227;o mais propensos a sofrer inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV-2 e apresentam maior risco de morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> O cardiologista deve fazer parte do time de cuidado do paciente cr&#237;tico, provendo aux&#237;lio na discuss&#227;o dos casos e no tratamento.</p>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica inicial deve ser realizada por meio de hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica, exame f&#237;sico, dosagem de troponina e eletrocardiograma (ECG). A presen&#231;a de eleva&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de troponina acima do percentil 99 e altera&#231;&#245;es agudas no ECG auxiliam na identifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes de mais alto risco cardiovascular e podem contribuir na decis&#227;o de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar e condu&#231;&#227;o do caso. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3</xref> apresenta um fluxograma proposto para avalia&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca nos casos de COVID-19.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>
                <italic>Fluxograma proposto para avalia&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca do paciente com suspeita de COVID-19. *Idade avan&#231;ada, doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria, doen&#231;a cerebrovascular, hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes mellitus, cardiomiopatia ou portador de arritmia. COVID-19: doen&#231;a do Coronav&#237;rus 2019; DCV: doen&#231;a cardiovascular; ECG +: taquicardia supraventricular ou ventricular, altera&#231;&#245;es de repolariza&#231;&#227;o novas sugestivas de isquemia aguda; ECG -: eletrocardiograma sem altera&#231;&#245;es agudas; ECO: ecocardiograma; mod: moderados; Tropo +: n&#237;veis de troponina maior que o percentil 99 do valor de refer&#234;ncia; Tropo -: n&#237;veis de troponina abaixo do percentil 99; UTI: Unidade de Terapia Intensiva.</italic>
              </title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-05-0805-00279-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>O ECG pode identificar arritmias card&#237;acas malignas, definidas como taquicardia ventricular sustentada induzindo instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica ou fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Altera&#231;&#245;es de repolariza&#231;&#227;o sugestivas de isquemia aguda tamb&#233;m foram observadas, especialmente nos pacientes com miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O ECG tem papel importante na monitoriza&#231;&#227;o do intervalo QTc naqueles em uso de hidroxicloroquina (HCQ) e azitromicina. Ambos os f&#225;rmacos s&#227;o relacionados com o prolongamento do intervalo QT. A associa&#231;&#227;o dos f&#225;rmacos e a presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#227;o hidroeletrol&#237;tica em pacientes com COVID-19 requerem a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o do intervalo QTc. Naqueles internados, deve-se realizar um ECG de 2 a 3 horas ap&#243;s a segunda dose de HCQ e, depois, diariamente. Se o QTc for &gt;60ms em rela&#231;&#227;o ao ECG basal ou valores absolutos &gt;500ms (ou &gt;530-550ms se QRS &gt;120ms), recomenda-se descontinuar azitromicina ou reduzir a dose de HCQ e realizar ECG diariamente. Se o ECG persistir alterado, deve-se avaliar o risco x benef&#237;cio de se manter a medica&#231;&#227;o. Nos pacientes ambulatoriais, com menor risco de complica&#231;&#245;es do alargamento do QTc, deve-se realizar ECG basal 2 a 3 horas ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio da HCQ e no dia 3 da terapia. Se QTc aumentar &gt; 30-60ms ou se valores absolutos QTc &gt;500ms (ou &gt;530-550ms se QRS &gt;120ms), considerar a descontinua&#231;&#227;o da terapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico deve ser o m&#233;todo de escolha inicial para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca nesses pacientes, devendo ser idealmente realizado na emerg&#234;ncia pelo m&#233;todo <italic>point of care</italic> ou din&#226;mico. O ecocardiograma pode demonstrar comprometimento sist&#243;lico e/ou diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e fornece informa&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas que auxiliam no manejo dos pacientes, al&#233;m de permitir o diagn&#243;stico de altera&#231;&#245;es peric&#225;rdicas. Deve ser considerado em todos os grupos de risco ou naqueles que necessitem de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar. Pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular t&#234;m maior probabilidade de precisar de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica e de pior progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> O acompanhamento do paciente cr&#237;tico deve ser feito com ecocardiograma di&#225;rio, avalia&#231;&#227;o rigorosa dos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos e da fun&#231;&#227;o biventricular. Al&#233;m disso, a detec&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular indicar&#225; monitoriza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica invasiva e guiar&#225; o tratamento com suporte inotr&#243;pico e/ou circulat&#243;rio. Nos casos cr&#237;ticos, o ecocardiograma din&#226;mico deve ser realizado diariamente e a cada mudan&#231;a hemodin&#226;mica.</p>
        <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica deve ser considerada em pacientes est&#225;veis e pode auxiliar no diagn&#243;stico diferencial da etiologia da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, que pode estar relacionada a miocardite ou disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica induzida por estresse. O diagn&#243;stico de miocardite segue os crit&#233;rios cl&#225;ssicos j&#225; validados para outras etiologias virais, nas quais podem ser observados edema mioc&#225;rdico e realce tardio mioc&#225;rdico de padr&#227;o n&#227;o isqu&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Manejo do paciente com COVID-19</title>
        <p><bold>Abordagem inicial e suporte intensivo.</bold> O tempo m&#233;dio de in&#237;cio dos sintomas &#233; de 4 a 5 dias, sendo que 97,5% dos contaminados v&#227;o desenvolv&#234;-los em at&#233; 11,5 dias da exposi&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> A maioria dos pacientes (81%) vai apresentar sintomas leves, os principais sendo febre (88%) e tosse (67,7%). Outros menos frequentes s&#227;o diarreia, mialgia, cefaleia e coriza. Aproximadamente 20% dos pacientes evoluir&#227;o de forma grave, com dispneia, taquipneia, satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio &#8804;93% e infiltrado pulmonar, e 5% desses apresentar&#227;o um quadro cr&#237;tico, com sinais de choque e fal&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Os pacientes assintom&#225;ticos ou oligossintom&#225;ticos e clinicamente est&#225;veis n&#227;o necessitam de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, em sua maioria. Aqueles com sintomas graves e evolu&#231;&#227;o desfavor&#225;vel v&#227;o requerer interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar.</p>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial deve incluir: ECG, gasometria arterial com lactato, d&#237;mero-D, hemograma completo, avalia&#231;&#227;o de fun&#231;&#245;es renal e hep&#225;tica, fatores de coagula&#231;&#227;o, troponina, creatinofosfoquinase, ferritina, DHL, IL-6 e eletr&#243;litos (s&#243;dio, magn&#233;sio, pot&#225;ssio e c&#225;lcio). Deve-se realizar radiografia de t&#243;rax e considerar a tomografia computadorizada (TC) de t&#243;rax em alguns casos. A TC mostra anormalidades em 85% dos pacientes, observando-se, em 75% deles, envolvimento pulmonar bilateral, comumente caracterizado por &#225;reas de vidro fosco e consolida&#231;&#245;es subpleurais e perif&#233;ricas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Aqueles com indica&#231;&#227;o de interna&#231;&#227;o dever&#227;o ser submetidos a uma ecocardiografia na sala de emerg&#234;ncia ou nas primeiras horas da admiss&#227;o hospitalar.</p>
        <p>O curso cl&#237;nico &#233; vari&#225;vel e potencialmente grave, pois 3,4% dos pacientes evoluem para SDRA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> uma propor&#231;&#227;o que aumenta nas coortes daqueles internados pela doen&#231;a (19,6%) e naqueles com inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica (58,5%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A defini&#231;&#227;o de SDRA &#233; baseada nos crit&#233;rios de Berlim: in&#237;cio agudo de les&#227;o pulmonar, opacidades pulmonares bilaterais na radiografia de t&#243;rax e edema pulmonar. A defini&#231;&#227;o de Berlim da SDRA estratifica a gravidade da les&#227;o pulmonar com base na rela&#231;&#227;o entre a press&#227;o parcial arterial de oxig&#234;nio (PaO<sub>2</sub>) e a fra&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio inalado (FiO<sub>2</sub>), medida em uma press&#227;o expirat&#243;ria final pulmonar (PEEP) ou press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua nas vias a&#233;reas (CPAP) &#8805; 5 cmH<sub>2</sub>O. Considera-se SDRA grave quando PaO<sub>2</sub>/FiO<sub>2</sub> &#233; &lt;100.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica &#233; recomendada na presen&#231;a de hipoxemia apesar da oferta de oxig&#234;nio. Estrat&#233;gias de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica protetora devem ser empregadas, volume corrente de 6 ml/kg, com press&#227;o de plat&#244; &lt; 30 cmH<sub>2</sub>O e PEEP ajustada conforme FiO<sub>2</sub>. Os pacientes costumam apresentar boa complac&#234;ncia pulmonar apesar da hipoxemia grave. Naqueles com SDRA e PaO<sub>2</sub>/FiO<sub>2</sub> &#8804; 150, deve-se considerar a posi&#231;&#227;o de prona&#231;&#227;o. Se houver dissincronia significativa com a ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, bloqueio neuromuscular pode ser realizado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A monitoriza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica deve ser cogitada em todos os pacientes internados em UTI e com sinais de choque. A avalia&#231;&#227;o com monitores de d&#233;bito minimamente invasivos e a avalia&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco &#233; uma estrat&#233;gia a se considerar em associa&#231;&#227;o com a ecocardiografia din&#226;mica e com a an&#225;lise de marcadores de hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual, como par&#226;metros cl&#237;nicos e a dosagem do lactato arterial, do deltaPCO<sub>2</sub> e do excesso de bases. Na presen&#231;a de choque, a norepinefrina &#233; o f&#225;rmaco de escolha, sendo recomendada a associa&#231;&#227;o da vasopressina se forem necess&#225;rias doses crescentes de noradrenalina para otimiza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Sugere-se associa&#231;&#227;o da dobutamina nos casos de disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Recomenda-se o in&#237;cio imediato de norepinefrina, mesmo no acesso perif&#233;rico, evitando-se a hipotens&#227;o prolongada, que resulta em elevadas taxas de mortalidade.</p>
