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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">N95NCgGxk7wHmm6JPv5H4tN</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2020000400736</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20190731</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20190731</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Posicionamento</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Posicionamento Luso-Brasileiro de Emerg&#234;ncias Hipertensivas &#8211; 2020</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6960-2825</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vilela-Martin</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yugar-Toledo</surname>
            <given-names>Juan Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rodrigues</surname>
            <given-names>Manuel de Carvalho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Kunz Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Lu&#237;s Carlos Bronze S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gonz&#225;lez</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Jos&#233; Torres</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amodeo</surname>
            <given-names>Celso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dias</surname>
            <given-names>Vitor Manuel Margarido Paix&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pinto</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Carvalho Moreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Lu&#237;s Filipe Reis</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Malachias</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Cesar Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Dilma do Socorro Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Passarelli</surname>
            <given-names>Oswaldo</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Costa Duarte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Polonia</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge Junqueira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>P&#243;voa</surname>
            <given-names>Rui Manoel dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade Estadual de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Estadual de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto (FAMERP), S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Hospitalar Universit&#225;rio Cova da Beira</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Covilh&#227;</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Hospitalar Universit&#225;rio Cova da Beira, Covilh&#227; &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade da Beira Interior</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Covilh&#227;</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilh&#227; &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Liga de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Liga de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s (UFG), Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Marinha Portuguesa</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Lisboa</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Marinha Portuguesa, Lisboa &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Vithas Hospital Nisa 9 de Octubre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Valencia</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="ES">Espanha</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Vithas Hospital Nisa 9 de Octubre,Valencia &#8211; Espanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>8</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Hospitalar de Vila Nova Gaia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Espinho</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Hospitalar de Vila Nova Gaia, Espinho &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>9</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Hospitalar de Entre o Douro e Vouga</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Santa Maria da Feira</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Hospitalar de Entre o Douro e Vouga, E.P.E., Santa Maria da Feira &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>10</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Escola</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Fernando Pessoa</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Cosme</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Escola da Universidade Fernando Pessoa, Cosme &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <label>11</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12">
        <label>12</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s (UFG), Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13">
        <label>13</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o De Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o De Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14">
        <label>14</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Par&#225;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bel&#233;m</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Par&#225; (UFPA), Bel&#233;m, PA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15">
        <label>15</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia,S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16">
        <label>16</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Liga de Combate &#224; Hipertens&#227;o de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Liga de Combate &#224; Hipertens&#227;o de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17">
        <label>17</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Porto</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Porto, Porto &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: 20020-907. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>114</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>736</fpage>
      <lpage>751</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="12"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="102"/>
        <page-count count="16"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup width="13%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th colspan="8">Declara&#231;&#227;o de potencial conflito de interesses dos autores/colaboradores do Posicionamento Luso-Brasileiro de Emerg&#234;ncias Hipertensivas &#8211; 2020 Se nos &#250;ltimos 3 anos o autor/colaborador do Posicionamento:</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th colspan="8">
                <hr/>
              </th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Nomes Integrantes do Posicionamento</th>
              <th>Participou de estudos cl&#237;nicos e/ou experimentais subvencionados pela ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica ou de equipamentos relacionados &#224; diretriz em quest&#227;o</th>
              <th>Foi palestrante em eventos ou atividades patrocinadas pela ind&#250;stria relacionados &#224; diretriz em quest&#227;o</th>
              <th>Foi (&#233;) membro do conselho consultivo ou diretivo da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica ou de equipamentos</th>
              <th>Participou de comit&#234;s normativos de estudos cient&#237;ficos patrocinados pela ind&#250;stria</th>
              <th>Recebeu aux&#237;lio pessoal ou institucional da ind&#250;stria</th>
              <th>Elaborou textos cient&#237;ficos em peri&#243;dicos patrocinados pela ind&#250;stria</th>
              <th>Tem a&#231;&#245;es da ind&#250;stria</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td>Celso Amodeo</td>
              <td align="center">Medtronic</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Novonordisk, Pfizer, Sankyo</td>
              <td align="center">Medley</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Dilma do Socorro Moraes de Souza</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Eduardo Costa Duarte Barbosa</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, EMS</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, EMS, Torrent</td>
              <td align="center">EMS, Medley, Novartis</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Fernando Carvalho Moreira Pinto</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Francisco Jos&#233; Torres Gonz&#225;lez</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Jorge Junqueira Polonia</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Jose Fernando Vilela-Martin</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Juan Carlos Yugar-Toledo</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Lu&#237;s Carlos Bronze S. Carvalho</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Lu&#237;s Filipe Reis Martins</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Manuel de Carvalho Rodrigues</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bolivar Malachias</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Libbs, Biolab</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Libbs, Biolab, Ach&#233;</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Oswaldo Passarelli J&#250;nior</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Paulo C&#233;sar Veiga Jardim</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Biolab, Ach&#233;, Libbs</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Rui Manoel dos Santos P&#243;voa</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Vitor Manuel Margarido Paix&#227;o Dias</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Tecnimede</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso</td>
              <td align="center">Boehringer, Torrent, EMS, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Novartis</td>
              <td align="center">EMS, Servier, Medley, Omron, Cardios</td>
              <td align="center">Omron</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">EMS, Servier</td>
              <td align="center">EMS, Servier, Medley</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
    </p>
    <sec>
      <title>Sum&#225;rio</title>
      <p>1. Defini&#231;&#227;o, Epidemiologia e Classifica&#231;&#227;o das Emerg&#234;ncias Hipertensivas 738</p>
      <p>2. Aspectos Fisiopatol&#243;gicos da Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva 739</p>
      <p>2.1. Autorregula&#231;&#227;o do Fluxo Sangu&#237;neo Cerebral 739</p>
      <p>3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica e Laboratorial 740</p>
      <p>4. Tratamento das Emerg&#234;ncias Hipertensivas: Princ&#237;pios Gerais, Principais F&#225;rmacos e Dosagens 740</p>
      <p>5. Encefalopatia Hipertensiva 741</p>
      <p>5.1. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas 741</p>
      <p>5.2. Diagn&#243;stico 741</p>
      <p>5.3. Tratamento 742</p>
      <p>6. Hipertens&#227;o Maligna ou Acelerada 742</p>
      <p>7. Acidente Vascular Cerebral e Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva 743</p>
      <p>7.1. Acidente Vascular Cerebral Isqu&#234;mico 743</p>
      <p>7.2. Acidente Vascular Cerebral Hemorr&#225;gico 744</p>
      <p>8. S&#237;ndromes Coronarianas Agudas e Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva 744</p>
      <p>9. Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular Esquerda Aguda na Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva 745</p>
      <p>10. S&#237;ndromes A&#243;rticas Agudas 745</p>
      <p>10.1. Tratamento 745</p>
      <p>11. Emerg&#234;ncias Hipertensivas na Gesta&#231;&#227;o 745</p>
      <p>11.1. Tratamento 746</p>
      <p>12. Emerg&#234;ncias Adren&#233;rgicas 746</p>
      <p>13. Drogas Il&#237;citas e Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva 747</p>
      <p>14. Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva no P&#243;s-Operat&#243;rio de Cirurgia Vascular 748</p>
      <p>Refer&#234;ncias 748</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>1. Defini&#231;&#227;o, Epidemiologia e Classifica&#231;&#227;o das Emerg&#234;ncias Hipertensivas</title>
      <p>A emerg&#234;ncia hipertensiva (EH) est&#225; integrada em um quadro nosol&#243;gico mais geral denominado crise hipertensiva (CH). A CH representa situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que cursam com eleva&#231;&#227;o aguda da press&#227;o arterial (PA), geralmente n&#237;veis de PA sist&#243;lica (PAS) &#8805; 180 mmHg e diast&#243;lica (PAD) &#8805; 120 mmHg, que podem resultar ou n&#227;o em <bold>les&#245;es de &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo</bold> (LOA) (cora&#231;&#227;o, c&#233;rebro, rins e art&#233;rias).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A CH pode se apresentar sob duas formas distintas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; gravidade e ao progn&#243;stico: a urg&#234;ncia hipertensiva (UH) e a EH. Casos de EH cursam com eleva&#231;&#227;o acentuada da PA associada a LOA e risco imediato de morte, fato que requer redu&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida e gradual dos n&#237;veis tensionais em minutos a horas, com monitoramento intensivo e uso de f&#225;rmacos por via endovenosa (EV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Ela pode se manifestar como um evento cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, renal ou na gesta&#231;&#227;o, na forma de pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia ou ecl&#226;mpsia. Embora a defini&#231;&#227;o cl&#225;ssica das duas apresenta&#231;&#245;es da CH a descreva com valores acima dos 180/120 mmHg, atualmente o maior consenso se estabelece no conceito de que mais do que os valores &#233; o dano ou o risco iminente de acometimento de &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo que distingue a EH da UH. Assim, a UH caracteriza-se por eleva&#231;&#245;es da PA, sem LOA e sem risco de morte iminente, fato que permite redu&#231;&#227;o mais lenta dos n&#237;veis de PA em per&#237;odo de 24 a 48 horas. Atualmente, existe uma ampla discuss&#227;o sobre a real exist&#234;ncia do diagn&#243;stico &#8220;urg&#234;ncia hipertensiva&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Muitos preconizam que esta classifica&#231;&#227;o necessita ser atualizada (se n&#227;o abandonada) e que a maior import&#226;ncia diagn&#243;stica &#233; a observa&#231;&#227;o dos sinais/sintomas e da disfun&#231;&#227;o aguda dos &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo, mais do que no valor da PA. Outros acreditam que o termo correto deveria ser &#8220;eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA sem LOA em evolu&#231;&#227;o&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Como visto, embora o n&#237;vel de PA seja frequentemente muito elevado (&#8805; 180/120 mmHg), n&#227;o &#233; isso que define EH, mas o comprometimento dos &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo. Portanto, o padr&#227;o num&#233;rico que define a CH &#233; conceitual e serve como par&#226;metro de conduta, mas n&#227;o deve ser usado como crit&#233;rio absoluto.</p>
      <p>Se a defini&#231;&#227;o de CH hoje est&#225; mais universalmente aceita, a epidemiologia e preval&#234;ncia desta condi&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o ainda quest&#245;es de baixo conhecimento da comunidade cient&#237;fica. Na literatura, existem poucos estudos sobre o tema e todos eles com n&#250;mero limitado de participantes. Atualmente, discute-se a hip&#243;tese de a n&#227;o ades&#227;o ao tratamento ser um dos fatores mais prevalentes na etiologia da CH, sem especifica&#231;&#245;es quanto &#224; separa&#231;&#227;o entre UH e EH. Nos EUA, nos maiores estudos seriados a incid&#234;ncia de CH &#233; de cerca de 4,8%, sendo 0,8% atribu&#237;da &#224;s EH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Outros centros mostram que a CH responde por uma taxa vari&#225;vel de 0,45 a 0,59% de todos os atendimentos de emerg&#234;ncia hospitalar e 1,7% das emerg&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas, sendo a UH mais comum do que a EH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) isqu&#234;mico e edema agudo de pulm&#227;o (EAP) s&#227;o as situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas mais encontradas nas EH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Estima-se que cerca de 1% dos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos possa vir a apresentar uma CH ao longo da sua vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> As situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas envolvidas em uma EH, de acordo com as LOA, s&#227;o mostradas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref> . A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 2</xref> mostra as principais situa&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; UH.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Situa&#231;&#245;es que cursam com les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo caracterizando emerg&#234;ncias hipertensivas1-5</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Hipertens&#227;o grave associada a complica&#231;&#245;es agudas</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Eventos cerebrovasculares</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Encefalopatia hipertensiva</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Hemorragia intracerebral</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Hemorragia subaracnoide</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- AVC isqu&#234;mico</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Eventos cardiocirculat&#243;rios</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Dissec&#231;&#227;o aguda de aorta</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Edema agudo de pulm&#227;o com insufici&#234;ncia ventricular esquerda</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Angina inst&#225;vel</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Doen&#231;a renal</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Insufici&#234;ncia renal rapidamente progressiva</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Crises adren&#233;rgicas graves</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Crise do feocromocitoma</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Superdosagem de drogas il&#237;citas (coca&#237;na, <italic>crack</italic> , LSD)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Hipertens&#227;o na gesta&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Ecl&#226;mpsia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia grave</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- S&#237;ndrome &#8220;HELLP&#8221;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Hipertens&#227;o grave em final de gesta&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>HELLP: hem&#243;lise, enzimas hep&#225;ticas elevadas e plaquetopenia; AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; LSD: dietilamida do &#225;cido lis&#233;rgico.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Situa&#231;&#245;es que cursam com urg&#234;ncias hipertensivas1-5</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Hipertens&#227;o grave associada a:</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>- Insufici&#234;ncia coronariana</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Aneurisma de aorta</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Acidente vascular cerebral n&#227;o complicado</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Epistaxe grave</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Queimaduras extensas</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Estados de hipocoagulabilidade</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Vasculites sist&#234;micas</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Peri-operat&#243;rio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio em cirurgias de urg&#234;ncia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Intraoperat&#243;rio (cirurgias card&#237;acas, vasculares, neurocirurgias, feocromocitoma etc.)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Hipertens&#227;o est&#225;gio III no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio (transplante de &#243;rg&#227;o, cirurgias card&#237;acas, vasculares, neurocirurgias etc.)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Crises adren&#233;rgicas leves/moderadas</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- S&#237;ndrome do rebote (suspens&#227;o s&#250;bita de inibidores adren&#233;rgicos)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Intera&#231;&#227;o medicamentoso-alimentar (tiramina vs. inibidores da MAO)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Consumo excessivo de estimulantes (anfetaminas, tric&#237;clicos etc.)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Na gesta&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Hipertens&#227;o est&#225;gio III</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>