        <p>A oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea (ECMO) pode ser necess&#225;ria em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria aguda refrat&#225;ria &#224;s medidas iniciais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> A princ&#237;pio, a indica&#231;&#227;o &#233; de uma ECMO venovenosa para recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Quando associada a acometimento cardiovascular importante em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular grave e/ou choque cardiog&#234;nico, a ECMO venoarterial pode ser considerada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> A ECMO deve ser iniciada antes da instala&#231;&#227;o de fal&#234;ncia m&#250;ltipla de &#243;rg&#227;os.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
        <p><bold>Tratamento espec&#237;fico.</bold> At&#233; o momento, o tratamento do paciente cr&#237;tico tem sido fundamentalmente pautado em medidas de suporte &#224;s disfun&#231;&#245;es org&#226;nicas. Desde o in&#237;cio da pandemia, buscou-se um tratamento antiviral eficaz para a COVID-19. Na China e na It&#225;lia, nos casos graves, de uma maneira individualizada a depender da institui&#231;&#227;o, medicamentos como cloroquina (CQ) ou HCQ, lopinavir/ritonavir, remdesivir e favipiravir t&#234;m sido utilizados. Remdesivir e favipiravir s&#227;o antivirais de amplo espectro, cuja efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a no manejo de pacientes com COVID-19 est&#227;o sendo avaliadas em ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> A combina&#231;&#227;o lopinavir/ritonavir, utilizada no manejo da infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV, demonstrou, em estudo recente randomizado e controlado, ser ineficaz na infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-CoV-2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O difosfato de CQ e o sulfato de HCQ s&#227;o medica&#231;&#245;es sabidamente &#250;teis no tratamento da mal&#225;ria e de doen&#231;as autoimunes, como artrite reumatoide e l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico. Em estudos experimentais, a CQ e a HCQ t&#234;m a&#231;&#227;o contra o SARS-CoV-2, por interferir com a glicosila&#231;&#227;o da ECA2 e assim reduzir a efici&#234;ncia da liga&#231;&#227;o entre a ECA2 das c&#233;lulas do hospedeiro e a prote&#237;na da superf&#237;cie do coronav&#237;rus. Aqueles f&#225;rmacos tamb&#233;m agem aumentando o pH dos endossomos e lisossomos, atrav&#233;s dos quais o processo de fus&#227;o do v&#237;rus com as c&#233;lulas do hospedeiro e a subsequente replica&#231;&#227;o viral s&#227;o inibidos. Al&#233;m disso, a HCQ bloqueia a apresenta&#231;&#227;o de ant&#237;geno viral &#224;s c&#233;lulas T e a transcri&#231;&#227;o de genes pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios, impedindo a libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas. Portanto, em estudos experimentais, a CQ e a HCQ impedem a entrada e a replica&#231;&#227;o viral al&#233;m de atenuar a resposta inflamat&#243;ria. Na China, um estudo mostrou que a CQ estava associada a maior porcentagem de cura cl&#237;nica e virol&#243;gica e passou ent&#227;o a ser adotada naquele pa&#237;s no tratamento da COVID-19. Um pequeno estudo relatou que a HCQ com ou sem a azitromicina reduziu a detec&#231;&#227;o do RNA do SARS-CoV-2 em <italic>swab</italic> respirat&#243;rio, n&#227;o tendo sido analisado desfecho cl&#237;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os principais efeitos colaterais dessas medica&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o intoler&#226;ncia gastrointestinal (n&#225;useas e v&#244;mitos) e, no uso a longo prazo, retinopatia, maculopatia e cardiomiopatia. Efeitos comuns s&#227;o bloqueio atrioventricular total, bloqueio de ramo, arritmias card&#237;acas, hipotens&#227;o, <italic>torsades de pointes</italic> , invers&#227;o de onda T, fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular e taquicardia ventricular, ainda mais frequentes no uso prolongado e na disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica e renal. Em 10 de mar&#231;o de 2020, uma publica&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Journal of Critical Care</italic> reuniu a evid&#234;ncia cient&#237;fica a respeito da CQ e da HCQ no tratamento da COVID-19. Foram inclu&#237;das recomenda&#231;&#245;es de especialistas, editoriais, estudo <italic>in vitro</italic> e descritos 23 estudos chineses em andamento ou prestes a iniciar o recrutamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> No dia 21 de mar&#231;o de 2020, o presidente dos Estados Unidos cobrou celeridade do FDA na aprova&#231;&#227;o do f&#225;rmaco no tratamento da COVID-19. Entretanto, no momento, o FDA recomenda o uso por compaix&#227;o at&#233; que tenhamos evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas da efic&#225;cia da CQ, da HCQ e da azitromicina no tratamento da COVID-19.</p>
        <p>No Brasil, dois estudos foram aprovados pela Comiss&#227;o Nacional de &#201;tica em Pesquisa (CONEP) no dia 23 de mar&#231;o de 2020: a) estudo de fase IIb para avaliar efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a do difosfato de CQ no tratamento de pacientes hospitalizados com SARS-CoV-2: um ensaio cl&#237;nico, duplo-cego e randomizado &#8211; estudo multic&#234;ntrico com 440 pacientes proposto pela Diretoria de Ensino e Pesquisa da Fiocruz Amazonas &#8211; at&#233; o momento incluiu 50 pacientes; e b) avalia&#231;&#227;o da seguran&#231;a e da efic&#225;cia cl&#237;nica da HCQ associada &#224; azitromicina em pacientes com pneumonia causada pelo v&#237;rus SARS-CoV-2 &#8211; estudo multic&#234;ntrico com 400 pacientes proposto pela Sociedade Beneficente Israelita Brasileira Albert Einstein &#8211; aguardando para iniciar recrutamento.</p>
        <p>O Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de do Brasil, a partir do dia 25 de mar&#231;o de 2020, portanto, passa a adotar a medica&#231;&#227;o como terapia adjuvante no tratamento de formas graves, exclusivamente, sem que outras medidas de suporte sejam preteridas em seu favor, conforme sugest&#227;o abaixo. A indica&#231;&#227;o considera que n&#227;o existe outro tratamento espec&#237;fico eficaz dispon&#237;vel at&#233; o momento e que essa recomenda&#231;&#227;o pode ser modificada a qualquer momento, a depender de novas evid&#234;ncias. Em 31 de mar&#231;o de 2020, em um estudo <italic>preprint</italic> , sem <italic>peer review</italic> , um grupo chin&#234;s demonstrou efic&#225;cia superior da HCQ em 62 pacientes analisados (com grupo controle) em casos de pneumonia leve.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Esse dado dever&#225; ser confirmado em estudo com maior poder amostral e maior rigor metodol&#243;gico. Outras medica&#231;&#245;es em an&#225;lise s&#227;o os glicocorticoides, as imunoglobulinas, o interferon e o tocilizumabe.</p>
        <p><bold>Ressuscita&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar.</bold> Quando o paciente com COVID-19 evolui para parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria, cuidados especiais devem ser tomados, com aten&#231;&#227;o no manejo da via a&#233;rea por risco maior de contamina&#231;&#227;o da equipe pela libera&#231;&#227;o de aeross&#243;is durante as manobras de compress&#227;o tor&#225;cica e ventila&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Todos os profissionais de sa&#250;de que est&#227;o em contato com pacientes devem seguir as orienta&#231;&#245;es locais e nacionais para controle de infec&#231;&#227;o e uso de equipamentos de prote&#231;&#227;o individual, que devem estar em locais de f&#225;cil acesso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pacientes infectados com SARS-CoV-2, que correm risco de deteriora&#231;&#227;o aguda ou parada card&#237;aca, devem ser identificados precocemente. Aqueles que foram definidos por quaisquer motivos como &#8216;n&#227;o ressuscita&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar&#8217; tamb&#233;m devem ser identificados precocemente, e tal defini&#231;&#227;o deve ser baseada nas diretrizes locais vigentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A causa mais prov&#225;vel &#233; hip&#243;xia; entretanto, todas as possibilidades devem ser consideradas (hipoglicemia, acidose, trombose coronariana). Os algoritmos j&#225; validados na literatura devem ser aplicados conforme a identifica&#231;&#227;o de ritmos choc&#225;veis e n&#227;o choc&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> A manipula&#231;&#227;o da via a&#233;rea deve ser realizada por profissionais experientes e treinados. As equipes de profissionais que cuidam de pacientes com COVID-19, sejam m&#233;dicos, enfermeiros ou fisioterapeutas, t&#234;m alto risco de contrair a infec&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Os procedimentos de gera&#231;&#227;o de aeross&#243;is, como ventila&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva, uso de c&#226;nula nasal de alto fluxo, ventila&#231;&#227;o com bolsa-valva-m&#225;scara ou bolsa-tubo endotraqueal, s&#227;o de risco particularmente alto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Deve-se evitar a ventila&#231;&#227;o com bolsa-valva-m&#225;scara ou bolsa-tubo endotraqueal, devido ao risco elevado de aeroliza&#231;&#227;o e contamina&#231;&#227;o da equipe e n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que esse tipo de ventila&#231;&#227;o seja superior &#224; ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Em caso de necessidade de ventila&#231;&#227;o com bolsa-valva-m&#225;scara, deve-se selar corretamente a m&#225;scara, sendo necess&#225;rio o envolvimento de mais de um profissional. Al&#233;m disso, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de filtros entre a m&#225;scara e a bolsa &#233; mandat&#243;ria. O estabelecimento de via a&#233;rea avan&#231;ada deve ser priorizado nesses pacientes e realizado por indiv&#237;duos experientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> A falha no procedimento de intuba&#231;&#227;o ou impossibilidade requer o aux&#237;lio de dispositivos como tubo lar&#237;ngeo ou m&#225;scara lar&#237;ngea, para que permitam a ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica em circuito fechado at&#233; que haja possibilidade de acesso definitivo &#224; via a&#233;rea, seja por intuba&#231;&#227;o traqueal ou por cricotireoidostomia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No caso de parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria em pacientes sob ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, para que n&#227;o haja contamina&#231;&#227;o por aeross&#243;is pelas manobras de reanima&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar e ventila&#231;&#227;o, deve-se manter o paciente conectado ao ventilador mec&#226;nico em circuito fechado, com manuten&#231;&#227;o de FiO<sub>2</sub> de 100%, modo ass&#237;ncrono, com frequ&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria de 10 a 12 incurs&#245;es por minuto ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>
                <italic>Ressuscita&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar em paciente com COVID-19. PCR: parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria; COVID-19: doen&#231;a do Coronav&#237;rus 2019; EPI: equipamento de prote&#231;&#227;o individual; ACLS: Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support.</italic>
              </title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-05-0805-00279-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Preven&#231;&#227;o e manejo da trombose</title>
        <p>A literatura sugere que a exacerbada resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica presente na COVID-19 possa causar disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e aumento da atividade pr&#243;-coagulante, o que associado &#224; menor oferta de oxig&#234;nio pode contribuir para a forma&#231;&#227;o de trombo sobre uma placa coronariana rompida ou para a instabilidade de placa coronariana, tornando-a vulner&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> &#201; importante o diagn&#243;stico diferencial da coronariopatia obstrutiva com infarto do mioc&#225;rdio tipo II.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> O paciente com COVID-19 pode apresentar uma s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda por desequil&#237;brio entre oferta e demanda de oxig&#234;nio ao mioc&#225;rdio, sendo diagnosticado com infarto tipo II. Deve-se analisar individualmente os casos, porque boa parte dever&#225; ser manejada com uma estrat&#233;gia conservadora, pois cerca de 7% dos pacientes com COVID-19 e s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda podem ter infarto do mioc&#225;rdio tipo II ou miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A defini&#231;&#227;o da abordagem da s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda no paciente com COVID-19 deve levar em considera&#231;&#227;o os recursos locais dispon&#237;veis, como servi&#231;os de hemodin&#226;mica estruturados, leito de unidade coronariana e/ou UTI e adequa&#231;&#227;o do ambiente &#224;s medidas de prote&#231;&#227;o ao SARS-CoV-2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Um relat&#243;rio chin&#234;s sugeriu que fosse considerada a tromb&#243;lise como terapia de primeira escolha nos pacientes com COVID-19. Essa recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; controversa, especialmente em locais em que a angioplastia prim&#225;ria possa ser realizada, respeitando todas as regras de seguran&#231;a exigidas para prote&#231;&#227;o dos profissionais de sa&#250;de e do ambiente hospitalar (uso de equipamentos de prote&#231;&#227;o individual, sala com press&#227;o negativa, limpeza adequada).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O tratamento das complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares deve ser baseado no uso ideal e criterioso das terapias indicadas nas diretrizes. A abordagem terap&#234;utica com IECA, BRA, betabloqueadores, agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios e estatinas deve seguir as indica&#231;&#245;es das diretrizes, respeitando as contraindica&#231;&#245;es presentes, referentes a estabilidade hemodin&#226;mica e presen&#231;a de outras disfun&#231;&#245;es org&#226;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pacientes com COVID-19 s&#227;o de elevado risco para tromboembolismo venoso, devido &#224; prolongada redu&#231;&#227;o de mobilidade e par&#226;metros anormais da coagula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Recomenda-se o uso de estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica para todos aqueles internados por COVID-19. Estrat&#233;gias farmacol&#243;gicas devem ser consideradas, como o uso de heparina n&#227;o fracionada ou de heparina de baixo peso molecular, atentando-se para suas contraindica&#231;&#245;es e a depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina do paciente. A suspeita de tromboembolismo venoso deve ser feita de acordo com crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos, ou em situa&#231;&#245;es como manuten&#231;&#227;o de altos n&#237;veis de d&#237;mero-D, em hipoxemia refrat&#225;ria ou em se detectando sinais de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar e de disfun&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo direito ao ecocardiograma.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Telemedicina e cardiologia</title>
        <p>Em virtude do crescimento exponencial da dissemina&#231;&#227;o do v&#237;rus, foi determinado que o distanciamento social &#233; um fator-chave na diminui&#231;&#227;o da velocidade de transmiss&#227;o por diminuir o contato pessoa a pessoa. Dessa maneira, torna-se indispens&#225;vel o uso de tecnologia da informa&#231;&#227;o como uma resposta de emerg&#234;ncia &#224;s quest&#245;es ambientais ou riscos biol&#243;gicos presentes. A telessa&#250;de permite a triagem remota, auxilia no diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;as e garante o acesso aos cuidados de rotina durante um surto de doen&#231;a infecciosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em 2019, o Conselho Federal de Medicina publicou um decreto que definiu a telemedicina como o exerc&#237;cio da medicina mediado por tecnologias para fins de assist&#234;ncia, educa&#231;&#227;o, pesquisa, preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as e les&#245;es e promo&#231;&#227;o de sa&#250;de, regulamentando essa pr&#225;tica. A Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia publicou uma diretriz em telemedicina aplicada &#224; cardiologia, tamb&#233;m designada telecardiologia. A telecardiologia por meio de suas m&#250;ltiplas a&#231;&#245;es na promo&#231;&#227;o da sa&#250;de, preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as, diagn&#243;stico, tratamento e reabilita&#231;&#227;o, com impacto na melhora da qualidade de vida, pode ser considerada uma importante aliada do sistema de sa&#250;de, seja ele p&#250;blico, suplementar ou privado, para promover aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; sa&#250;de integral e com qualidade. A implementa&#231;&#227;o da telecardiologia &#233; importante tanto na aten&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de sa&#250;de quanto na aten&#231;&#227;o especializada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Na cardiologia, a telemedicina pode ser &#250;til no controle dos fatores de risco como press&#227;o arterial, diabetes mellitus, melhora do perfil lip&#237;dico, redu&#231;&#227;o de peso e aumento do sucesso de programas de cessa&#231;&#227;o do tabagismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No momento atual de controle da pandemia, a telemedicina torna-se uma ferramenta &#250;til, especialmente para os pacientes de alto risco, diminuindo a exposi&#231;&#227;o a contamina&#231;&#245;es pelo SARS-CoV-2 e auxiliando no controle das comorbidades. Em 19 de mar&#231;o de 2020, frente a essa pandemia, o Conselho Federal de Medicina, de acordo com o Minist&#233;rio de Sa&#250;de, reconhece a possibilidade e a eticidade da telemedicina, nos termos da teleorienta&#231;&#227;o, teleconsulta e telemonitoramento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es gerais</title>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Intensificar os cuidados e as medidas de preven&#231;&#227;o contra a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo novo coronav&#237;rus na popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes portadores de DCV.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Os pacientes cardiopatas devem ser conduzidos de acordo com as diretrizes vigentes, assegurando-se o melhor tratamento dispon&#237;vel para as enfermidades cr&#244;nicas.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Considera-se fundamental que os pacientes portadores de DCV mantenham rigorosa ader&#234;ncia a dieta adequada, sono regular e atividade f&#237;sica, evitando exposi&#231;&#227;o ao tabagismo e ao etilismo.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>A atualiza&#231;&#227;o das vacinas &#233; importante, incluindo pneumoc&#243;cica, devido ao risco aumentado de infec&#231;&#227;o bacteriana secund&#225;ria pelo SARS-CoV-2, al&#233;m da vacina contra influenza, que &#233; indicada para os pacientes com DCV.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Recomenda-se o adiamento das consultas ambulatoriais e dos exames e procedimentos eletivos, se, ao julgamento cl&#237;nico, esses procedimentos n&#227;o forem essenciais naquele momento e a sua n&#227;o realiza&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o aumentar o risco de eventos ou prejudicar a condu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica das DCV de base do paciente. A telemedicina deve ser utilizada como op&#231;&#227;o para seguimento dos pacientes.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Recomenda-se redu&#231;&#227;o da quantidade de profissionais de sa&#250;de que participam das visitas dos pacientes e o desenvolvimento de discuss&#245;es <italic>online</italic> .</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>A COVID-19 &#233; potencialmente grave e apresenta elevado &#237;ndice de dissemina&#231;&#227;o. Os dados atuais dispon&#237;veis s&#227;o de estudos predominantemente retrospectivos, que devem ser interpretados com cautela. Entretanto, as evid&#234;ncias atuais j&#225; mostram a necessidade de aten&#231;&#227;o especial aos pacientes do grupo de risco e a import&#226;ncia de um manejo adequado das complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, com r&#225;pida identifica&#231;&#227;o e implementa&#231;&#227;o de tratamento adequado.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
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        <p>Fontes de financiamento</p>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>The Heart and COVID-19: What Cardiologists Need to Know</article-title>
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            <surname>Costa</surname>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3339-8866</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bittar</surname>
            <given-names>Cristina Salvadori</given-names>
          </name>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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            <sup>2</sup>
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        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
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            <given-names>Stephanie Itala</given-names>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ara&#250;jo</surname>
            <given-names>Ant&#244;nio Everaldo de</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
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            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Karen Alc&#226;ntara Queiroz</given-names>
          </name>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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        </contrib>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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        </contrib>
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            <given-names>Thalita Barbosa</given-names>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ar&#233;valo</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea Nataly Galarza</given-names>
          </name>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Juliano Pinheiro de</given-names>