                <italic>MAO: monoaminoxidase.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2. Aspectos Fisiopatol&#243;gicos da Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva</title>
      <p>A fisiopatogenia da EH n&#227;o &#233; completamente elucidada. De forma geral, dois mecanismos diferentes podem desempenhar pap&#233;is centrais em sua fisiopatog&#234;nese. O primeiro &#233; o desequil&#237;brio no sistema de autorregula&#231;&#227;o do leito vascular, que cursa com redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o, com consequente diminui&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo e aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular, originando estresse mec&#226;nico e les&#227;o endotelial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> O segundo mecanismo &#233; a ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina, levando a uma maior vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o, produzindo um ciclo vicioso de les&#227;o endotelial, necrose fibrinoide de arter&#237;olas e subsequente isquemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A les&#227;o vascular provoca deposi&#231;&#227;o de plaquetas e fibrina, caracterizando tamb&#233;m o estado protromb&#243;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Posterior isquemia resultante estimula a libera&#231;&#227;o de mais subst&#226;ncias vasoativas, criando um c&#237;rculo vicioso.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>2.1. Autorregula&#231;&#227;o do Fluxo Sangu&#237;neo Cerebral</title>
        <p>O conhecimento do mecanismo de autorregula&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo para os &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo (fluxo cerebral, coronariano e renal) &#233; vital para uma melhor conduta anti-hipertensiva nos casos de EH. A autorregula&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo cerebral (FSC) &#233; mantida pela rela&#231;&#227;o entre press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o cerebral (PPC) e resist&#234;ncia cerebrovascular (RCV), isto &#233;, FSC = PPC/RCV (PPC = press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia &#8722; press&#227;o venosa m&#233;dia). PPC &#233; a diferen&#231;a entre a PA, que ajuda na irriga&#231;&#227;o dos tecidos, e a press&#227;o venosa. Sob PPC normal, a press&#227;o venosa n&#227;o &#233; importante, de modo que a PPC &#233; equivalente &#224; PA. Redu&#231;&#245;es na PPC podem ser causadas por redu&#231;&#245;es na PA ou aumento da press&#227;o intracraniana (PIC), o que aumenta a press&#227;o venosa. Eleva&#231;&#245;es na PIC podem ocorrer como resultado de doen&#231;a oclusiva arterial ou venosa ou hemorragia intracerebral. Em indiv&#237;duos normotensos, uma ampla varia&#231;&#227;o na PA (entre 60 e 150 mmHg) pode ocorrer sem alterar o FSC. Um aumento na PPC (ou PA) provoca eleva&#231;&#227;o na RCV, protegendo assim o paciente contra o edema cerebral, e redu&#231;&#245;es na PPC causam queda na RCV, protegendo assim o paciente da isquemia tecidual. Quando a PPC exceder o limite superior de autorregula&#231;&#227;o, o FSC aumentar&#225; causando edema cerebral. Por outro lado, quando a PPC decair abaixo do limite inferior de autorregula&#231;&#227;o, o FSC diminuir&#225; causando isquemia cerebral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos, essa rela&#231;&#227;o &#233; alterada de tal forma que o limite inferior de autorregula&#231;&#227;o &#233; maior do que em indiv&#237;duos normotensos. Portanto, diminui&#231;&#245;es inadequadas na PPC podem dificultar a irriga&#231;&#227;o tecidual e, consequentemente, agravar a &#225;rea isqu&#234;mica vi&#225;vel. Por essa raz&#227;o, &#233; aconselh&#225;vel reduzir, inicialmente, a press&#227;o m&#233;dia em 20 a 25% em rela&#231;&#227;o aos valores iniciais, pois estar&#225; pr&#243;xima do limite inferior de autorregula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Deve-se estar atento a essa situa&#231;&#227;o, pois a maioria dos pacientes com EH &#233; portadora de hipertens&#227;o cr&#244;nica com desvio da curva de autorregula&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o/fluxo (cerebral, coronariano e renal) para a direita e n&#227;o apresenta les&#227;o aguda de &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo, motivo pelo qual uma redu&#231;&#227;o s&#250;bita da PA pode estar associada &#224; morbidade significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica e Laboratorial</title>
      <p>Durante a abordagem da EH, o profissional dever&#225; realizar a diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre emerg&#234;ncia e urg&#234;ncia, fazendo o diagn&#243;stico correto das diversas situa&#231;&#245;es de EH, a fim de selecionar a terapia mais adequada para cada LOA. Isso &#233; muito importante, pois o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento corretos podem evitar agravamento do quadro cl&#237;nico decorrente da situa&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica. A abordagem aos pacientes com EH requer avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e testes complementares realizados em centros de emerg&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica com suporte hospitalar. A PA deve ser aferida nos dois bra&#231;os (no m&#237;nimo 03 medidas), preferencialmente em ambiente tranquilo. Indiv&#237;duos com eleva&#231;&#245;es agudas da PA apresentam mais frequentemente altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas, caracterizadas por hiperglicemia, dislipidemia, menores n&#237;veis de pot&#225;ssio e fun&#231;&#227;o renal reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> A sequ&#234;ncia de etapas utilizadas no manejo dos pacientes com CH &#233; a seguinte:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Procurar fatores que possam ter desencadeado a eleva&#231;&#227;o aguda da PA.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Investigar sintomas ou situa&#231;&#245;es que simulam CH (cefaleia, labirintite, trauma f&#237;sico, dor, estresse emocional, problemas familiares ou profissionais).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Observar hist&#243;ria de hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS), tempo de evolu&#231;&#227;o, uso de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos (doses e ades&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Investigar epis&#243;dios anteriormente ocorridos semelhantes &#224; situa&#231;&#227;o atual.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Investigar uso de medicamentos que possam interferir no controle da PA (anti-inflamat&#243;rios, esteroides, analg&#233;sicos, antidepressivos, moderadores de apetite).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Avaliar uso ou consumo abusivo de &#225;lcool e subst&#226;ncias t&#243;xicas (coca&#237;na, <italic>crack</italic> , dietilamida do &#225;cido lis&#233;rgico [LSD]).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Avaliar uso de inibidores adren&#233;rgicos que foram subitamente interrompidos (clonidina, metildopa e betabloqueadores).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Observar se existe associa&#231;&#227;o com outras morbidades e fatores de risco (diabetes, doen&#231;a card&#237;aca, doen&#231;a renal, tabagismo, dislipidemia).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>A hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e o exame f&#237;sico devem ser realizados de acordo com a presen&#231;a de LOA:</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>Sistema nervoso central (observar ocorr&#234;ncia de cefaleia, tontura, dist&#250;rbios visuais e da fala, n&#237;vel de consci&#234;ncia, agita&#231;&#227;o ou apatia, confus&#227;o, d&#233;ficits neurol&#243;gicos focais, rigidez de nuca, convuls&#245;es e coma).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Sistema cardiovascular (avaliar ritmo card&#237;aco, queixa de palpita&#231;&#245;es e sopro carot&#237;deo, investigar dor e desconforto tor&#225;cico e precordial, no abdome ou no dorso, al&#233;m de sinais e sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia ventricular esquerda &#8211; ritmo de galope, dispneia, estase venosa jugular, pulsos perif&#233;ricos, satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Sistema renal e geniturin&#225;rio (avaliar altera&#231;&#245;es no volume e na frequ&#234;ncia miccional ou no aspecto da urina, desidrata&#231;&#227;o, edema em membros inferiores, hemat&#250;ria e dis&#250;ria). Nota: n&#227;o se esquecer de examinar o abdome (massas puls&#225;teis abdominais e sopro abdominal).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Fundo de olho (observar se existe vasoespasmo, cruzamentos arteriovenosos, espessamento na parede arterial e aspecto em fio de cobre ou prata, exsudatos duros e moles, hemorragias e papiledema).</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Os exames complementares dever&#227;o ser realizados conforme o envolvimento dos &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo:</p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>Sistema nervoso central (tomografia computadorizada, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica e pun&#231;&#227;o lombar).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Sistema cardiovascular (eletrocardiografia, radiografia de t&#243;rax, ecocardiografia, marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, angiotomografia, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Sistema renal (urina de rotina, ureia, creatinina, eletr&#243;litos e gasometria).</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Tratamento das Emerg&#234;ncias Hipertensivas: Princ&#237;pios Gerais, Principais F&#225;rmacos e Dosagens</title>
      <p>As melhores condi&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas e terap&#234;uticas t&#234;m proporcionado grande redu&#231;&#227;o na taxa de mortalidade em 1 ano, que variava de 80%, em 1928, a 50%, em 1955 e, a somente, 10% em 1989.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> O tratamento dos pacientes com quadro cl&#237;nico de EH tem como prop&#243;sito a redu&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida da PA com a finalidade de impedir a progress&#227;o das LOA. Portanto, eles devem ser admitidos em terapia intensiva, submetidos a tratamento anti-hipertensivo por via EV e monitorados cuidadosamente durante a terapia parenteral para evitar a ocorr&#234;ncia de hipotens&#227;o. As recomenda&#231;&#245;es gerais de redu&#231;&#227;o da PA sugeridas pelo <italic>VII Joint National Committee</italic> (JNC)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> para EH s&#227;o sumarizadas da seguinte forma:</p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>&#8595; PA &#8804; 25% na primeira hora.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>&#8595; PA 160/100 a 110 mmHg em 2 a 6h.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>PA 135/85 mmHg 24 a 48h.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Entretanto, EH devem ser abordadas considerando o sistema ou o &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo acometido. Assim, cada comprometimento org&#226;nico da EH (cardiovascular, cerebral, renal e outros) deve ser caracterizado previamente antes de iniciar a terapia anti-hipertensiva espec&#237;fica (ver &#8220;Avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e laboratorial&#8221;).</p>
      <p>Atualmente, v&#225;rias op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas medicamentosas est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis para o tratamento das EH. O f&#225;rmaco anti-hipertensivo ideal para uso parenteral deve apresentar as seguintes caracter&#237;sticas: capacidade de reverter altera&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas envolvidas, r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o, curva dose-resposta previs&#237;vel, m&#237;nimo ajuste de dosagem, alta seletividade, n&#227;o promover eleva&#231;&#227;o da PIC, pronta reversibilidade, baixo risco de promover hipotens&#227;o arterial, f&#225;cil substitui&#231;&#227;o por f&#225;rmacos para uso oral e satisfat&#243;ria rela&#231;&#227;o custo-benef&#237;cio. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 3</xref> s&#227;o apresentadas sucintamente as propriedades farmacocin&#233;ticas e farmacodin&#226;micas dos principais f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos utilizados nas EH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> No Brasil, os seguintes f&#225;rmacos est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis para uso nas EH: nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio, nitroglicerina, labetalol, esmolol, metoprolol, hidralazina e enalaprilato.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Propriedades farmacocin&#233;ticas e farmacodin&#226;micas dos principais medicamentos anti-hipertensivos para uso por via parenteral</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="17%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">F&#225;rmacos</th>
                <th>Modo de administra&#231;&#227;o e dosagem</th>
                <th>In&#237;cio</th>
                <th>Dura&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>Vantagens</th>
                <th>Desvantagens</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Nitroglicerina (vasodilatador arterial e venoso do doador de &#243;xido n&#237;trico)</td>
                <td align="center">Infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua 5 a 15 mg/h</td>
                <td align="center">2 a 5 min</td>
                <td align="center">3 a 5 min</td>
                <td align="center">Perfus&#227;o coronariana</td>
                <td align="center">Cefaleia, efic&#225;cia vari&#225;vel, taquifilaxia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio (vasodilatador arterial e venoso)</td>
                <td align="center">Infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua 0,5 a 10 &#956;g/kg/min</td>
                <td align="center">Imediato</td>
                <td align="center">1 a 2 min</td>
                <td align="center">Titula&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Intoxica&#231;&#227;o por tiocianato, hipotens&#227;o, n&#225;useas, v&#244;mitos, espasmo muscular</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Metoprolol (betabloqueador)</td>
                <td align="center">Ataque: 5 mg EV (repetir a cada 10 min, at&#233; 20 mg se necess&#225;rio)</td>
                <td align="center">5 a 10 min</td>
                <td align="center">3 a 4 h</td>
                <td align="center">Redu&#231;&#227;o do consumo de O<sub>2</sub></td>
                <td align="center">Bradicardia, BAV, broncospasmo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Labetalol (alfa e betabloqueador)</td>
                <td align="center">Ataque: 20 a 80 mg a cada 10 min Infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua 2 mg/min (m&#225;ximo 300 mg/24 h)</td>
                <td align="center">5 a 10 min</td>
                <td align="center">2 a 6 h</td>
                <td align="center">Betabloqueador e vasodilatador</td>
                <td align="center">N&#225;useas, v&#244;mitos, BAV, broncospasmo, hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Esmolol (Betabloqueador ultrasseletivo de a&#231;&#227;o ultrarr&#225;pida)</td>
                <td align="center">Ataque: 500 &#956;g/kg Infus&#227;o intermitente: 25 a 50 &#956;g/kg/min &#8593; 25 &#956;g/kg/min a cada 10 a 20 min M&#225;ximo: 300 &#956;g/kg/min</td>
                <td align="center">1 a 2 min</td>
                <td align="center">1 a 20 min</td>
                <td align="center">Betabloqueador seletivo</td>
                <td align="center">Bradicardia, BAV, broncospasmo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hidralazina (vasodilatador de a&#231;&#227;o direta)</td>
                <td align="center">10 a 20 mg EV ou 10 a 40 mg IM a cada 6 h</td>
                <td align="center">10 a 20 min EV ou 20 a 30 min IM</td>
                <td align="center">3 a 12 h</td>
                <td align="center">Ecl&#226;mpsia ou ecl&#226;mpsia iminente</td>