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            <sup>1</sup>
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            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de</given-names>
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            <sup>3</sup>
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            <surname>Hajjar</surname>
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        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo - Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
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        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro &#8211; Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</institution>
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        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o de Medicina Tropical Doutor Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM - Brazil</institution>
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        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">CardioEco Centro de Diagn&#243;stico Cardiovascular, Curitiba, PR - Brazil</institution>
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        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Quanta Diagn&#243;stico &#8211; Ecocardiografia, Curitiba, PR - Brazil</institution>
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        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
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        <label>8</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Adddress: Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o Hajjar &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 251. CEP 01246-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: ludhmila@usp.br</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Costa IBSS, Bacal F, Oliveira GMM, Lacerda MVG, Barberato SH, Chagas ACP, Rochitte CE, Ramires JAF,Kalil Filho R, Hajjar LA; Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript: Costa IBSS, Bittar CS, Rizk SI, Everaldo Filho A, Queiroz KA, Machado TIV, Andrade FTA, Ar&#233;valo ANG, Gonz&#225;lez TB, Almeida JP; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Costa IBSS, Bittar CS, Rizk SI, Everaldo Filho A, Queiroz KA, Machado TIV, Andrade FTA, Lopes MACQ, Ar&#233;valo ANG, Gonz&#225;lez TB, Almeida JP; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Costa IBSS, Lopes MACQ, Bacal F, Oliveira GMM, Lacerda MVG, Barberato SH, Chagas ACP, Rochitte CE, Ramires JAF,Kalil Filho R, Hajjar LA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>In face of the pandemic of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the management of patients with cardiovascular risk factors and/or disease is challenging. The cardiovascular complications evidenced in patients with COVID-19 derive from several mechanisms, ranging from direct viral injury to complications secondary to the inflammatory and thrombotic responses to the infection. The proper care of patients with COVID-19 requires special attention to the cardiovascular system aimed at better outcomes.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Coronavirus</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Pandemics</kwd>
        <kwd>Respiratory Distress Syndrome, Adult</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
        <kwd>Patient Care</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Currently the world faces the pandemic of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which emerged in December 2019 in the city of Wuhan, province of Hubei, in China.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The initial cases were described as pneumonia that rapidly progressed to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).</p>
        <p>This novel virus, named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is the seventh coronavirus identified so far and differs from the other coronaviruses that cause common cold and mild pneumonia (229E, OC43, NL63 and HKU1). The SARS-CoV-2 is similar to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), responsible for the infections occurring in China in 2002-2003 and in the Middle East in 2012, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Despite the phylogenetic similarities between SARS-CoV-2 and the zoonotic coronaviruses that caused SARS and MERS, the SARS-CoV-2 spread is much higher, contributing to an infection dissemination ten times faster than that of the SARS-CoV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The basic reproduction number (R0) of COVID-19 is 2.78, meaning that, on average, each individual infected can transmit the disease to three others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A study recently published in <italic>Science</italic> has stated, by use of a mathematical model, that 85% of the COVID-19 transmissions occur from asymptomatic individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Because of its fast dissemination, COVID-19 was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> At the current time, COVID-19 affects more than 181 countries and the number of cases keeps increasing exponentially. Up to April 2, 2020, 1,015,403 cases and 53,030 deaths had been registered around the world, yielding a lethality of 5.2%. Up to that same date, 8,044 confirmed cases and 324 deaths had been registered in Brazil, with a mortality of 4%. Initial Brazilian data have shown 90% of the deaths occurring among individuals aged over 60 years and 84% of the patients with at least one comorbidity, 51% with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and 37.7% with diabetes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The analysis of 44,672 confirmed cases of COVID-19 in Wuhan has evidenced an overall case-fatality rate of 2.3%; however, among those with preexisting comorbidities, the case-fatality rate was higher: 10.5% for CVD, 7.3% for diabetes and 6% for hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> In addition, cardiovascular complications due to COVID-19, such as myocardial injury (20% of the cases), arrhythmias (16%), myocarditis (10%), heart failure (HF) and shock (up to 5% of the cases), have been reported.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>This review was aimed at aiding healthcare professionals (clinicians, emergencists, cardiologists and intensivists) involved in the care of patients with COVID-19, proposing an algorithm of cardiovascular assessment for the early detection of complications, in addition to recommending protocols to treat cardiovascular complications in those patients.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Complications of COVID-19 on the cardiovascular system</title>
          <p>Recent data of the COVID-19 pandemic have shown that the virus can affect the cardiovascular system with several manifestations, such as myocardial injury, HF, Takotsubo syndrome (TS), arrhythmias, myocarditis and shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> The damage due to COVID-19 to the cardiovascular system is probably multifactorial and can result from an imbalance between high metabolic demand and low cardiac reserve, systemic inflammation and thrombogenesis, in addition to direct cardiac damage from the virus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> This damage to the cardiovascular system occurs mainly in patients with cardiovascular risk factors (advanced age, hypertension and diabetes) or preexisting CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> summarizes the inflammatory response to the viral infection, which leads to damage to the cardiovascular system and lungs, with elevation in the levels of d-dimer, procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, ferritin, troponin and NT-proBNP, culminating in cardiovascular complications and death.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>
                  <italic>Coronavirus and the heart. Patients with risk factors and/or cardiovascular disease are prone to develop severe forms of COVID-19 and its complications. Pulmonary impairment manifests initially as an influenza syndrome (cough and fever), progressing to pneumonia (dyspnea, hypoxemia, tachypnea) and, in some cases, to ARDS. Host response to the virus leads to systemic inflammation findings, with elevation of markers of inflammation (CRP, procalcitonin, d-dimer, IL-6, ferritin, LDH) and of myocardial injury / cardiac dysfunction (troponin/NT-proBNP), which predisposes to acute heart failure, myocarditis, thrombosis and arrhythmias. Cardiovascular complications hinder the host response to the virus, leading to shock, failure of multiple organs and death.</italic>
                </title>
                <p>
                  <italic>CAD: coronary artery disease; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; CRP: C-reactive protein; IL-6: interleukin-6; ARDS: acute respiratory distress syndrome.</italic>
                </p>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-05-0805-00279-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>The systemic inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 is accompanied by higher concentrations of cytokines related to injury to the cardiovascular system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> The increase in troponin levels is accompanied by an elevation in other inflammatory markers, such as d-dimer, ferritin, interleukin 6 (IL-6), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), C-reactive protein, procalcitonin and leukocyte count.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Zhou et al. have shown higher levels of d-dimer, IL-6, ferritin and LDH, as well as lymphopenia, in patients who died, suggesting that those inflammatory markers might have prognostic implications. A d-dimer level at admission greater than 1&#181;g/mL was an independent predictor of mortality in that population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> In addition to elevated inflammatory markers, patients with COVID-19 show increased BNP or NT-proBNP levels, markers of myocardial dysfunction. Patients with myocardial injury showed higher NT-proBNP levels, with positive linear correlation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> This finding reinforces that those with myocardial injury are prone to cardiac function impairment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A meta-analysis with four studies, including 341 COVID-19 patients, has reported significantly higher troponin I levels in patients with severe disease as compared to those with non-severe disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Patients with myocardial injury more often required admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) (22.2% vs. 2.0%), had a higher incidence of HF (52% vs 12%) and a higher death rate (59% vs. 1%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Shi et al., assessing 416 hospitalized patients with COVID-19, have reported that myocardial injury, defined as troponin levels above the 99th-percentile upper reference limit, is a frequent complication (19.7%) in those patients, being associated with increased mortality and ARDS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> On multivariate analysis, myocardial injury and ARDS were independent predictors of mortality (HR 4.26 and 7.89, respectively).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> In a recent study, Guo et al. have reported elevated troponin levels in 27.8% of 187 patients with COVID-19. Among patients without CVD and with normal troponin levels, mortality was 7.6%; among patients with CVD and normal troponin levels, mortality was 13.3%; among patients without CVD and with elevated troponin levels, mortality was 37.5%; and among patients with CVD and elevated troponin levels, mortality was 69.4%. There was a strong correlation between high troponin levels and increased C-reactive protein and NT-proBNP levels. Patients with increased troponin levels had a higher incidence of ventricular arrhythmias and higher need for mechanical ventilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Cardiovascular complications, such as HF, myocarditis, acute myocardial infarction, shock and arrhythmias, are also frequent in patients with myocardial injury. In a cohort with 150 patients, 7% of them developed irreversible myocardial damage and HF, associated with significant elevations in troponin levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Malignant arrhythmias (ventricular tachycardia with degeneration to ventricular fibrillation or hemodynamic instability) have been most frequently observed in individuals with troponin elevation (11.5% vs 5.2%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Patients with severe COVID-19 can rapidly develop important cardiovascular impairment, shock and failure of multiple organs. In two Chinese cohorts of hospitalized patients with COVID-19, up to 20% developed the severe form of disease with shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Myocarditis can be related to acute HF in patients with COVID-19. Cases of COVID-19-related myocarditis have been described, with fulminant myocarditis, rapid progression and significant ventricular dysfunction, associated with diffuse myocardial edema. Those patients had electrocardiographic changes and troponin elevation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Although TS has not been directly linked to COVID-19, some cases of ventricular dysfunction in COVID-19 patients might be attributed to that syndrome, which is a frequent complication in individuals with exacerbated systemic inflammatory response, in whom the stress and severity of the viral infection trigger the TS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Interaction of SARS-CoV-2 with angiotensin-converting enzyme-2</title>
          <p>Some studies have suggested that the damage to the cardiovascular system secondary to SARS-CoV-2 can be linked to the angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> which is related to the immune system and present in high concentration in the lungs and heart. The ACE2 down-regulates the angiotensin-renin system by inactivating angiotensin-2, and ACE2 might have a protective role against the development of respiratory failure and its progression. SARS-CoV-2 has four main structural proteins: spike (S), nucleocapsid (N), membrane (M), and envelope (E) proteins. The coronavirus spike protein binds to the ACE2 receptor and the virus enters the host cell ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref> ), where ACE2 inactivation occurs, favoring pulmonary damage. Because of the high ACE2 concentrations in the heart, potentially severe damage to the cardiovascular system can occur.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>
                  <italic>The SARS-CoV-2, via its surface spike protein, binds to the human ACE2 receptor after spike protein activation by TMPRSS2. SARS-CoV: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus; SARS-COV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019; ACE2: angiotensin-converting enzyme-2; TMPRSS2: transmembrane protease serine-2.</italic>
                </title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-05-0805-00279-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Patients with preexisting CVD apparently have increased serum levels of ACE2, which might contribute to the more severe manifestations in that population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Similarly, individuals with hypertension would have a higher ACE2 expression secondary to the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI) or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARB), which would potentially increase the susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> However, current studies on humans have some limitations: a) assessment of a small number of individuals using those drugs, and b) the advanced age of a large part of the patients assessed, which is an important confounder, because advanced age increases the susceptibility to infection and is the major factor of poor prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It is worth noting that, despite substantial structural homology between ACE2 and ACE, their enzyme active sites are distinct, and, as a result, ACE inhibitors in clinical use do not directly affect ACE2 activity. In addition, that enzyme plays a well-known role in the recovery of ventricular function of patients with myocardial injury, because it inhibits angiotensin II activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> On the other hand, angiotensin II has been suggested to account for the cardiac injury by the coronavirus, and the administration of recombinant ACE2 would normalize angiotensin II levels. Studies with recombinant ACE2 and losartan are being conducted.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The current recommendation is that ACEI and ARB should be continued in patients on regular use of those drugs, because of the clear benefit of blood pressure control and mortality decrease in those with HF, as evidenced in randomized studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> In the severe forms of COVID-19, hemodynamic stability and renal function should be assessed individually before deciding on the continuation or withdrawal of the drugs.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiovascular disease as a risk for the severe form of COVID-19</title>
          <p>Patients with cardiovascular risk factors (advanced age, hypertension and diabetes), as well as those with CVD (coronary artery disease, cardiomyopathies and cerebrovascular disease), have susceptibility to the severe form of COVID-19 and cardiovascular complications, being classified as a risk group. Approximately 80% of the patients with the severe form of COVID-19 have a comorbidity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> summarizes the major studies that characterize the clinical comorbidities of patients with COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Summary of the clinical characteristics of the major studies on COVID-19</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="17%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Author</th>
                    <th>N</th>
                    <th>Type</th>
                    <th>Age (years)</th>
                    <th>Comorbidities</th>
                    <th>Major findings</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Huang et al. 2020<sup>17</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">41</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospective</td>
                    <td align="center">49 (41-58)</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- DM: 8 (20%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- AH: 6 (15%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- CVD: 6 (15%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- COPD: 1 (2%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Cancer: 1 (2%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 13 (32%) ICU admissions</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 5 (12%) MI, and 4 (31%) to the ICU</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 3 (7%) shock and 12 (29%) ARDS</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Mortality: 6 (15%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Wang et al. 2020<sup>30</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">69</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                    <td align="center">42 (35-62)</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- AH: 9 (13%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- CVD: 8 (12%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- DM: 7 (10%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- COPD: 4 (6%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Cancer: 4 (6%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Hospitalizations: 44 (65.7%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Mortality: 5 (7.5%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Patients with DM, AH and CVD more often had hypoxemia (SatO<sub>2</sub>&lt; 90%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- MI not assessed</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Chen et al. 2020<sup>31</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">99</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                    <td align="center">55 (21-82)</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- CVD: 40 (40%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- DM: 12 (12%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Cancer: 1 (1%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 57 (58%) hospitalizations, 17 (17%) ARDS, 4 (4%) shock</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Mortality: 11 (11%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Of the deceased, 63% were &gt; 60 years and 33% had AH</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Wang et al. 2020<sup>9</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">138</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                    <td align="center">56 (42-68)</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- AH: 43 (31.2%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- CVD: 20 (14.5%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- DM: 14 (10.1%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Cancer: 10 (7.2%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Stroke: 7 (5.1%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 36 (26%) ICU admissions, high prevalence of risk factors</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 12 (8.7%) shock, 23 (16.7%) arrhythmias, 27 (19.6%) ARDS, and 10 (7.2%) MI</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Mortality: 6 (4.3%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Zhang et al. 2020<sup>29</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">140</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                    <td align="center">57 (20&#8211;83)</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- AH: 42 (30%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- DM: 17 (12.1%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- CAD: 7 (5%) - Arrhythmias: 5 (3.6%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Comparing severe x non-severe