                <td align="center">Taquicardia, cefaleia, v&#244;mitos. Piora da angina e do IAM. Cuidado com press&#227;o intracraniana elevada</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Enalaprilato (IECA)</td>
                <td align="center">Infus&#227;o intermitente: 1,25 a 5 mg a cada 6 h</td>
                <td align="center">15 min</td>
                <td align="center">4 a 6 h</td>
                <td align="center">ICC, IVE aguda</td>
                <td align="center">Hipotens&#227;o, insufici&#234;ncia renal</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Furosemida (diur&#233;tico de al&#231;a)</td>
                <td align="center">Infus&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">5 a 10 min</td>
                <td align="center">30 a 90 min</td>
                <td align="center">ICC, IVE</td>
                <td align="center">Hipopotassemia</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>
                <italic>IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio; ICC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva; IVE: insufici&#234;ncia ventricular esquerda; BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora da angiotensina; EV: via endovenosa; IM: via intramuscular.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5. Encefalopatia Hipertensiva</title>
      <p>Encefalopatia hipertensiva &#233; uma disfun&#231;&#227;o neurol&#243;gica definida por sinais e/ou sintomas de edema cerebral secund&#225;rio &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o s&#250;bita e/ou mantida da PA. Acontece em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos cr&#244;nicos que desenvolvem HAS maligna ou naqueles previamente normotensos que podem apresentar eleva&#231;&#245;es agudas da PA por outros mecanismos, cursando com fal&#234;ncia dos mecanismos de autorregula&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o cerebral. Representa um diagn&#243;stico de exclus&#227;o, confirmado retrospectivamente quando o quadro neurol&#243;gico melhora ap&#243;s o controle da PA.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>5.1. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas</title>
        <p>A encefalopatia hipertensiva pode se apresentar com in&#237;cio insidioso, evoluindo com cefaleia holocraniana, n&#225;useas ou v&#244;mitos. Posteriormente, podem surgir altera&#231;&#245;es do estado mental e campim&#233;tricas, fotopsia, vis&#227;o turva, alucina&#231;&#245;es visuais, crises convulsivas generalizadas, hiperreflexia e sinais de hipertens&#227;o intracraniana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> No momento em que aparecem as manifesta&#231;&#245;es neurol&#243;gicas, geralmente, a PAD encontra-se acima de 125 mmHg. A resolu&#231;&#227;o do quadro, quer do ponto de vista cl&#237;nico, quer do ponto de vista de imagem, demora, em m&#233;dia, v&#225;rias semanas ap&#243;s o controle da PA. A persist&#234;ncia de um d&#233;ficit &#233; sinal de exist&#234;ncia de les&#227;o neurol&#243;gica focal.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.2. Diagn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica &#233; o exame diagn&#243;stico de maior valor. Na sequ&#234;ncia T2, evidenciam-se les&#245;es hiperintensas na subst&#226;ncia branca com comprometimento preferencial das regi&#245;es parieto-occipitais. O territ&#243;rio irrigado pelo sistema vertebrobasilar pode ser atingido em casos mais graves. A presen&#231;a de hipersinal ao coeficiente de difus&#227;o aparente sugere a ocorr&#234;ncia de edema vasog&#234;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Laboratorialmente, podem-se encontrar trombocitopenia, anemia hemol&#237;tica microangiop&#225;tica, protein&#250;ria, aumento dos valores da creatinina plasm&#225;tica e das enzimas hep&#225;ticas. Na tomografia computadorizada, s&#227;o habituais hipodensidades focais ou difusas na subst&#226;ncia branca e no c&#243;rtex, com sinais de edema. O eletroencefalograma mostra lentifica&#231;&#227;o difusa com perda do ritmo alfa, ou atividade epileptiforme, se existirem crises convulsivas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.3. Tratamento</title>
        <p>O objetivo &#233; reduzir a PA m&#233;dia em aproximadamente 10 a 15% na primeira hora e n&#227;o mais do que 25% ao fim do primeiro dia de tratamento. Diminui&#231;&#245;es mais profundas e r&#225;pidas podem provocar hipoperfus&#227;o cerebral e perda dos mecanismos de autorregula&#231;&#227;o vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Devido &#224; necessidade de controle r&#225;pido da PA, recomenda-se o uso de f&#225;rmacos por via EV, utilizando-se mais frequentemente nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio (vasodilatador arterial e venoso), nicardipina (bloqueador dos canais de c&#225;lcio di-hidropirid&#237;nico com a&#231;&#227;o vasodilatadora arteriolar), clevidipina (bloqueador dos canais de c&#225;lcio di-hidropirid&#237;nico de curta a&#231;&#227;o), labetalol (bloqueador alfa e beta-adren&#233;rgico) ou fenoldopam (agonista dos receptores perif&#233;ricos de dopamina-1). Na gesta&#231;&#227;o, recomendam-se sulfato de magn&#233;sio, diaz&#243;xido ou hidralazina. Podem ser usados tamb&#233;m corticoides (dexametasona), manitol (pode ser usado, se n&#227;o houver doen&#231;a renal) e anticonvulsivantes (em caso de crises).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Nas primeiras 24 a 48 horas, devem-se introduzir f&#225;rmacos de a&#231;&#227;o oral para melhor controle da PA (bloqueadores do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona e bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio), com redu&#231;&#227;o gradual da PAD para valores inferiores a 90 mmHg nos dois a tr&#234;s meses seguintes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6. Hipertens&#227;o Maligna ou Acelerada</title>
      <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial maligna &#233; caracterizada por apresentar HAS em n&#237;veis variados, mas em geral se apresenta com PA muito elevada (est&#225;gio 3), retinopatia com papiledema e LOA (rins e cora&#231;&#227;o) rapidamente progressiva, e comumente cursa com evolu&#231;&#227;o fatal, se n&#227;o houver interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ). A grave eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA na presen&#231;a de hemorragias retinianas e exsudatos ao fundo de olho, mas sem papiledema, &#233; denominada hipertens&#227;o arterial acelerada ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref> ). Ap&#243;s a demonstra&#231;&#227;o de que os achados cl&#237;nicos e o progn&#243;stico dessas duas formas de hipertens&#227;o eram semelhantes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> os termos &#8220;maligna&#8221; e &#8220;acelerada&#8221; foram considerados intercambi&#225;veis, de tal forma que a Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de usa atualmente o termo acelerada-maligna para definir essa complica&#231;&#227;o. Caracteristicamente, a hipertens&#227;o maligna apresenta altera&#231;&#245;es vasculares sist&#234;micas que afetam principalmente os rins (a chamada nefrosclerose maligna), envolvendo basicamente dois processos: (a) endarterite proliferativa em pequenas e grandes arter&#237;olas, com espessamento intimal, fragmenta&#231;&#227;o e reduplica&#231;&#227;o da l&#226;mina el&#225;stica interna e prolifera&#231;&#227;o do m&#250;sculo liso; a progress&#227;o dessa les&#227;o, cuja apar&#234;ncia lembra &#8220;casca de cebola&#8221;, pode acarretar oclus&#227;o do l&#250;men do vaso e consequente redu&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo renal; (b) altera&#231;&#227;o necrosante das arter&#237;olas, principalmente no hilo glomerular, sendo a parede dos vasos refeita com material granular eosinof&#237;lico que exibe as caracter&#237;sticas de fibrina (necrose fibrinoide), causando destrui&#231;&#227;o da morfologia normal e profundo estreitamento do l&#250;men. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es podem ocorrer em outros &#243;rg&#227;os al&#233;m dos rins e s&#227;o as principais respons&#225;veis pelas complica&#231;&#245;es fatais da doen&#231;a ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> O progn&#243;stico da hipertens&#227;o maligna &#233; quase sempre fatal, se n&#227;o reconhecida ou n&#227;o devidamente tratada precocemente e, no passado, a mortalidade chegava a 80% em dois anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> No entanto, desde a introdu&#231;&#227;o do tratamento anti-hipertensivo, estudos t&#234;m mostrado que a sobrevida do indiv&#237;duo com hipertens&#227;o maligna melhorou muito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Em publica&#231;&#227;o com quase 500 pacientes de Birmingham (Reino Unido), os autores relataram uma melhora significativa da sobrevida de 5 anos, de 32% antes de 1977 para 91% em pacientes diagnosticados entre 1997 e 2006.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> O controle do paciente com hipertens&#227;o maligna habitualmente inclui o uso de 4 classes de f&#225;rmacos, e as complica&#231;&#245;es hipertensivas podem se estabilizar e, em alguns casos, at&#233; ser revertidas.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; <italic>Fundo de olho normal (A). Fundo de olho de indiv&#237;duo com hipertens&#227;o maligna e papiledema (B).</italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-04-0736-90731-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; <italic>Exame de fundo de olho mostra papilas normais com estreitamento arteriolar difuso, focos de hemorragias superficiais e microaneurismas (retinopatia hipertensiva grau III da classifica&#231;&#227;o de Keith-Wagener-Barker).</italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-04-0736-90731-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; <italic>Les&#245;es anatomopatol&#243;gicas t&#237;picas de hipertens&#227;o arterial acelerada-maligna. Necrose fibrinoide de arter&#237;ola aferente (seta) (A). Endarterite obliterante (les&#245;es em &#8220;casca de cebola&#8221;) (B).</italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-04-0736-90731-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7. Acidente Vascular Cerebral e Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva</title>
      <p>O AVC pode se apresentar como uma EH. No indiv&#237;duo hipertenso cr&#244;nico verifica-se um desvio para a direita da curva de autorregula&#231;&#227;o do FSC, fato que leva os hipertensos cr&#244;nicos a tolerarem valores de PA substancialmente mais altos sem desenvolver encefalopatia. Quando os valores tensionais em hipertensos cr&#244;nicos s&#227;o reduzidos de forma agressiva e r&#225;pida, estes podem apresentar sintomas de hipoperfus&#227;o cerebral, mesmo se os valores de PA estiverem na faixa de autorregula&#231;&#227;o, como observado em indiv&#237;duos normotensos. Finalmente, os doentes com hipertens&#227;o grave podem perder a capacidade de autorregula&#231;&#227;o, aumentando o risco de isquemia cerebral quando a PA &#233; reduzida de forma intempestiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>7.1. Acidente Vascular Cerebral Isqu&#234;mico</title>
        <p>No AVC isqu&#234;mico, s&#227;o recomendadas redu&#231;&#245;es cuidadosas da PA na ordem de 10 a 15% ao fim da primeira hora ap&#243;s institui&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica e apenas se PAS &gt; 220 mmHg ou PAD &gt; 120 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Se PAS estiver entre 180 a 230 mmHg ou PAD entre 105 a 120 mmHg e o paciente n&#227;o for submetido &#224; tromb&#243;lise, recomenda-se a seguinte terap&#234;utica: labetalol 10 mg EV, seguido de infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua na dose de 2 a 8 mg/min; ou nicardipina nas doses referidas at&#233; se obter o efeito desejado. Se a PA persistir descontrolada ou PAD &gt; 140 mmHg, deve-se considerar o uso do nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio por via EV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nos casos de indiv&#237;duos com PA elevada e indica&#231;&#227;o para terap&#234;utica trombol&#237;tica com alteplase, a PA deve ser cuidadosamente reduzida de tal forma que a PAS seja &lt; 185 mmHg e a PAD &lt; 110 mmHg antes do trombol&#237;tico ser administrado. Se a PA permanecer acima de 185/110 mmHg, a terap&#234;utica trombol&#237;tica n&#227;o dever&#225; ser administrada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> O labetalol &#233; a primeira escolha, sendo a nicardipina a terap&#234;utica alternativa. Recomenda-se a dose de labetalol de 10 a 20 mg por via EV durante 1 a 2 minutos (pode ser repetida por uma vez). A dose de nicardipina recomendada &#233; 5 mg/h por via EV, com titula&#231;&#227;o da dose de 2,5 mg/h a cada 5 a 5 minutos (dose m&#225;xima 15 mg/h). Durante ou ap&#243;s tromb&#243;lise ou outra terapia de reperfus&#227;o, a PA deve ser mantida em valores iguais ou inferiores a 180/105 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.2. Acidente Vascular Cerebral Hemorr&#225;gico</title>
        <p>No AVC hemorr&#225;gico, as metas para o tratamento constituem motivo de controv&#233;rsia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Durante a hemorragia intracerebral aguda, a eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA &#233; comum e est&#225; associado a maior risco de expans&#227;o do hematoma, aumento do risco de morte e pior progn&#243;stico para a recupera&#231;&#227;o. Nesse caso, a diminui&#231;&#227;o imediata da PA (dentro de 6 horas) para valores &lt;140/90 mmHg n&#227;o mostrou benef&#237;cio no desfecho prim&#225;rio de incapacidade ou morte aos 3 meses, apesar de reduzir a expans&#227;o do hematoma e melhorar a recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Por outro lado, outro estudo mostrou que a redu&#231;&#227;o mais intensiva da PAS n&#227;o apresentou benef&#237;cio e se associou a maior n&#250;mero de eventos adversos renais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Assim, em indiv&#237;duos com AVC hemorr&#225;gico, as diretrizes europeias afirmam que a redu&#231;&#227;o imediata da PA n&#227;o &#233; aconselhada para pacientes com PAS &lt; 220 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Em indiv&#237;duos com PAS &#8805; 220 mmHg, redu&#231;&#227;o cuidadosa da PA com terapia EV, com objetivo de se atingir PAS &lt; 180 mmHg, deve ser considerada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> O labetalol, nas doses referidas, &#233; a primeira escolha, sendo o nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio e a nicardipina as terap&#234;uticas alternativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8. S&#237;ndromes Coronarianas Agudas e Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva</title>
      <p>Dados epidemiol&#243;gicos indicam que a s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA) &#233; a principal causa de morte e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com EH. Al&#233;m disso, quase 50% de todos os pacientes hipertensos admitidos na sala de emerg&#234;ncia morreram de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) durante o acompanhamento a longo prazo. Notavelmente, n&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as para presen&#231;a de outros fatores de risco, como tabagismo ou <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Obviamente, a HAS associa-se a eventos coronarianos agudos como fator de risco, fator aterog&#234;nico e fator hemodin&#226;mico com profundos efeitos em morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular. Durante uma EH, o aumento da PA provoca estresse mec&#226;nico e les&#227;o endotelial, causando aumento da permeabilidade vascular, ativa&#231;&#227;o da cascata da coagula&#231;&#227;o, plaquetas, deposi&#231;&#227;o de fibrina e trombose. Esse processo resulta em isquemia e libera&#231;&#227;o de mediadores vasoativos, criando um ciclo vicioso de les&#227;o permanente. A ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina leva &#224; maior vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e &#224; produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias (fator de necrose tumoral [TNF]-alfa, interleucina [IL]-6 etc.). Al&#233;m disso, aumenta a atividade da NADPH ( <italic>nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase</italic> ) e a produ&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio, causando estresse oxidativo. Esses mecanismos promovem hipoperfus&#227;o, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, que se manifestam durante a EH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular e a investiga&#231;&#227;o das comorbidades s&#227;o essenciais na abordagem do paciente em EH com quadro de SCA. O eletrocardiograma &#233; o padr&#227;o-ouro para detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia ou evento coronariano agudo. Al&#233;m disso, sinais vitais (PA, satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio e frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca) devem ser medidos com cuidado durante o exame f&#237;sico de um paciente com EH. A an&#225;lise laboratorial inclui a quantifica&#231;&#227;o de enzimas card&#237;acas e determina&#231;&#227;o de troponina-I. Em um estudo retrospectivo, pacientes com CH e concentra&#231;&#227;o elevada de c-troponina-I (cTn-I) apresentaram risco 2,7 vezes maior de eventos cardiovasculares adversos e AVC em dois anos de acompanhamento comparados &#224;queles com valores normais de cTn-I.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O tratamento da EH associada &#224; SCA deve ser iniciado com infus&#227;o de nitroglicerina. A nitroglicerina &#233; um venodilatador que reduz a pr&#233;-carga e diminui a demanda card&#237;aca de oxig&#234;nio. Este agente &#233; usado sobretudo em SCA e edema agudo, juntamente com outros regimes anti-hipertensivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Uma alternativa para intoler&#226;ncia &#224; nitroglicerina &#233; a administra&#231;&#227;o de bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio di-hidropirid&#237;nicos (anlodipino, nicardipina), pois s&#227;o &#250;teis para pacientes com SCA devido ao seu efeito ben&#233;fico sobre o fluxo sangu&#237;neo coronariano. Alternativamente, clevidipina, um bloqueador dos canais de c&#225;lcio de curta dura&#231;&#227;o, pode ser administrado por via EV e, por ter um regime de dosagem n&#227;o baseado no peso, permite uma infus&#227;o prolongada e transi&#231;&#227;o bem-sucedida para a terapia oral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Se dispon&#237;vel, especialmente em SCA com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, a angioplastia prim&#225;ria &#233; a melhor escolha para a terapia de reperfus&#227;o em pacientes com EH, pois a tromb&#243;lise pode aumentar o risco de sangramento cerebral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os betabloqueadores, como o labetalol (bloqueador n&#227;o seletivo dos receptores alfa-1-adren&#233;rgicos), que reduz a resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica, mas mant&#233;m o FSC, renal e coronariano, ou o esmolol (bloqueador beta-1-cardiosseletivo de in&#237;cio r&#225;pido e curta dura&#231;&#227;o de a&#231;&#227;o) s&#227;o indicados para atenuar o aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e reduzir o consumo de oxig&#234;nio pelo mioc&#225;rdio sem comprometer o enchimento diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e melhorar o progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a redu&#231;&#227;o da PA diminui o risco de edema pulmonar e o tamanho da zona do infarto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> A toler&#226;ncia a doses maiores de manuten&#231;&#227;o do esmolol &#233; um bom preditor de resultados com a terapia oral com betabloqueador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O valor &#243;timo de PA ap&#243;s SCA permanece controverso. Numerosos estudos mostraram uma rela&#231;&#227;o inversa entre PAD e eventos adversos card&#237;acos isqu&#234;micos (ou seja, quanto menor a PAD, maior o risco de doen&#231;a coronariana e desfechos adversos). Esse efeito &#233; definido como o fen&#244;meno da curva J, que descreve a forma da rela&#231;&#227;o entre a PA e o risco de morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Esse perfil parece ser mais pronunciado em pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana subjacente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>9. Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular Esquerda Aguda na Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva</title>