groups: median age 64 vs 51.5, p &lt; 0.001 comorbidities 79.3% vs 53.7%, p = 0.002 d-dimer 0.4 vs 0.2, p&lt;0.001</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Guo et al. 2020<sup>10</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">187</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                    <td align="center">58.5 (&#177;14.7)</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- AH: 61 (32.6%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- CAD: 21 (11.2%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- HF: 8 (4.3%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- DM: 28 (15%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- COPD: 4 (2.1%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Cancer: 13 (7%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 52 (27.8%) MI</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Comparing normal tropo x high tropo: AH: 27% vs 63.5%, p 0.001 CAD: 3% vs 32.7%, p &lt;0.001 HF: 0% vs 15.4%, p &lt;0.001</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 43 deaths, 31 (59.6%) in the MI group</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Mortality: 13.3% CVD without MI, and 69.4% CVD with MI</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Zhou et al 2020<sup>12</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">191</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                    <td align="center">56 (46-67)</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- AH: 58 (30%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- DM: 36 (19%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- CAD: 15 (8%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- COPD: 6 (3%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Cancer: 2(1%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- MI: 24/145 (17%), greater in patients who died (22.2 [5.6-83.1] vs 3.0 [1.1-5.5], p &lt;0.001)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- HF 44 (23%), shock 38 (20%), ARDS 59 (31%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 54 (28%) deaths, 67% with comorbidities</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Shi et al. 2020<sup>11</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">416</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospective</td>
                    <td align="center">64 (21-95)</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- AH: 127 (30.5%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- DM: 60 (14.4%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- CAD: 44 (10.6%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Stroke: 22 (5.3%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- HF: 17 (4.1%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Cancer: 9 (2.2%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 82 (19.7%) MI</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- High prevalence of AH, DM, CAD and HF in patients with MI</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- MI was related to higher mortality: (42 of 82 [51.2%] vs 15 of 334 [4.5%]; p &lt; .001)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- MI was associated with ARDS: (48 of 82 [58.5%] vs 49 of 334 [14.7%]; p &lt; .001)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Guan et al. 2020<sup>32</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">1099</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                    <td align="center">47 (35-58)</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- COPD: 12 (1.1%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- DM: 81 (7.4%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- AH: 165 (15%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- CAD: 27 (2.5%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Stroke: 15 (1.4%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- C&#226;ncer: 10 (0.9%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Severely-ill patients: AH 41 (23.7%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- High CK-MB 90/657 (13.7%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- 12 (1.1%) shock, 37 (3.4%) ARDS, 1029 (93.6%) hospitalizations, 55 (5%) ICU admissions</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>- Mortality: 15 (1.4%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>DM, diabetes mellitus; AH, arterial hypertension; CVD, cardiovascular disease; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CAD, coronary artery disease; HF, heart failure; MI, myocardial injury; tropo, troponin; ARDS, acute respiratory distress syndrome; ICU, intensive care unit.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>A recent meta-analysis including eight studies from China, with 46,248 infected individuals, has shown that the most prevalent comorbidities were hypertension (17 &#177; 7%), diabetes mellitus (8 &#177; 6%) and CVD (5 &#177; 4%). Wang et al., assessing only hospitalized patients with COVID-19, have reported a higher prevalence of hypertension (31.2%), CVD (19.6%) and diabetes (10.1%),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> emphasizing that individuals with those comorbidities have the most severe form of COVID-19, usually requiring hospitalization. These patients more often had hypoxemia and need for ICU admission.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Likewise, advanced age is related to the severe form of disease. In those studies, the median age has ranged from 42 to 64 years,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> being higher in severely ill patients (64 vs 51.5).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> In addition, patients admitted to ICU and those with hypoxemia were older.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Cardiovascular complications were also frequent among patients from the risk group. Those with CVD had troponin elevation and higher rates of shock and arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Guo et al., assessing a cohort with 187 patients, have observed that those with myocardial injury had a high prevalence of hypertension (63%vs 28%), diabetes (30.8% vs 8.9%), coronary artery disease (32.7% vs 3%) and HF (15.4% vs 0%), and were older (median age, 71.4 years).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In a cohort of 191 patients, Zhou et al. have assessed the characteristics of the deceased ones as compared to those of the discharged ones. In that cohort, the deceased patients had a higher prevalence of hypertension (48%), diabetes (31%) and CVD (24%). Advanced age was an independent predictor of mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Mortality rate increases with increasing age as follows: 1.3% in patients aged 50-59 years; 3.6% in patients aged 60-69 years; 8% in patients aged 70-79 years; and 14.8% in patients aged 80 years and older.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Population studies have reported an overall mortality rate of 6% in patients with hypertension, 7.3% in patients with diabetes and 10.5% in patients with CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Patients with cancer have a higher risk for COVID-19 because of their impaired defense and their sequelae from the antineoplastic treatment. In China, among the confirmed cases of COVID-19, the prevalence of cancer has ranged from 1% to 7%, which is higher than the overall incidence of cancer in that country (0.2% - 201.7/100,000 individuals).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Patients with cancer more often developed the severe form of COVID-19 as compared to those without cancer (39% vs 8%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Of the patients with cancer submitted to recent chemotherapy or surgery, 75% developed severe disease as compared to 43% of those with no recent treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Algorithm of cardiovascular assessment</title>
          <p>Although not formally, cardiovascular assessment of patients with suspected or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection is recommended in the following situations: a) preexisting CVD or cardiovascular risk factors; b) cardiovascular signs and symptoms (dyspnea, shock, chest pain, electrocardiographic alterations or increased cardiac area); c) alterations on biomarkers, such as d-dimer, troponin, NT-proBNP and ferritin; and d) need for hospitalization. Those with CVD are prone to experience myocardial injury after SARS-CoV-2 infection, in addition to being at a higher risk of death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Cardiologists should be part of the team caring for critical patients, aiding in clinical discussions and treatment.</p>
          <p>The initial cardiovascular assessment should comprise clinical history, physical examination, troponin levels, and electrocardiogram (ECG). Troponin levels above the 99th-percentile upper reference limit and acute alterations on ECG support the identification of patients at higher cardiovascular risk and might contribute to the decision making on hospital admission and case management. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3</xref> shows the flowchart for cardiovascular assessment in COVID-19 cases.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>
                  <italic>Flowchart for cardiac assessment of patients with suspected COVID-19. *Advanced age, coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cardiomyopathy or arrhythmia. COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019; CVD: cardiovascular disease; ECG +: supraventricular or ventricular tachycardia, new repolarization changes suggestive of acute ischemia; ECG -: electrocardiogram without acute changes; ECHO: echocardiogram; mod: moderate; Tropo +: troponin levels above the 99th-percentile upper reference limit; Tropo -: troponin levels below the 99th-percentile; ICU: intensive care unit.</italic>
                </title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-05-0805-00279-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>The ECG can identify malignant cardiac arrhythmias, defined as sustained ventricular tachycardia inducing hemodynamic instability or ventricular fibrillation. Alterations in repolarization suggesting acute ischemia have been reported, mainly in patients with myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The ECG plays an important role in the QTc interval monitoring of patients on hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) and azithromycin. Both drugs have been linked to QT interval prolongation. The combination of both drugs and the presence of fluid and electrolyte imbalance in patients with COVID-19 require QTc interval monitoring. In-patients should undergo an ECG 2-3 hours after the second dose of HCQ and daily thereafter. If QTc increases by &gt;60ms or absolute QTc &gt;500ms (or &gt;530-550ms if QRS &gt;120ms), azithromycin should be discontinued or the HCQ dose, reduced, and ECG performed daily. If the ECG changes remain, the risk/benefit of maintaining the medication should be reevaluated. For outpatients, who may be less at risk for complications from QT interval prolongation, baseline ECG should be acquired 2-3 hours after initiating HCQ and on day 3 of therapy. If QTc increases by &gt;30-60ms or absolute QTc &gt;500ms (or &gt;530-550ms if QRS &gt;120ms), consider discontinuing therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Transthoracic echocardiogram should be the initial choice for assessing cardiac function in those patients, and ideally performed at the emergency department by use of the point-of-care or dynamic method. Transthoracic echocardiogram can show systolic and/or diastolic left ventricular impairment and provides hemodynamic information to support the management of patients, in addition to enabling the diagnosis of pericardial changes. It should be considered for all risk groups or those requiring hospitalization. Patients with ventricular dysfunction are more likely to need mechanical ventilation and be of worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Critical patients should be followed up with daily echocardiogram, as well as strict assessment of hemodynamic parameters and biventricular function. In addition, the detection of ventricular dysfunction is an indication for invasive hemodynamic monitoring and will guide the treatment with inotropic and/or circulatory support. In critical cases, dynamic echocardiogram should be acquired daily and at every hemodynamic change.</p>
          <p>Magnetic resonance imaging should be considered in stable patients and can support the differential diagnosis of ventricular dysfunction etiology, which might be related to myocarditis or stress-induced systolic dysfunction. The diagnosis of myocarditis follows the classic criteria already validated for other viral etiologies, in which myocardial edema and non-ischemic myocardial late enhancement can be observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Management of the patient with COVID-19</title>
          <p><bold>Initial approach and intensive support.</bold> The mean time of symptom onset is 4-5 days, and 97.5% of contaminated individuals will have symptoms in up to 11.5 days from exposure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Most patients (81%) have mild symptoms, the most common being fever (88%) and cough (67.7%). Other less frequent are diarrhea, myalgia, headache and runny nose. Approximately 20% of the patients with COVID-19 will have the severe form, with dyspnea, tachypnea, oxygen saturation &#8804;93%, and pulmonary infiltrate, while 5% will have the critical form of COVID-19, with signs of shock and respiratory failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Most of asymptomatic or olygosymptomatic clinically stable patients require no hospitalization, which is mandatory for those with severe symptoms and unfavorable evolution.</p>
          <p>The initial assessment of patients with COVID-19 should include: ECG, arterial blood gas analysis with lactate level, d-dimer, complete blood count, kidney and liver function tests, clotting factors, troponin, creatine phosphokinase, ferritin, LDH, IL-6 and electrolytes (sodium, magnesium, potassium, and calcium). Chest radiography should be performed and chest computed tomography (CT) considered in some cases. Computed tomography evidences abnormalities in 85% of the patients, and 75% of them show bilateral pulmonary involvement, commonly characterized as ground-glass opacifications and subpleural and peripheral consolidations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Those with indication for hospitalization should undergo echocardiography in the emergency department or within the first hours from hospital admission.</p>
          <p>The clinical course of COVID-19 is variable and potentially severe, because 3.4% of the patients progress to ARDS,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> a proportion that increases in the cohorts of those hospitalized with the disease (19.6%) and among those with myocardial injury (58.5%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Acute respiratory distress syndrome is defined based on the Berlin criteria: acute onset of pulmonary damage, bilateral pulmonary opacities on chest radiography, and pulmonary edema. The ARDS Berlin Definition stratifies the severity of pulmonary damage based on the relation between partial pressure of arterial oxygen (PaO<sub>2</sub>) and fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO<sub>2</sub>), acquired in a positive-end expiratory pressure (PEEP) or continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) &#8805; 5 cm H<sub>2</sub>O. The ARDS is considered severe when PaO<sub>2</sub>/FiO<sub>2</sub>is &lt;100.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Mechanical ventilation is recommended in the presence of hypoxemia despite oxygen supply. Protective mechanical ventilation strategies should be used, with tidal volume of 6 mL/kg, plateau pressure &lt; 30 cm H<sub>2</sub>O, and PEEP adjusted according to FiO<sub>2</sub>. Patients usually have good pulmonary compliance despite severe hypoxemia. For patients with ARDS and PaO<sub>2</sub>/FiO<sub>2</sub>&#8804; 150, prone position should be considered, and, in case of significant patient-ventilator dyssynchrony, neuromuscular block can be performed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Hemodynamic monitoring should be cogitated in all ICU patients with signs of shock. Minimally invasive hemodynamic monitoring and continuous cardiac output monitoring should be considered in association with dynamic echocardiography and analysis of tissue hypoperfusion markers, such as clinical parameters, arterial lactate levels, deltaPCO<sub>2</sub>, and base excess. In the presence of shock, norepinephrine is the drug of choice, and the addition of vasopressin is recommended if increasing doses of noradrenaline are necessary for hemodynamic optimization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> If cardiac dysfunction occurs, dobutamine should be added.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Norepinephrine should be immediately initiated, even in a peripheral access, preventing prolonged hypotension, which yields high mortality.</p>
          <p>Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) might be necessary for patients with acute respiratory failure refractory to initial measures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> At first, venovenous ECMO is indicated for recovery of pulmonary function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> When associated with significant cardiovascular impairment in patients with severe ventricular dysfunction and/or cardiogenic shock, venoarterial ECMO might be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> ECMO should be initiated before the installation of failure of multiple organs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
          <p><bold>Specific treatment.</bold> At the present time, the treatment of critically ill patients is based on supportive measures for organic dysfunctions. Since the beginning of the pandemic, an effective antiviral treatment for COVID-19 has been sought. In China and Italy, in severe cases and in an individualized manner depending on the institution, drugs like chloroquine (CQ) or HCQ, lopinavir/ritonavir, remdesivir and favipiravir have been used. Remdesivir and favipiravir are broad-spectrum antiviral agents, whose efficacy and safety for the management of patients with COVID-19 are being assessed in randomized clinical trials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> A recent randomized and controlled study has shown that the lopinavir/ritonavir combination, used in the management of HIV infection, is ineffective against the SARS-CoV-2 infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Chloroquine diphosphate and HCQ sulfate are well-known useful drugs to treat malaria and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. In experimental studies, CQ and HCQ have shown to act against SARS-CoV-2, by interfering with ACE2 glycosylation, thus reducing the efficiency of the binding between ACE2 of host cells and the coronavirus surface protein. In addition, those drugs act by increasing the pH of endosomes and lysosomes, thus preventing virus/host cell fusion and subsequent viral replication. Moreover, HCQ prevents the presentation of viral antigens to T cells and inhibits the transcription of proinflammatory genes, hindering the release of cytokines. Thus, in experimental studies, CQ and HCQ have prevented viral entry into the cell and replication, as well as attenuated the inflammatory response. In China, a study has shown that CQ was linked to a higher percentage of clinical and virological cure, being then adopted for the treatment of COVID-19 in that country. A small study has reported that HCQ, regardless of combination with azithromycin, reduced the SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection on respiratory tract swab samples, but that study has not assessed clinical outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The major side effects of CQ and HCQ are gastrointestinal intolerance (nauseas and vomit) and, in the long-term use, retinopathy, maculopathy and cardiomyopathy. Other common side effects of those drugs are total atrioventricular block, bundle-branch block, cardiac arrhythmias, hypotension, <italic>torsades de pointes</italic> , T-wave inversion, ventricular fibrillation, and ventricular tachycardia, which are even more frequent with their prolonged use and in the presence of liver and kidney dysfunction. On March 10, 2020, the <italic>Journal of Critical Care</italic> has published a systematic review on the efficacy and safety of CQ for the treatment of COVID-19, including one narrative letter, expert consensus paper, one editorial, one <italic>in-vitro</italic> study, two national guideline documents, and the description of 23 ongoing clinical trials in China.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> On March 21, 2020, the president of the United States urged the FDA to quickly approve CQ and HCQ for the treatment of COVID-19. However, the FDA currently recommends the compassionate drug use until scientific evidence on the efficacy of CQ, HCQ and azithromycin for the treatment of COVID-19 is available.</p>
          <p>On March 23, 2020, two studies conducted in Brazil were approved by the Brazilian Committee on Ethics in Research (CONEP): a) a phase IIb study to assess the efficacy and safety of CQ diphosphate in the treatment of patients hospitalized with SARS-CoV-2: a double-blind, randomized, clinical trial &#8211; a multicenter study with 440 patients proposed by the Teaching and Research Board of Fiocruz Amazonas &#8211; that has included 50 patients so far; and b) an assessment of the safety and clinical efficacy of HCQ in association with azithromycin for patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia &#8211; a multicenter study with 400 patients proposed by the Brazilian Israeli Beneficent Society Albert Einstein &#8211; waiting to start recruiting.</p>