      <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda aguda &#233; mais conhecida pelo termo EAP. A EH, a insufici&#234;ncia mitral aguda (disfun&#231;&#227;o do m&#250;sculo papilar secund&#225;ria &#224; doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica ou ruptura espont&#226;nea) e a SCA s&#227;o os fatores causais mais comuns de EAP cardiog&#234;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Cerca de 1/3 dos pacientes admitidos com EAP e EH tem fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda preservada. A EH com quadro de EAP deve ser controlada em UTI, com medica&#231;&#227;o via parenteral, monitoramento e diminui&#231;&#227;o gradativa da PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Nitroglicerina e nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio s&#227;o utilizados com a finalidade de reduzir a pr&#233; e a p&#243;s-carga. A administra&#231;&#227;o de diur&#233;ticos de al&#231;a tamb&#233;m diminui sobrecarga de volume e ajuda a reduzir a PA. O uso de press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua de vias a&#233;reas n&#227;o invasiva pode ajudar ao reduzir edema pulmonar e retorno venoso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10. S&#237;ndromes A&#243;rticas Agudas</title>
      <p>S&#237;ndrome a&#243;rtica aguda (SAA) &#233; o termo atual que abrange a dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica (DA), o hematoma intramural (HIM) e as ulcera&#231;&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas penetrantes (UAP), com uma incid&#234;ncia que varia de 3,5 a 6,0 por 100.000 pacientes/ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Tendo em vista a sua elevada taxa de mortalidade, a SAA deve ser considerada e diagnosticada prontamente em pacientes com dor precordial ou dorsal aguda, principalmente se associada &#224; HAS. Tomografia computadorizada, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica e ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica s&#227;o exames de imagem confi&#225;veis para o diagn&#243;stico de SAA, e a dosagem de D-d&#237;mero s&#233;rico foi 51,7 a 100% sens&#237;vel e 32,8 a 89,2% espec&#237;fica em 6 estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A DA &#233; a forma mais comum de SAA, correspondendo a 85 a 95%; HIM acomete de 0 a 25%; e UAP, de 2 a 7%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> De acordo com a classifica&#231;&#227;o de Stanford, as SAA s&#227;o divididas em tipo A, que envolve a aorta ascendente, e tipo B, que n&#227;o envolve esse segmento. J&#225; a classifica&#231;&#227;o de DeBakey distingue o tipo I, que envolve pelo menos a aorta ascendente e o arco a&#243;rtico e muitas vezes tamb&#233;m a aorta descendente; o tipo II, que &#233; confinado &#224; aorta ascendente, e o tipo III, que se origina na aorta descendente distal e acomete a art&#233;ria subcl&#225;via esquerda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> As SAA podem estar associadas a muitos fatores de risco, como sexo masculino, idade avan&#231;ada, parente de primeiro grau que tenha sofrido SAA, HAS, dislipidemia, tabagismo, uso de drogas il&#237;citas, hist&#243;ria de grande arterite vascular (p. ex., arterite de Takayasu), doen&#231;a vascular de col&#225;geno (como s&#237;ndrome de Marfan, Loeys-Dietz, s&#237;ndrome de Ehlers-Danlos), trauma fechado em acidente de ve&#237;culo motorizado ou queda vertical, instrumenta&#231;&#227;o arterial para fins diagn&#243;sticos ou terap&#234;uticos ou, ainda, muta&#231;&#245;es heredit&#225;rias em genes para prote&#237;nas envolvidas na integridade vascular (como a muta&#231;&#227;o no gene <italic>ACTA2</italic> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>10.1. Tratamento</title>
        <p>O tratamento das SAA requer uma abordagem multidisciplinar envolvendo interven&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, endovasculares e cir&#250;rgicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> As DA tipo A t&#234;m mau progn&#243;stico e mortalidade intra-hospitalar global de 30% com aumento da mortalidade em 1 a 2% a cada hora de evolu&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Sem interven&#231;&#227;o, a mortalidade &#233; de cerca de 58%, em compara&#231;&#227;o a 26% com a interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> O tratamento cir&#250;rgico aberto &#233; ideal para tratar as SAA de tipo A (aorta ascendente), e o reparo a&#243;rtico endovascular tor&#225;cico &#233; o mais indicado para o tratamento das SAA de tipo B (aorta descendente).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Nos casos de SAA de tipo B, a mortalidade intra-hospitalar foi significativamente maior ap&#243;s a cirurgia aberta (33,9%) do que ap&#243;s o tratamento endovascular (10,6%, p = 0,002).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O manejo inicial de uma DA envolve o controle de dor e o uso de agentes anti-hipertensivos. Devem-se administrar betabloqueadores por via EV (metoprolol, esmolol ou labetalol) para reduzir o estresse na parede, diminuindo a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e a PA, mantendo a perfus&#227;o cerebral, coronariana e renal adequadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> A administra&#231;&#227;o de betabloqueadores deve ser completada antes da diminui&#231;&#227;o da PA com agentes redutores de p&#243;s-carga. As diretrizes recomendam uma redu&#231;&#227;o da PAS para 100 a 120 mmHg e uma frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca inferior a 60 bpm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Em caso de intoler&#226;ncia aos betabloqueadores, os bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio n&#227;o di-hidropirid&#237;nicos (verapamil ou diltiazem) devem ser usados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s o betabloqueio adequado, deve-se proceder &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da p&#243;s-carga. Embora os inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina (IECA) n&#227;o tenham demonstrado benef&#237;cio significativo para a mortalidade, t&#234;m sido utilizados como adjuvantes na redu&#231;&#227;o da PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> O nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio tamb&#233;m pode ser usado ap&#243;s betabloqueio, pois em monoterapia pode aumentar o estresse de cisalhamento da parede a&#243;rtica, resultando em progress&#227;o da dissec&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> N&#227;o h&#225; indica&#231;&#227;o conhecida para o bloqueio plaquet&#225;rio agudo no controle da DA at&#233; o momento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> V&#225;rios estudos mostraram que o uso de estatinas reduz a taxa de crescimento de aneurisma da aorta abdominal (AAA) e tamb&#233;m diminui a probabilidade de ruptura recorrente ap&#243;s o reparo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> No entanto, o papel das estatinas nas SAA n&#227;o est&#225; claro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Deve-se promover o efetivo controle da dor com sulfato de morfina, fentanila ou um opi&#225;ceo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>11. Emerg&#234;ncias Hipertensivas na Gesta&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A HAS representa o problema m&#233;dico mais comum na gesta&#231;&#227;o, manifestando-se em at&#233; 10% das gesta&#231;&#245;es e respondendo por cerca de 25% das admiss&#245;es hospitalares pr&#233;-natais, al&#233;m de ser importante causa de morbidade e mortalidade materna e fetal. Mulheres que tiveram HAS na gesta&#231;&#227;o apresentam maior risco para doen&#231;a hipertensiva, AVC e doen&#231;a arterial coronariana no futuro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> Para defini&#231;&#227;o de HAS na gravidez, adota o mesmo crit&#233;rio das Diretrizes de Hipertens&#227;o, ou seja, PA &#8805; 140/90 mmHg. Considera-se HAS grave na gesta&#231;&#227;o quando os valores da PAS &#8805; 160 a 170 mmHg e a PAD &#8805; 110 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> Assim, HAS pode preceder (no caso, HAS cr&#244;nica) ou se desenvolver durante o curso da gesta&#231;&#227;o (pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia/ecl&#226;mpsia/hipertens&#227;o gestacional), caracterizando quatro diferentes categorias de HAS:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Hipertens&#227;o cr&#244;nica tem in&#237;cio antes da gravidez ou &#233; diagnosticada antes da 20<sup>a</sup> semana de gesta&#231;&#227;o. Somente 20 a 25% dos casos de HAS cr&#244;nica da gravidez evoluem para pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Hipertens&#227;o gestacional &#233; o dist&#250;rbio mais comum (10% dos casos ocorrem nas primigestas; 20 a 25% dos casos se apresentam sobrepostos &#224; HAS cr&#244;nica). Aparece ap&#243;s a 20<sup>a</sup> semana e n&#227;o se acompanha de protein&#250;ria. A PA retorna a valores normais 1 a 2 semanas ap&#243;s o parto. Cursa com bom progn&#243;stico materno e fetal.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia / ecl&#226;mpsia. Pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia &#233; um processo espec&#237;fico da gravidez, definido por HAS que aparece ap&#243;s a 20<sup>a</sup> semana de gesta&#231;&#227;o, cursa com protein&#250;ria (&gt; 300 mg/24 h ou rela&#231;&#227;o prote&#237;na/creatinina &gt; 300 mg/g), edema, e &#224;s vezes, altera&#231;&#245;es da coagula&#231;&#227;o e da fun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica. A pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia pode progredir rapidamente para ecl&#226;mpsia, condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica caracterizada por convuls&#245;es t&#244;nico-cl&#244;nicas precedida de hipertens&#227;o grave, cefaleia e hiperreflexia. Hemorragia cerebral &#233; a complica&#231;&#227;o mais grave com elevado &#237;ndice de mortalidade materna. Protein&#250;ria e valores press&#243;ricos elevados devem retornar para valores normais em at&#233; 12 semanas ap&#243;s o parto.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Hipertens&#227;o cr&#244;nica com pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia/ecl&#226;mpsia sobreposta. Essa suspeita deve ser lembrada quando surgir microalbumin&#250;ria (30 a 300 mg/urina de 24 h ou 30 a 300 mg/g na rela&#231;&#227;o albumina/creatinina em amostra de urina isolada) ou aumento de protein&#250;ria pr&#233;-existente, altera&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica ou laboratorial caracter&#237;stica de pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia ou eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de PA pr&#233;-existentes ap&#243;s a 20<sup>a</sup> semana de gesta&#231;&#227;o em portadora de HAS cr&#244;nica.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <sec>
        <title>11.1. Tratamento</title>
        <p>Os 2 principais pontos-chave no tratamento da CH na gesta&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o: (1) estabiliza&#231;&#227;o da m&#227;e, incluindo o uso de anti-hipertensivos seguros e apropriados para uso na gravidez e indica&#231;&#227;o do parto e (2) bem-estar fetal, que deve ser confirmado por monitoramento fetal e ultrassonografia.</p>
        <p>O tratamento farmacol&#243;gico deve ser iniciado quando a PA estiver &gt; 150/100 mmHg, com o objetivo de mant&#234;-la em 130 a 150/80 a 100 mmHg (grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o [GR]: IIa; n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia [NE]: B). Em pacientes com pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia, com quadro cl&#237;nico estabilizado sem necessidade de parto imediato, &#233; indicado tratamento anti-hipertensivo oral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> No Brasil, os medicamentos orais usualmente empregados s&#227;o a metildopa, hidralazina, antagonistas dos canais de c&#225;lcio (nifedipina de a&#231;&#227;o prolongada, anlodipino) e betabloqueadores (de prefer&#234;ncia, pindolol). Os tiaz&#237;dicos podem ser continuados em gestantes com HAS cr&#244;nica, desde que n&#227;o promovam deple&#231;&#227;o de volume.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> O uso de bloqueadores do sistema renina-angiotensina &#233; contraindicado na gesta&#231;&#227;o (GR: I; NE: B).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O tratamento medicamentoso urgente &#233; indicado em HAS grave (PAS &gt; 155 a 160 mmHg) e na presen&#231;a de sinais premonit&#243;rios (GR: I; NE: B). Usa-se hidralazina por via EV (5 mg, repetir 5 a 10 mg a cada 30 minutos at&#233; o m&#225;ximo de 20 mg). Nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio pode ser considerado para controle urgente da PA, especialmente, na presen&#231;a de EAP e HAS grave e refrat&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O sulfato de magn&#233;sio &#233; o f&#225;rmaco de escolha tanto para o tratamento como para preven&#231;&#227;o das crises convulsivas durante a ecl&#226;mpsia. A paciente deve ser monitorada em rela&#231;&#227;o a d&#233;bito urin&#225;rio, reflexos patelares, frequ&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria e satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio. O magn&#233;sio plasm&#225;tico deve ser mantido entre 4 e 7 mEq/L e deve ser dosado na presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a renal. Na suspeita de intoxica&#231;&#227;o por sulfato de magn&#233;sio, usar gluconato de c&#225;lcio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>12. Emerg&#234;ncias Adren&#233;rgicas</title>
      <p>Tumores neuroend&#243;crinos associados ao tecido simp&#225;tico que t&#234;m a potencialidade de secretar catecolaminas s&#227;o raros e chamados de feocromocitomas (medula adrenal) ou paragangliomas (tecido n&#227;o adrenal). Diagn&#243;stico, localiza&#231;&#227;o e delinea&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica destes tumores envolvem dosagem das catecolaminas e seus metab&#243;litos no sangue e na urina, tomografia computadorizada e/ou resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica e cintilografia com metaiodobenzilguanidina (I<sup>123</sup>). A sintomatologia pode ocorrer em qualquer fase da vida e n&#227;o &#233; espec&#237;fica, dependendo da forma de libera&#231;&#227;o das catecolaminas no sangue, podendo ocorrer eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA, palpita&#231;&#245;es e cefaleia. A remo&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica destes tumores sempre &#233; indicada para curar ou prevenir a doen&#231;a cardiovascular secund&#225;ria ao excesso de catecolaminas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> A eleva&#231;&#227;o press&#243;rica nestes pacientes pode ser mantida ou paradoxal, e aumento acentuado da PA pode caracterizar EH com risco iminente de vida. Isso ocorre por ativa&#231;&#227;o dos alfarreceptores pelas catecolaminas. A Diretriz Brasileira de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial sugere um fluxograma de abordagem diagn&#243;stica para os tumores neuroend&#243;crinos (feocromocitoma e paragangliomas), que &#233; mostrado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 4</xref> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref> mostra os m&#233;todos de imagem utilizados para confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica diante de um teste bioqu&#237;mico alterado.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Tabela 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Fluxograma da VII Diretriz de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial para diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico e laboratorial em casos de feocromocitoma e paraganglioma</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Achados cl&#237;nicos</th>
                <th>Suspeita diagn&#243;stica</th>
                <th>Estudos adicionais</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>- Hipertens&#227;o parox&#237;stica com cefaleia, sudorese e palpita&#231;&#245;es</td>
                <td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="3">Feocromocitoma</td>
                <td align="center">- Metanefrinas plasm&#225;ticas livres</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="1" rowspan="2">- Hipertens&#227;o resistente</td>
                <td align="center">- Metanefrinas urin&#225;rias e catecolaminas s&#233;ricas</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">- Exames de imagem</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f04">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; <italic>M&#233;todos de imagem utilizados para confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica de feocromocitoma.</italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-04-0736-90731-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>A cintilografia de corpo inteiro visa localizar tumores neuroend&#243;crinos extra-adrenais (paragangliomas). &#201; indicada quando o teste bioqu&#237;mico estiver alterado e os exames de imagens forem negativos. Sempre deve ser realizada ap&#243;s verifica&#231;&#227;o e suspens&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos que possam interferir com a sua interpreta&#231;&#227;o (simpatomim&#233;ticos, bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio, coca&#237;na, antidepressivos e labetalol), devendo suspend&#234;-los por 14 dias pr&#233;vios ao exame. &#201; contraindicada na gesta&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Diagnosticado o tumor neuroend&#243;crino, o tratamento proposto &#233; sempre cir&#250;rgico, precedido por preparo farmacol&#243;gico e hidrata&#231;&#227;o, com o objetivo de prevenir ou atenuar CHs ou hipotens&#227;o durante o ato operat&#243;rio ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 5</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, s&#227;o administrados f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos por via EV (inicialmente, alfabloqueadores, e posteriormente, betabloqueadores). Nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio em infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua (0,25 a 10 mg/kg/min) ou fentolamina (infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua 1 a 5 mg com dose m&#225;xima de 15 mg) podem ser utilizados, se houver eleva&#231;&#227;o mais acentuada da PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t6">
          <label>Tabela 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Cuidados pr&#233;-operat&#243;rios em casos de feocromocitoma</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Dieta hipers&#243;dica e hidrata&#231;&#227;o (faltam evid&#234;ncias):</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>- Infus&#227;o salina no ato operat&#243;rio (1 a 2 L)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Reverter contra&#231;&#227;o de volume</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Prevenir hipotens&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Preparo farmacol&#243;gico:</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Bloqueio alfa-adren&#233;rgico</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Betabloqueadores</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- N&#227;o existem evid&#234;ncias quanto &#224; meta press&#243;rica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Adrenalectomia via laparosc&#243;pica (maioria dos casos):</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Para paragangliomas (minoria)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Adrenalectomia a c&#233;u aberto (para paragangliomas):</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>- Para feocromocitoma (minoria)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>13. Drogas Il&#237;citas e Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva</title>
      <p>Na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, pacientes que se apresentam com CH e hiperatividade simp&#225;tica levantam a suspeita de intoxica&#231;&#227;o por anfetamina ou coca&#237;na, assim como uso abusivo de outros f&#225;rmacos, tais como inibidores da recapta&#231;&#227;o da serotonina, inibidores da monoaminoxidase e uso de drogas citot&#243;xicas ou antiangiog&#234;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A coca&#237;na tem m&#250;ltiplos efeitos cardiovasculares e hematol&#243;gicos que contribuem para eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA, desenvolvimento de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e/ou IAM por vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o coronariana. A coca&#237;na, mesmo em pequenas doses, bloqueia a recapta&#231;&#227;o de norepinefrina e dopamina nos terminais adren&#233;rgicos pr&#233;-sin&#225;pticos, causando ac&#250;mulo de catecolaminas no receptor p&#243;s-sin&#225;ptico, atuando, assim, como um poderoso agente simpatomim&#233;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> Consequentemente causa aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e da PA de maneira dose-dependente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o consumo de coca&#237;na pode reduzir a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda associada a aumento do estresse parietal no final da s&#237;stole e amplia&#231;&#227;o da demanda de oxig&#234;nio. Os efeitos cronotr&#243;picos do uso de coca&#237;na s&#227;o intensificados pelo consumo de &#225;lcool.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> A vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo uso de coca&#237;na &#233; secund&#225;ria &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o dos receptores alfa-adren&#233;rgicos nas c&#233;lulas musculares lisas da circula&#231;&#227;o coronariana. Ainda, tal droga aumenta a libera&#231;&#227;o de endotelina-1<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> e diminui a biodisponibilidade de &#243;xido n&#237;trico, promovendo eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> O tratamento com benzodiazep&#237;nicos tem indica&#231;&#227;o inicial. Quando a redu&#231;&#227;o da PA for necess&#225;ria, um f&#225;rmaco alfabloqueador competitivo por via EV ser&#225; indicado (fentolamina). Alternativamente, nicardipina ou nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio poder&#227;o ser considerados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> Clonidina tamb&#233;m pode ser considerada, pois, al&#233;m da sua a&#231;&#227;o simpatol&#237;tica, tem efeito sedativo.</p>
      <p>Nas SCA, o tratamento com nitroglicerina e aspirina &#233; recomendado concomitantemente com benzodiazep&#237;nicos. Na presen&#231;a de SCA com taquiarritmias, os bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio n&#227;o di-hidropirid&#237;nicos (diltiazem e verapamil) s&#227;o recomendados. Os betabloqueadores (incluindo labetalol) s&#227;o contraindicados, pois n&#227;o reduzem a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> A nicardipina tamb&#233;m pode ser uma boa alternativa para pacientes com EH induzida por drogas citot&#243;xicas ou antiangiog&#234;nicas.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>14. Emerg&#234;ncia Hipertensiva no P&#243;s-Operat&#243;rio de Cirurgia Vascular</title>
      <p>O conceito de &#8220;emerg&#234;ncia hipertensiva p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria&#8221; difere da emerg&#234;ncia/urg&#234;ncia hipertensiva ambulatorial, em virtude da ocorr&#234;ncia dessa situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica &#250;nica em um ambiente at&#237;pico (p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio). Notadamente, valores de PA moderadamente elevados no contexto p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio podem requerer tratamento imediato.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Emerg&#234;ncia hipertensiva p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria (EHPO) &#233; arbitrariamente definida como eleva&#231;&#227;o da PAS &gt; 190 mmHg e/ou PAD &gt; 100 mmHg, confirmada em duas leituras consecutivas durante o per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio imediato.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup> Eleva&#231;&#227;o da PAS em 40 a 50 mmHg ou incremento dos valores press&#243;ricos superiores a 20% em rela&#231;&#227;o aos valores basais tamb&#233;m podem caracterizar hipertens&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup> Esse aumento dos valores press&#243;ricos geralmente come&#231;a 10 a 20 minutos ap&#243;s a cirurgia e pode durar at&#233; 4 horas. A fisiopatologia da EHPO em pacientes previamente normotensos est&#225; associada a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica, libera&#231;&#227;o de catecolaminas, redu&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade dos barorreceptores, ativa&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica central, libera&#231;&#227;o de vasopressina, estimula&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina com consequente produ&#231;&#227;o de angiotensina II, libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias (IL-6) e reten&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio. Todas essas altera&#231;&#245;es resultam em vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o, aumento da p&#243;s-carga, eleva&#231;&#227;o da PAS/PAD e taquicardia. Se n&#227;o tratada, a hipertens&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria aumenta o risco de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, IAM, EAP, AVC, sangramento e mortalidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup></p>
      <p>EHPO ocorre em 40 a 80% dos pacientes submetidos &#224; endarterectomia carot&#237;dea ou cirurgia card&#237;aca aberta, em 57% dos pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia de aorta abdominal e 29% dos pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia vascular perif&#233;rica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Especialmente, HAS aguda e grave com eleva&#231;&#227;o da PAS &gt; 220 mmHg pode ocorrer em 9% dos indiv&#237;duos submetidos &#224; endarterectomia carot&#237;dea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> Essa manifesta&#231;&#227;o, que pode ser transit&#243;ria, est&#225; relacionada &#224; manipula&#231;&#227;o do seio carot&#237;deo e pode provocar hematoma, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e hiperperfus&#227;o cerebral com consequente les&#227;o neurol&#243;gica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup> Outros mecanismos propostos incluem denerva&#231;&#227;o iatrog&#234;nica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> diminui&#231;&#227;o da atividade do barorreflexo,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> redu&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade do seio carot&#237;deo e aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de renina cerebral e/ou de catecolaminas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup></p>
      <p>EH tamb&#233;m pode ocorrer ap&#243;s corre&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica da coarcta&#231;&#227;o da aorta. A etiologia &#233; multifatorial, como altera&#231;&#227;o do reflexo barorreceptor, ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema simp&#225;tico e do sistema renina-angiotensina e expans&#227;o do volume extracelular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> A estimula&#231;&#227;o das fibras nervosas simp&#225;ticas localizadas nas camadas m&#233;dia e advent&#237;cia do istmo a&#243;rtico t&#234;m dois efeitos, ambos resultando em hipertens&#227;o. Inicialmente, ocorre libera&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica de norepinefrina com consequente vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA. A seguir, pode ocorrer estimula&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas justaglomerulares que liberam renina e promovem hipertens&#227;o adicional. Secundariamente, esse aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de renina provoca desvio de sangue das art&#233;rias mesent&#233;ricas, causando assim os sintomas abdominais da chamada s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-coarctectomia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Antes de iniciar o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico anti-hipertensivo, causas revers&#237;veis de hipertens&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria devem ser investigadas, tais como: dor, hipoxia, hipercarbia, agita&#231;&#227;o, distens&#227;o vesical e hipervolemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> Analgesia apropriada e seda&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o consideradas requisitos antes de iniciar a terapia anti-hipertensiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> Quando EHPO estiver presente, a distin&#231;&#227;o entre emerg&#234;ncia e urg&#234;ncia ser&#225; mandat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> O objetivo do controle &#233; interromper a les&#227;o vascular e reverter o processo patol&#243;gico, e n&#227;o necessariamente normalizar a PA. Redu&#231;&#245;es progressivas da PA, conforme relatadas nos princ&#237;pios gerais do tratamento das EH, devem ser obtidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Realiza&#231;&#227;o: Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Conselho de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes (2020-2021): Brivaldo Markman Filho, Antonio Carlos Sobral Sousa, Aurora Felice Castro Issa, Bruno Ramos Nascimento, Harry Correa Filho, Marcelo Luiz Campos Vieira</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Coordenador de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes (2020-2021): Brivaldo Markman Filho</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Este posicionamento dever&#225; ser citado como: Vilela-Martin JF, Yugar-Toledo JC, Rodrigues MC, Barroso WKS, Carvalho LCBS, Gonz&#225;lez FJT et al. Posicionamento Luso-Brasileiro de Emerg&#234;ncias Hipertensivas &#8211; 2020. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2020; 114(4)736-751</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Nota: estes Posicionamentos se prestam a informar e n&#227;o a substituir o julgamento cl&#237;nico do m&#233;dico que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, deve determinar o tratamento apropriado para seus pacientes.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Statement</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Luso-Brazilian Position Statement on Hypertensive Emergencies &#8211; 2020</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6960-2825</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vilela-Martin</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yugar-Toledo</surname>
            <given-names>Juan Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rodrigues</surname>
            <given-names>Manuel de Carvalho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Kunz Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Lu&#237;s Carlos Bronze S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gonz&#225;lez</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Jos&#233; Torres</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amodeo</surname>
            <given-names>Celso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dias</surname>
            <given-names>Vitor Manuel Margarido Paix&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pinto</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Carvalho Moreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Lu&#237;s Filipe Reis</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10001">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Malachias</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11001">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Cesar Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12001">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13001">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Dilma do Socorro Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14001">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Passarelli</surname>
            <given-names>Oswaldo</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15001">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Costa Duarte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16001">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Polonia</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge Junqueira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17001">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>P&#243;voa</surname>
            <given-names>Rui Manoel dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Estadual de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto (FAMERP), S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Hospitalar Universit&#225;rio Cova da Beira, Covilh&#227; &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilh&#227; &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Liga de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s (UFG), Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Marinha Portuguesa, Lisboa &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="ES">Espanha</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Vithas Hospital Nisa 9 de Octubre, Valencia &#8211; Espanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Hospitalar de Vila Nova Gaia, Espinho &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9001">
        <label>9</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Hospitalar de Entre o Douro e Vouga, E.P.E., Santa Maria da Feira &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10001">
        <label>10</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Escola da Universidade Fernando Pessoa, Cosme &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11001">
        <label>11</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12001">
        <label>12</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s (UFG), Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13001">
        <label>13</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o De Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14001">
        <label>14</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Par&#225; (UFPA), Bel&#233;m, PA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15001">
        <label>15</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16001">
        <label>16</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Liga de Combate &#224; Hipertens&#227;o de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17001">
        <label>17</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Porto, Porto &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Corresponding Address: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; Postal Code: 20020-907. E-mail: diretrizes@cardiol.br</corresp>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1001">
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="13%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="8">Declaration of potential conflict of interests of authors/collaborators of the Luso-Brazilian Position Statement on Hypertensive Emergencies &#8211; 2020 If, within the last 3 years, the author/collaborator of the statement:</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Names of statement collaborators</th>