          <p>Since March 25, 2020, the Brazilian Ministry of Health has adopted that drug as an adjuvant for the treatment exclusively of the severe forms of COVID-19, while also maintaining the other supportive measures. The indication considers that there is no other effective specific treatment available at the present time and that the recommendation can be modified at any time, depending on new evidence. On March 31, 2020, in a preprint study, without peer review, a Chinese group showed the superior efficacy of HCQ for mild pneumonia in 62 patients assessed (with a control group).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> That should be confirmed in a study with higher sample power and stricter methodology. Other drugs being analyzed are glucocorticoids, immunoglobulins, interferon, and tocilizumab.</p>
          <p><bold>Cardiopulmonary resuscitation.</bold> When patients with COVID-19 have a cardiorespiratory arrest, special care should be taken, with special attention to airway management, because of the higher risk of contamination of healthcare workers performing aerosol-generating procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> All healthcare professionals in contact with patients with COVID-19 should follow the local and national orientations for infection control and use of personal protective equipment, which should be readily available.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
          <p>SARS-CoV-2 infected patients at risk for acute deterioration or cardiac arrest should be identified early, as should those for whom a &#8216;do not attempt cardiopulmonary resuscitation&#8217; applies, and that should be based on local guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Hypoxia is the most probable cause of cardiorespiratory arrest among patients with COVID-19; however, all causes should be taken into account (hypoglycemia, acidosis, coronary thrombosis). The algorithms already validated should be applied according to the identification of shockable and non-shockable rhythms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Airway should be manipulated by experienced and skilled professionals. Healthcare professionals caring for patients with COVID-19, including physicians, nurses and physical therapists, are at higher risk of infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Aerosol-generating procedures, such as non-invasive ventilation, high-flow nasal cannula therapy, and bag-valve-mask or bag-tracheal-tube ventilation, pose a particularly high risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Bag-valve-mask or bag-tracheal-tube ventilation should be avoided, because of its elevated risk of aerosolization and contamination of the team; moreover, that type of ventilation has not proven to be superior to the mechanical one.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> If bag-valve-mask ventilation is necessary, the mask should be properly sealed, which requires more than one professional. In addition, the use of filters between the mask and the bag is mandatory. For those patients, the establishment of advanced airway should be prioritized and conducted by skilled individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> If intubation fails or is impossible, other devices should be used, such as laryngeal tube or mask, to enable closed-circuit mechanical ventilation until definite access to airway is obtained, by either tracheal intubation or cricothyroidostomy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In case of cardiorespiratory arrest of patients on mechanical ventilation, to prevent aerosol contamination from cardiopulmonary resuscitation maneuvers and ventilation, the patient should remain connected to the mechanical ventilator in a closed-circuit system, maintaining FiO<sub>2</sub>at 100%, asynchronous mode, and respiratory rate of 10-12 bpm ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>
                  <italic>Cardiopulmonary resuscitation of patients with COVID-19. CRA: cardiorespiratory arrest; COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019; PPE: personal protective equipment; ACLS: Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support; FiO<sub>2:</sub>fraction of inspired oxygen; RR: respiratory rate.</italic>
                </title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-05-0805-00279-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Thrombosis prevention and management</title>
          <p>The literature provides suggestive evidence that the exacerbated systemic inflammatory response present in COVID-19 causes endothelial dysfunction and increased procoagulant activity, which, in association with lower oxygen supply, might contribute to coronary plaque instability or to thrombus formation on a ruptured coronary plaque, and, thus, to plaque vulnerability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> It is worth noting the importance of the differential diagnosis of obstructive coronary artery disease from type II myocardial infarction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Patients with COVID-19 can present with acute coronary syndrome due to a mismatch in myocardial oxygen supply and demand, being diagnosed with type II myocardial infarction. The cases should be analyzed individually, because a large part should be managed conservatively, considering that 7% of the patients with COVID-19 and acute coronary syndrome might have type II myocardial infarction or myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The approach to acute coronary syndrome in patients with COVID-19 should consider the availability of local resources, such as structured catheterization laboratories, coronary care unit and/or ICU beds, and adequacy of the environment to the protective measures against SARS-CoV-2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> A Chinese report has suggested that thrombolysis should be the first-choice therapy for patients with COVID-19. That is a controversial recommendation, especially where primary angioplasty can be performed, respecting all the safety rules for protection of healthcare professionals and hospital environment (personal protective equipment, negative pressure room, proper cleaning).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The treatment of cardiovascular complications should be based on the ideal and careful use of the therapies recommended in the guidelines. Therapy with ACEI, ARB, beta-blockers, antiplatelet agents and statins should abide by the recommendations in the guidelines, respecting the contraindications related to hemodynamic stability and presence of other organic dysfunctions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Patients with COVID-19 are at a higher risk of venous thromboembolism, because of their prolonged physical inactivity and their abnormal coagulation parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The use of non-pharmacological prophylaxis strategies is recommended for all in-patients with COVID-19. Pharmacological strategies should be considered, such as the use of unfractionated or low-molecular-weight heparin, taking into account the latter&#8217;s contraindications and the patient&#8217;s creatinine clearance. Venous thromboembolism should be suspected based on clinical criteria, in situations such as maintenance of high d-dimer levels and refractory hypoxemia, or in the presence of echocardiographic signs of pulmonary hypertension and right ventricular dysfunction.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Telemedicine and cardiology</title>
          <p>Because of the exponential viral spread, social distancing has been determined as a key-factor to reduce the speed of spread by reducing person-to-person contact. The use of information technology, thus, is mandatory as an emergency response to environmental issues or biological risks. Telehealth enables remote triage, supports the diagnosis of diseases, and ensures access to routine care during an infectious disease outbreak.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In 2019, the Brazilian Medical Board published a decree defining telemedicine as the technology-mediated practice of medicine aimed at health care, education, research, prevention of diseases and injuries, and health promotion, regulating that practice. The Brazilian Society of Cardiology has issued a guideline on telemedicine applied to cardiology, also named telecardiology. Telecardiology by acting in health promotion, disease prevention, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation, which impact the quality of life, can be considered an important ally of the health system, be it public, supplementary or private, to promote quality integral health care. The implementation of telecardiology is important to primary and specialized health care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> In cardiology, telemedicine can be useful to control risk factors, such as blood pressure and diabetes mellitus, to improve the lipid profile, to reduce weight, and to increase the success rate of smoking cessation programs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
          <p>At the current stage of pandemic control, telemedicine became a useful tool, especially for patients at high risk, reducing the exposure to SARS-CoV-2 and helping control comorbidities. On March 19, 2020, the Brazilian Medical Board, in accordance with the Brazilian Ministry of Health, recognized the possibility and ethical character of telemedicine regarding teleguidance, teleconsultation, and telemonitoring.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <p>General recommendations</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Intensify the care and preventive measures against the novel coronavirus infection in the population with CVD.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Patients with CVD should be managed according to current guidelines, ensuring the best treatment available for chronic illnesses.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>It is essential that patients with CVD maintain strict adherence to proper diet, regular sleep and physical activity, avoiding tobacco and alcohol consumption.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>It is important to update vaccines. This includes the pneumococcal vaccine, because of the increased risk of bacterial infection secondary to SARS-CoV-2, and the influenza vaccine, indicated for patients with CVD.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Outpatient appointments as well as elective tests and procedures should be postponed if clinical discretion determines they are not essential and if not performing them neither increases the risk of events nor hinders the clinical management of an underlying CVD. Telemedicine should be used to help patient&#8217;s follow-up.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>The number of healthcare professionals taking part in ward rounds for patients should be reduced, and online discussion should be implemented.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>COVID-19 is potentially severe and has a high spread rate. Current data available are mainly derived from retrospective studies and should be cautiously interpreted. However, current evidence already shows the need to pay special attention to patients at risk and the importance of the proper management of cardiovascular complications, with rapid identification and implementation of adequate treatment.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of Funding</p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