                <th>Participated in clinical and/or experimental studies sponsored by pharmaceutical or equipment companies related to this guideline</th>
                <th>Spoke at events or activities sponsored by industry related to this guideline</th>
                <th>Was (is) a member of a board of advisors or a board of directors of a pharmaceutical or equipment industry</th>
                <th>Participated in normative committees of scientific research sponsored by industry</th>
                <th>Received personal or institutional funding from industry</th>
                <th>Wrote scientific papers in journals sponsored by industry</th>
                <th>Owns stocks in industry</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Celso Amodeo</td>
                <td align="center">Medtronic</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Novonordisk, Pfizer, Sankyo</td>
                <td align="center">Medley</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dilma do Socorro Moraes de Souza</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Eduardo Costa Duarte Barbosa</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, EMS</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, EMS, Torrent</td>
                <td align="center">EMS, Medley, Novartis</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fernando Carvalho Moreira Pinto</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Francisco Jos&#233; Torres Gonz&#225;lez</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Jorge Junqueira Polonia</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Jose Fernando Vilela-Martin</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Juan Carlos Yugar-Toledo</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lu&#237;s Carlos Bronze S. Carvalho</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lu&#237;s Filipe Reis Martins</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Manuel de Carvalho Rodrigues</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bolivar Malachias</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Libbs, Biolab</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Libbs, Biolab, Ach&#233;</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Oswaldo Passarelli J&#250;nior</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Paulo C&#233;sar Veiga Jardim</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Biolab, Ach&#233;, Libbs</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Rui Manoel dos Santos P&#243;voa</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Vitor Manuel Margarido Paix&#227;o Dias</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Tecnimede</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso</td>
                <td align="center">Boehringer, Torrent, EMS, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Novartis</td>
                <td align="center">EMS, Servier, Medley, Omron, Cardios</td>
                <td align="center">Omron</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">EMS, Servier</td>
                <td align="center">EMS, Servier, Medley</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>Content</title>
        <p>1. Definition, Epidemiology, and Classification of Hypertensive Emergencies 738</p>
        <p>2. Pathophysiological Aspects of Hypertensive Emergency 739</p>
        <p>2.1. Autoregulation of Cerebral Blood Flow 739</p>
        <p>3. Clinical and Laboratory Assessment 740</p>
        <p>4. Treatment of Hypertensive Emergencies: General Principles, Main Medications and Dosages 740</p>
        <p>5. Hypertensive Encephalopathy 741</p>
        <p>5.1. Clinical Manifestations 741</p>
        <p>5.2. Diagnosis 741</p>
        <p>5.3. Treatment 741</p>
        <p>6. Malignant or Accelerated Hypertension 742</p>
        <p>7. Stroke and Hypertensive Emergency 742</p>
        <p>7.1. Ischemic Stroke 743</p>
        <p>7.2. Hemorrhagic Stroke 744</p>
        <p>8. Acute Coronary Syndromes and Hypertensive Emergency 744</p>
        <p>9. Acute Left Ventricular Dysfunction in Hypertensive Emergency 744</p>
        <p>10. Acute Aortic Syndromes 745</p>
        <p>10.1. Treatment 745</p>
        <p>11. Hypertensive Emergencies During Pregnancy 745</p>
        <p>11.1. Treatment 746</p>
        <p>12. Adrenergic Emergencies 746</p>
        <p>13. Illicit Drugs and Hypertensive Emergency 746</p>
        <p>14. Postoperative Hypertensive Emergency Following Vascular Surgery 747</p>
        <p>References 748</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1. Definition, Epidemiology, and Classification of Hypertensive Emergencies</title>
        <p>Hypertensive emergencies (HEs) comprise a wider nosological condition known as hypertensive crisis (HC). HC represents clinical situations with acute blood pressure (BP) elevation, often with levels of systolic BP (SBP) &#8805; 180 mmHg and diastolic BP (DBP) &#8805; 120 mmHg, which may or may not result in <bold>target-organ damage</bold> (TOD) (heart, brain, kidneys, and arteries).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> HCs may present in two distinct forms in relation to severity and prognosis: hypertensive urgency (HU) and HE. Cases of HE have a marked elevation in BP associated with TOD and immediate risk of death, a fact that requires a rapid and gradual reduction in BP levels within minutes to hours, with intensive monitoring and use of intravenous medications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> HEs can manifest as cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, or renal events or as a pregnancy-related event in the form of preeclampsia or eclampsia. Although the classic definition of both HC presentations describes this condition with values above 180/120 mmHg, the largest current consensus is established on the concept that what distinguishes HEs from HUs is, more than the BP value, the occurrence of damage or imminent risk of target-organ involvement. Thus, HUs are characterized by BP elevations without TOD or imminent risk of death, a fact that allows for a slower reduction in BP levels over a period of 24 to 48 hours. Currently, there is a wide discussion about the actual existence of the diagnosis of &#8220;hypertensive urgency.&#8221;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Many advocate that this classification needs to be updated (if not abandoned) and that, instead of the BP value, the main diagnostic importance lies in the observation of signs/symptoms and acute TOD. Others believe that the correct term should be &#8220;BP elevation without evolving TOD.&#8221;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As discussed, even though the BP levels are often very high (&#8805; 180/120 mmHg), HEs are defined by TOD and not by BP levels. Therefore, the numerical pattern that defines HC is conceptual and serves as a therapeutic parameter, but should not be used as an absolute criterion.</p>
        <p>If the definition of HC is more universally accepted today, the knowledge about the epidemiology and prevalence of this condition by the scientific community is still limited. The literature has only a few studies on the subject, all of which conducted in a small number of participants. Non-adherence to treatment is currently hypothesized to be one of the most prevalent factors in the etiology of HC, without distinction between HU and HE. The incidence of HC in the largest serial studies in the US was about 4.8%, with 0.8% attributed to HEs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Other centers have shown that HCs account for a variable rate of 0.45 to 0.59% of all hospital emergency care and 1.7% of all clinical emergencies, with HU being more common than HE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Ischemic stroke and acute pulmonary edema (APE) are the most common clinical conditions in HE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Estimates indicate that about 1% of all hypertensive individuals will probably develop an episode of HC over their lifetimes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The clinical conditions with TOD implicated in HEs are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 1</xref> . <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 2</xref> shows the main conditions associated with HUs.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Conditions with target-organ damage characterizing hypertensive emergencies1-5</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Severe hypertension associated with acute complications</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Cerebrovascular events</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Hypertensive encephalopathy</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Intracerebral hemorrhage</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Subarachnoid hemorrhage</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Ischemic stroke</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Cardiocirculatory events</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Acute aortic dissection</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Acute pulmonary edema with left ventricular failure</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Acute myocardial infarction</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Unstable angina</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Renal disease</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Rapidly progressive renal failure</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Severe adrenergic crisis</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Pheochromocytoma crisis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Illicit drug overdose (cocaine, crack, LSD)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Hypertension in pregnancy</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Eclampsia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Severe preeclampsia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- "HELLP" syndrome</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Severe hypertension in late pregnancy</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic>HELLP: hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count; LSD: lysergic acid diethylamide.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Conditions associated with hypertensive urgency1-5</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Severe hypertension associated with:</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Coronary insufficiency</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Cardiac insufficiency</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Aortic aneurysm</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Uncomplicated stroke</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Severe epistaxis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Extensive burns</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Hypocoagulability states</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Systemic vasculitis</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Perioperative</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Preoperative in emergency surgeries</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Intraoperative (cardiac surgery, vascular surgery, neurosurgery, pheochromocytoma, etc.)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Postoperative stage III hypertension (organ transplantation, cardiac surgery, vascular surgery, neurosurgery, etc.)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Mild/moderate adrenergic crisis</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Rebound syndrome (abrupt discontinuation of adrenergic inhibitors)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Drug-food interaction (tyramine vs. MAO inhibitors)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Excessive use of stimulants (amphetamines, tricyclics, etc.)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>In pregnancy</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Preeclampsia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Stage III hypertension</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>
                  <italic>MAO: monoamine oxidase.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2. Pathophysiological Aspects of Hypertensive Emergency</title>
        <p>The pathophysiology of HE has not been completely elucidated, and in general, two different mechanisms may play central roles in this process. The first is an imbalance in the vascular autoregulation system leading to reduced perfusion pressure and, consequently, decreased blood flow and increased vascular resistance, resulting in mechanical stress and endothelial injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The second mechanism is an activation of the renin-angiotensin system resulting in greater vasoconstriction and leading to a vicious cycle of endothelial injury, fibrinoid necrosis of arterioles, and subsequent ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Vascular injury leads to platelet and fibrin deposition, also characterizing a prothrombotic state.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Subsequent ischemia results in the release of more vasoactive substances, creating a vicious cycle.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1. Autoregulation of Cerebral Blood Flow</title>
          <p>Knowledge about the mechanism of autoregulation of blood flow to target organs (brain, coronary arteries, and kidneys) is fundamental for improved antihypertensive treatment in cases of HE. Autoregulation of cerebral blood flow (CBF) is maintained by the ratio of cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) to cerebrovascular resistance (CVR), <italic>i.e.</italic> , CBF = CPP/CVR (CPP = mean BP - mean venous pressure). CPP is the difference between BP &#8211; which helps with tissue blood flow &#8211; and venous pressure. With a normal CPP, venous pressure is not important, so CPP is equivalent to BP. Reductions in CPP may be caused by reductions in BP or increased intracranial pressure (ICP), which increases venous pressure. Elevations in ICP may occur as a result of arterial or venous occlusive disease or intracerebral hemorrhage. In normotensive individuals, a wide variation in BP (between 60 and 150 mmHg) may occur without CBF changes. An increase in CPP (or BP) leads to an elevation in CVR, thus protecting the patient against cerebral edema, while reductions in CPP result in decreased CVR, thus protecting the patient from tissue ischemia. When CPP exceeds the upper limit of autoregulation, CBF increases, causing cerebral edema. In contrast, when CPP falls below the lower limit of autoregulation, CBF decreases, causing cerebral ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In hypertensive individuals, this relationship is modified in a way that their lower limit of autoregulation is higher compared with normotensive individuals. Thus, improper decrease in CPP can hinder tissue irrigation and, consequently, aggravate the viable ischemic area. For this reason, it is advisable to initially reduce the mean BP by 20 to 25% in relation to the initial values, as this will bring them close to the lower autoregulation limit.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Attention should be given to this situation, as most patients with HE have chronic hypertension with the pressure/flow (cerebral, coronary, and renal) autoregulation curve shifted to the right and do not present acute TOD, which is why a sudden decrease in BP may be associated with significant morbidity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3. Clinical and Laboratory Assessment</title>
        <p>When managing a HE, the practitioner should discriminate between emergency and urgency, establishing a correct diagnosis of the various HE situations in order to select the most appropriate therapy for each TOD. This is very important since the correct diagnosis and treatment may prevent worsening of the clinical condition due to the critical situation. The approach to patients with HE requires clinical evaluation and complementary tests performed in clinical emergency centers with hospital support. BP should be measured in both arms (at least three measurements), preferably in a quiet environment. Individuals with acute BP elevations often present metabolic abnormalities characterized by hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, lower potassium levels, and reduced renal function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> The sequence of steps in the management of patients with HC is as follows:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Seek factors that may have triggered the acute BP elevation.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Investigate symptoms or situations that simulate HC (headache, labyrinthitis, physical trauma, pain, emotional stress, and family or professional problems).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Observe history and duration of hypertension, use of antihypertensive drugs (doses and pharmacological adherence).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Investigate prior episodes similar to the current situation.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Investigate the use of medications that may interfere with BP control (anti-inflammatory drugs, steroids, analgesics, antidepressants, appetite suppressants).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Evaluate the use or abuse of alcohol and toxic substances (cocaine, crack, lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Investigate the use of suddenly discontinued adrenergic inhibitors (clonidine, methyldopa, and beta-blockers).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Observe the association with other morbidities and risk factors (diabetes, cardiac disease, renal disease, smoking, dyslipidemia).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Clinical history and physical examination should be performed according to the presence of TOD:</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Central nervous system (observe the occurrence of headache, dizziness, visual and speech disorders, consciousness level, agitation or apathy, confusion, focal neurological deficits, neck stiffness, seizure, and coma).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Cardiovascular system (assess heart rate, symptoms of palpitations, and presence of carotid murmur; investigate the occurrence of thoracic, precordial, abdominal, and back pain and discomfort, in addition to signs and symptoms of left ventricular failure including gallop rhythm, dyspnea, jugular venous stasis, peripheral pulses, and oxygen saturation).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Renal and genitourinary system (assess changes in urinary volume, frequency, and characteristics, dehydration, lower limb edema, hematuria, and dysuria). Note: examination of the abdomen (for pulsatile abdominal masses and abdominal murmur) should not be overlooked.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Fundoscopy (observe the occurrence of vasospasm, arteriovenous nicking, arteriolar wall thickening and aspect of copper or silver-wiring, hard and soft exudates, hemorrhages, and papilledema).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Complementary tests should be performed according to the involvement of target organs:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Central nervous system (computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and lumbar puncture).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Cardiovascular system (electrocardiography, chest x-ray, echocardiography, markers of myocardial necrosis, angiotomography, magnetic resonance imaging).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Renal system (urinalysis, urea, creatinine, electrolytes, and blood gases).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Treatment of Hypertensive Emergencies: General Principles, Main Medications and Dosages</title>
        <p>Better diagnostic and therapeutic conditions have led to a great reduction in 1-year mortality, which improved from 80% in 1928 and 50% in 1955 to only 10% in 1989.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> The aim of treating patients with clinical manifestations of HE is to reduce BP rapidly to prevent the progression of TOD. Patients should be admitted to an intensive care unit, undergo intravenous antihypertensive treatment, and be carefully monitored during parenteral therapy to prevent the occurrence of hypotension. The general recommendations for BP reduction suggested by the Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee (JNC)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> for HEs are summarized as follows:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8595; BP &#8804; 25% within the first hour.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8595; BP 160/100 to 110 mmHg in 2 to 6 hours.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>BP 135/85 mmHg at 24 to 48 hours.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>However, HEs should be addressed considering the affected system or target organ. Thus, each type of HE (cardiovascular, cerebral, renal, and others) should be characterized prior to starting specific antihypertensive therapy (see &#8220;Clinical and Laboratory Evaluation&#8221;).</p>
        <p>Several pharmacological therapies are currently available for HE treatment. The ideal antihypertensive medication for parenteral use must present the following characteristics: ability to reverse the involved pathophysiological abnormalities, rapid onset of action, predictable dose-response curve, minimal dose adjustment, high selectivity, no increase in ICP, prompt reversibility, low risk of promoting hypotension, easy substitution for oral medications, and satisfactory cost-benefit ratio. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 3</xref> summarizes the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the main antihypertensive medications used in HE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> In Brazil, the following medications are available for use in HEs: sodium nitroprusside, nitroglycerin, labetalol, esmolol, metoprolol, hydralazine, and enalaprilat.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4001">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the main antihypertensive medications for parenteral use</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="17%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Medications</th>
                  <th>Method of administration and dosage</th>
                  <th>Start</th>
                  <th>Duration</th>
                  <th>Advantages</th>
                  <th>Disadvantages</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Nitroglycerin (nitric oxide donor with arterial and venous vasodilation effects)</td>
                  <td align="center">Continuous infusion 5 to 15 mg/h</td>
                  <td align="center">2 to 5 min</td>
                  <td align="center">3 to 5 min</td>
                  <td align="center">Coronary perfusion</td>
                  <td align="center">Headache, variable efficacy, tachyphylaxis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sodium nitroprusside (arterial and venous vasodilator)</td>
                  <td align="center">Continuous infusion 0.5 to 10 &#956;g/kg/min</td>
                  <td align="center">Immediate</td>
                  <td align="center">1 to 2 min</td>
                  <td align="center">Titration</td>
                  <td align="center">Intoxication by thiocyanate, hypotension, nausea, vomiting, muscle spasm</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Metoprolol (beta-blocker)</td>
                  <td align="center">Loading dose: 5 mg IV (repeat every 10 min, up to 20 mg if necessary)</td>
                  <td align="center">5 to 10 min</td>
                  <td align="center">3 to 4 h</td>
                  <td align="center">Reduction in O<sub>2</sub>consumption</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradycardia, AVB, bronchospasm</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Labetalol (alpha- and beta-blocker)</td>
                  <td align="center">Loading dose: 20 to 80 mg every 10 min Continuous infusion 2 mg/min (maximum 300 mg/24 h)</td>
                  <td align="center">5 to 10 min</td>
                  <td align="center">2 to 6 h</td>
                  <td align="center">Beta-blocker and vasodilator</td>
                  <td align="center">Nausea, vomiting, AVB, bronchospasm, orthostatic hypotension</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Esmolol (Ultra-fast action, ultra-selective beta-blocker)</td>
                  <td align="center">Loading dose: 500 &#956;g/kg Intermittent infusion: 25 to 50 &#956;g/kg/min &#8593; 25 &#956;g/kg/min every 10 to 20 min. Maximum: 300 &#956;g/kg/min</td>
                  <td align="center">1 to 2 min</td>
                  <td align="center">1 to 20 min</td>
                  <td align="center">Selective beta-blocker</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradycardia, AVB, bronchospasm</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hydralazine (direct-acting vasodilator)</td>
                  <td align="center">10 to 20 mg IV or 10 to 40 mg IM every 6 h</td>
                  <td align="center">10 to 20 min IV or 20 to 30 min IM</td>
                  <td align="center">3 to 12 h</td>
                  <td align="center">Eclampsia or impending eclampsia</td>
                  <td align="center">Tachycardia, headache, vomiting. Worsening of angina and AMI. Beware of increased intracranial pressure</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Enalaprilat (ACEI)</td>
                  <td align="center">Intermittent infusion: 1.25 to 5 mg every 6 h</td>
                  <td align="center">15 min</td>
                  <td align="center">4 to 6 h</td>
                  <td align="center">CHF, acute LVF</td>
                  <td align="center">Hypotension, renal insufficiency</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Furosemide (loop diuretic)</td>
                  <td align="center">Infusion</td>
                  <td align="center">5 to 10 min</td>
                  <td align="center">30 to 90 min</td>
                  <td align="center">CHF, LVF</td>
                  <td align="center">Hypokalemia</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3001">
                <p>
                  <italic>AMI: acute myocardial infarction; CHF: congestive heart failure; LVF: left ventricular failure; AVB: atrioventricular block; ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; IV: intravenous; IM: intramuscular.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5. Hypertensive Encephalopathy</title>
        <p>Hypertensive encephalopathy is a neurological dysfunction defined by signs and/or symptoms of cerebral edema secondary to sudden and/or sustained BP elevation. It occurs in individuals with chronic hypertension who develop malignant hypertension or in those previously normotensive who may present acute BP elevations due to other mechanisms, progressing with failure in mechanisms of cerebral perfusion autoregulation. Hypertensive encephalopathy is a diagnosis of exclusion confirmed retrospectively when the neurological condition improves after BP control.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1. Clinical Manifestations</title>
          <p>Hypertensive encephalopathy may present with the insidious onset of holocranial headache, nausea, or vomiting. Subsequently, changes in mental status and visual field, photopsia, blurred vision, visual hallucinations, generalized seizures, hyperreflexia, and signs of intracranial hypertension may develop.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> By the time the neurological manifestations emerge, the DBP is usually above 125 mmHg. The resolution of this condition, from both clinical and imaging standpoints, occurs on average several weeks after BP control. The occurrence of a persistent deficit is a sign of focal neurological injury.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2. Diagnosis</title>
          <p>Magnetic resonance imaging is the most valuable diagnostic test. T2-weighted sequences show hyperintense white matter lesions with preferential involvement of the parieto-occipital regions. The territory irrigated by the vertebrobasilar system can be compromised in more severe cases. Hyperintense signal in apparent diffusion coefficient allows for the visualization of vasogenic edema.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Laboratory tests may show thrombocytopenia, microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, proteinuria, and increased plasma creatinine and liver enzymes. On computed tomography, focal or diffuse hypodensities in the white matter and cortex are common, along with signs of edema. Electroencephalography shows generalized slowing with loss of alpha rhythm, or epileptiform activity if seizures occur.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.3. Treatment</title>
          <p>The goal is to reduce the average BP by approximately 10 to 15% in the first hour and by no more than 25% at the end of the first day of treatment. Greater and faster decreases may lead to cerebral hypoperfusion and loss of vascular autoregulation mechanisms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Due to the need for rapid BP control, intravenous medications are recommended, of which the most frequently used are sodium nitroprusside (arterial and venous vasodilator), nicardipine (dihydropyridine calcium-channel blocker with arteriolar vasodilation action), clevidipine (short-acting dihydropyridine calcium-channel blocker), labetalol (alpha-adrenergic and beta-adrenergic blocker), or fenoldopam (peripheral dopamine-1 receptor agonist). During pregnancy, magnesium sulfate, diazoxide, or hydralazine are recommended. Corticosteroids (dexamethasone), mannitol (may be used in the absence of renal disease), and anticonvulsants (in case of seizures) may also be used.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Within the first 24 to 48 hours, oral medications should be introduced to improve BP control (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockers and calcium-channel blockers), with a gradual DBP reduction to values below 90 mmHg in the following 2 to 3 months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6. Malignant or Accelerated Hypertension</title>
        <p>Malignant hypertension is characterized by hypertension at varying levels, but usually very high BP (stage 3), retinopathy with papilledema, and rapidly progressive TOD (kidneys and heart), with a fatal outcome in the absence of therapeutic intervention ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> ). Severe BP elevation in the presence of retinal hemorrhages and exudates but no papilledema on fundoscopy is known as accelerated hypertension ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref> ). After demonstration that the clinical findings and prognosis of these two forms of hypertension are similar,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> the terms &#8220;malignant&#8221; and &#8220;accelerated&#8221; became interchangeable, and the World Health Organization currently uses the term accelerated-malignant to define this complication. Characteristically, malignant hypertension presents with systemic vascular changes affecting particularly the kidneys (known as malignant nephrosclerosis) and involving basically two processes: (a) proliferative endarteritis affecting small and large arterioles with intimal thickening, fragmentation, and reduplication of the internal elastic lamina and smooth muscle proliferation; the progression of this lesion, which resembles an &#8220;onion skin,&#8221; may lead to occlusion of the vessel lumen with consequent reduction in renal blood flow; (b) necrotizing changes in arterioles, especially in the glomerular hilum, and vessel wall reconstruction with eosinophilic granular material that exhibits the characteristics of fibrin (fibrinoid necrosis), causing destruction of the normal morphology and deep lumen narrowing. These changes may occur in organs other than the kidneys and are primarily responsible for the fatal complications of the disease ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> The prognosis of malignant hypertension is almost always fatal if not early recognized or properly treated; in the past, the associated mortality reached 80% within 2 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> However, since the introduction of antihypertensive treatment, studies have shown that the survival of individuals with malignant hypertension has improved substantially.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> In a publication including almost 500 patients in Birmingham (United Kingdom), the authors reported a significant improvement in 5-year survival from 32% before 1977 to 91% in patients diagnosed between 1997 and 2006.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Management of patients with malignant hypertension usually includes the use of four classes of drugs, and hypertensive complications may stabilize and, in some cases, even be reversed.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Normal fundoscopy (A). Fundoscopy of an individual with malignant hypertension and papilledema (B).</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-04-0736-90731-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Fundoscopy showing normal papillae, diffuse arteriolar narrowing, areas with superficial hemorrhage, and microaneurysms (grade III hypertensive retinopathy according to the Keith-Wagener classification).</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-04-0736-90731-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03001">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Anatomopathological lesions typical of accelerated-malignant hypertension. Fibrinoid necrosis of an afferent arteriole (arrow) (A). Obliterating endarteritis ("onion skin" lesions) (B).</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-04-0736-90731-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7. Stroke and Hypertensive Emergency</title>
        <p>Stroke may present as a HE. Individuals with chronic hypertension present a right shift in the autoregulation curve for CBF causing them to tolerate substantially higher BP values without developing encephalopathy. Patients with chronic hypertension who have their BP values aggressively and rapidly reduced may present symptoms of cerebral hypoperfusion, even when the values are within the autoregulation range, as observed in normotensive individuals. Finally, patients with severe hypertension may lose the ability of autoregulation, thus presenting an increased risk of cerebral ischemia with abrupt BP reductions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1. Ischemic Stroke</title>
          <p>In ischemic stroke, careful BP reductions of 10 to 15% are recommended at the end of the first hour after initiation of therapy and only if SBP is &gt; 220 mmHg or DBP is &gt; 120 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> If SBP is &gt; 180 to 230 mmHg or DBP is &gt; 105 to 120 mmHg and the patient is not undergoing thrombolysis, the following therapy is recommended: intravenous labetalol 10 mg followed by continuous infusion at a dose of 2 to 8 mg/min; or nicardipine at the cited doses until the desired effect is obtained. If uncontrolled BP or DBP &gt; 140 mmHg persists, intravenous sodium nitroprusside should be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the case of individuals with elevated BP and indication for thrombolytic therapy with alteplase, BP should be carefully reduced until SBP &lt; 185 mmHg and DBP &lt; 110 mmHg before administration of the thrombolytic. If BP remains above 185/110 mmHg, thrombolytic therapy should not be administered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Labetalol is the first medication of choice, and nicardipine is the alternative therapy. A dose of intravenous labetalol of 10 to 20 mg is recommended for 1 to 2 minutes (may be repeated once). Nicardipine is recommended at the dose of 5 mg/h and administered intravenously, with dose titration of 2.5 mg/h every 5 to 15 minutes (maximum dose of 15 mg/h). During or after thrombolysis or other reperfusion therapy, BP should be maintained at or below 180/105 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.2. Hemorrhagic Stroke</title>
          <p>Treatment goals in hemorrhagic stroke are controversial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Elevation in BP is common during acute intracerebral hemorrhage and is associated with a higher risk of expansion of the hematoma, increased risk of death, and worse recovery prognosis. In this case, immediate (within 6 hours) decrease in BP to values &lt; 140/90 mmHg has shown no benefit in the primary outcome of disability or death at 3 months, despite reducing the expansion of the hematoma and improving functional recovery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> In contrast, another study has shown that a more intensive reduction in SBP is not beneficial and is associated with a greater number of adverse renal events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Thus, in individuals with hemorrhagic stroke, European guidelines recommend against immediate BP reduction for patients with SBP &lt; 220 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> In individuals with SBP &#8805; 220 mmHg, careful BP reduction with intravenous therapy to achieve SBP &lt; 180 mmHg should be considered<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> . Labetalol, at the aforementioned doses, is the first therapeutic choice, and sodium nitroprusside and nicardipine are the alternative therapies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8. Acute Coronary Syndromes and Hypertensive Emergency</title>
        <p>Epidemiological data indicate that acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is the leading cause of death and hospitalization in patients with HE. Additionally, almost 50% of all patients with hypertension admitted to the emergency room die of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) during long-term follow-up. Notably, no differences have been found when other risk factors are present, such as smoking or diabetes mellitus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Obviously, hypertension is associated with acute coronary events as a risk, atherogenic, and hemodynamic factor, imposing profound effects on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. During a HE, increased BP causes mechanical stress and endothelial injury, leading to increased vascular permeability, activation of the coagulation cascade and platelets, fibrin deposition, and thrombosis. This process results in ischemia and release of vasoactive mediators, leading to a vicious cycle of permanent injury. The activation of the renin-angiotensin system leads to increased vasoconstriction and production of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-alpha, interleukin [IL]-6, etc.). It also increases NADPH oxidase activity and production of reactive oxygen species, causing oxidative stress. These mechanisms promote hypoperfusion, myocardial ischemia, and endothelial dysfunction, which manifest during the HE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Assessment of cardiovascular risk and investigation of comorbidities are essential in the approach to patients presenting with HE and ACS. Electrocardiography is the gold standard for the detection of ischemia or acute coronary events. Also, vital signs (BP, oxygen saturation, and heart rate) should be carefully measured during physical examination in patients with HE. Laboratory analysis includes the quantification of cardiac enzymes and determination of troponin I. In a retrospective study, patients with HC and increased cardiac troponin I (cTn-I) concentration were 2.7 times more likely to present adverse cardiovascular events and stroke at 2 years of follow-up compared with those with normal cTn-I values.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Treatment of HE associated with ACS should initiate with nitroglycerin infusion. Nitroglycerin is a venodilator that reduces preload and cardiac oxygen demand. This agent is used mainly in ACS and acute edema along with other antihypertensive regimens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> An alternative to nitroglycerin intolerance is the administration of dihydropyridine calcium-channel blockers (amlodipine, nicardipine), as they are useful for patients with ACS because of their beneficial effect on coronary blood flow. Alternatively, clevidipine &#8211; a short-acting calcium-channel blocker &#8211; may be administered intravenously, and since its dosing regimen is not based on weight, it allows for prolonged infusion and successful transition to oral therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> If available, especially in ST-segment elevation ACS, primary angioplasty is the best choice for reperfusion therapy in patients with HE, as thrombolysis may increase the risk of cerebral bleeding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Beta-blockers like labetalol (a nonselective alpha-1-adrenergic receptor blocker), which reduces systemic vascular resistance while maintaining cerebral, renal, and coronary blood flow, or esmolol (a short-acting cardioselective beta-1 blocker with fast onset of action) are indicated to attenuate the increase in heart rate, reduce myocardial oxygen consumption without compromising the left ventricular diastolic filling, and improve prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Additionally, BP reduction decreases the risk of pulmonary edema and the size of the infarct zone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Tolerance to higher maintenance doses of esmolol is a good predictor of results with oral beta-blocker therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The optimal BP value after ACS remains controversial. Several studies have shown an inverse relationship between DBP and ischemic adverse cardiac events ( <italic>i.e.</italic> , the lower the DBP, the higher the risk of coronary heart disease and adverse outcomes). This effect is defined as the J-curve phenomenon, which describes the shape of the relationship between BP and the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> This profile seems to be more pronounced in patients with underlying coronary artery disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9. Acute Left Ventricular Dysfunction in Hypertensive Emergency</title>
        <p>Acute left ventricular dysfunction is best known as APE. HE, acute mitral regurgitation (papillary muscle dysfunction secondary to ischemic disease or spontaneous rupture), and ACS are the most common causal factors of cardiogenic APE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> About 1/3 of the patients admitted with APE and HE have preserved left ventricular function. Patients with HE presenting manifestations of APE should be managed in an intensive care unit, receive parenteral medications and monitoring, and undergo gradual BP decrease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Nitroglycerin and sodium nitroprusside are used to reduce preload and afterload. Administration of loop diuretics also decreases volume overload and helps reduce BP. The use of noninvasive continuous positive airway pressure may help reduce pulmonary edema and venous return.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10. Acute Aortic Syndromes</title>
        <p>Acute aortic syndrome (AAS), a term currently comprising aortic dissection (AD), intramural hematoma (IMH), and penetrating atherosclerotic ulcerations (PAU), has an incidence that ranges from 3.5 to 6.0 per 100,000 patients/year.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Given its high mortality rate, AAS should be considered and promptly diagnosed in patients with acute chest or back pain, especially if associated with hypertension. Computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and transesophageal echocardiography are reliable imaging tests to diagnose AAS, while measurement of serum D-dimer has shown 51.7 to 100% sensitivity and 32.8 to 89.2% specificity in six studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Of all AAS types, AD is the most common (85 to 95%), followed by IMH (0 to 25%) and PAU (2 to 7%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> According to the Stanford classification, AAS is divided into type A, which involves the ascending aorta, and type B, which does not involve this segment. In contrast, the DeBakey classification divides AAS into type I, which involves at least the ascending aorta and the aortic arch and often also the descending aorta; type II, which is confined to the ascending aorta; and type III, which originates in the distal descending aorta and affects the left subclavian artery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> AAS may be associated with several risk factors including the male sex, advanced age, first-degree relatives with a history of AAS, hypertension, dyslipidemia, smoking, illicit drug use, history of major vascular arteritis ( <italic>e.g.</italic> , Takayasu arteritis), collagen vascular disease (like Marfan&#8217;s, Loeys-Dietz, and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome), blunt trauma from motor vehicle accident or vertical fall, arterial instrumentation for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes, or hereditary mutations in genes encoding proteins involved with vascular integrity (such as mutation in the <italic>ACTA2</italic> gene).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1. Treatment</title>
          <p>Treatment of AAS requires a multidisciplinary approach involving clinical, endovascular, and surgical interventions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Type A ADs have a poor prognosis and an overall in-hospital mortality of 30%, with a mortality increase of 1 to 2% per hour of progression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Without intervention, the mortality is about 58%, compared with 26% with surgical intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Open surgery is the ideal treatment for type A AAS (ascending aorta), and thoracic endovascular aortic repair is best suited to treat type B AAS (descending aorta).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Endovascular surgery has been shown to be better than medical treatment (97% <italic>vs.</italic> 43%) considering the favorable aortic remodeling, false lumen thrombosis, and absence of aortic dilation or rupture.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Initial management of AD involves pain control and use of antihypertensive agents. Intravenous beta-blockers (metoprolol, esmolol, or labetalol) should be administered to reduce wall stress, lowering heart rate and BP and maintaining adequate cerebral, coronary, and renal perfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Administration of beta-blockers should be completed before BP reduction with afterload reducing agents. Guidelines recommend a SBP reduction to 100 to 120 mmHg and a heart rate below 60 bpm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> In case of intolerance to beta-blockers, non-dihydropyridine calcium-channel blockers (verapamil or diltiazem) should be used.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> After proper beta blockade, afterload should be reduced. Although angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) have not shown significant benefits in terms of mortality, they have been used as adjuvant agents to reduce BP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> Sodium nitroprusside may also be used after beta blockade since, as monotherapy, this agent may increase shear stress of the aortic wall resulting in progression of the dissection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> To date, there is no known indication for early platelet blockade in AD control.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Several studies have shown that the use of statins reduces the growth rate of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) and decreases the likelihood of recurrent rupture after repair.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Still, the role of statins in AAS is unclear.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Effective pain management with morphine sulfate, fentanyl, or opiate should be implemented.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>11. Hypertensive Emergencies During Pregnancy</title>
        <p>Hypertension is the most common medical problem in pregnancy, manifesting in up to 10% of all pregnancies and accounting for about 25% of prenatal hospital admissions; it is also an important cause of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. Women with hypertension during pregnancy are at higher risk for future hypertensive disease, stroke, and coronary artery disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> The definition of hypertension in pregnancy follows the same criteria of the Brazilian Guideline of Arterial Hypertension, i.e., BP &#8805; 140/90 mmHg. Hypertension during pregnancy is considered severe when SBP values are &#8805; 160 to 170 mmHg and DBP are &#8805; 110 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> Thus, hypertension may precede (in this case, chronic hypertension) or develop during the course of pregnancy (preeclampsia/eclampsia/gestational hypertension), characterizing four different categories of hypertension:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Chronic hypertension begins before pregnancy or is diagnosed before the 20th week of gestation. Only 20 to 25% of the cases of chronic hypertension in pregnancy progress to preeclampsia.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Gestational hypertension is the most common disorder (10% of the cases occur in primiparous women; 20 to 25% of the cases overlap chronic hypertension). It develops after the 20<sup>th</sup>gestational week and is not accompanied by proteinuria. BP returns to normal values 1 to 2 weeks after delivery. Progresses with a favorable maternal and fetal prognosis.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Preeclampsia/eclampsia. Preeclampsia (PE), a process specific of pregnancy, is defined by hypertension that appears after the 20<sup>th</sup>gestational week and presents with proteinuria (&gt; 300 mg/24 hours or protein/creatinine ratio &gt; 300 mg/g), edema, and sometimes abnormal coagulation and liver function. Preeclampsia can progress rapidly to eclampsia, a clinical condition characterized by tonic-clonic seizures preceded by severe hypertension, headache, and hyperreflexia. Cerebral hemorrhage is the most serious complication, with a high rate of maternal mortality. Proteinuria and elevated BP should return to normal within 12 weeks after delivery.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Chronic hypertension with preeclampsia/overlapping eclampsia. This condition should be suspected in the presence of microalbuminuria (30 to 300 mg in 24-hour urine or 30 to 300 mg/g albumin/creatinine ratio in spot urine), increase in preexisting proteinuria, clinical or laboratory abnormality characteristic of preeclampsia, or elevation in preexisting BP levels after the 20<sup>th</sup>gestational week in a patient with chronic hypertension.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <sec>
          <title>11.1. Treatment</title>
          <p>The two main key points in the treatment of HC in pregnancy are (1) stabilization of the mother, including the use of antihypertensive medications that are safe and appropriate for use in pregnancy, and delivery recommendation; and (2) fetal well-being, which must be confirmed by fetal monitoring and ultrasound.</p>
          <p>Pharmacological treatment should be initiated at BP levels &gt; 150/100 mmHg, aiming at maintaining the levels at 130 to 150/80 to 100 mmHg (degree of recommendation [DR]: IIa; level of evidence [LE]: B). In patients with preeclampsia in stable clinical condition without the need for immediate delivery, oral antihypertensive treatment is indicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> In Brazil, the oral medications that are usually administered are methyldopa, hydralazine, calcium-channel antagonists (long-acting nifedipine, amlodipine), and beta-blockers (preferably pindolol). Pregnant women with chronic hypertension may continue the use of thiazides, as long as they do not promote volume depletion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> The use of renin-angiotensin system blockers is contraindicated in pregnancy (DR: I; LE: B).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Urgent pharmacological treatment is indicated in severe hypertension (SBP &gt; 155 to 160 mmHg) and in the presence of premonitory signs (DR: I; LE: B). Intravenous hydralazine is recommended (5 mg, repeat 5 to 10 mg every 30 minutes to a maximum of 20 mg). Sodium nitroprusside may be considered for urgent BP control, especially in the presence of APE and severe and refractory hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Magnesium sulfate is the medication of choice for both treatment and prevention of seizures during eclampsia. The patient should be monitored in terms of urine output, patellar reflexes, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation. Plasma magnesium should be maintained between 4 and 7 mEq/L and measured in the occurrence of renal disease. If magnesium sulfate intoxication is suspected, calcium gluconate should be administered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>12. Adrenergic Emergencies</title>
        <p>Neuroendocrine tumors associated with sympathetic tissue with the potential to secrete catecholamines are rare and include pheochromocytomas (adrenal medulla) and paragangliomas (non-adrenal tissue). Diagnosis, location, and anatomical delineation of these tumors involve measurement of catecholamines and their metabolites in blood and urine, computed tomography and/or magnetic resonance imaging, and metaiodobenzylguanidine (I<sup>123</sup>) scintigraphy. Symptoms may occur at any stage of life, are nonspecific, and depend on the release of catecholamines into the bloodstream; BP elevation, palpitations, and headache may occur. Surgical removal of these tumors is always indicated to cure or prevent cardiovascular disease secondary to catecholamine excess.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> BP in these patients may be sustained or paroxysmal, and a marked increase in BP may characterize an impending life-threatening HE. This occurs by activation of alpha receptors by catecholamines. The Brazilian Guideline on Hypertension recommends a diagnostic flowchart for neuroendocrine tumors (pheochromocytoma and paragangliomas), which is shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5001">Table 4</xref> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref> shows the imaging methods used for diagnostic confirmation in the occurrence of an abnormal biochemical test.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t5001">
            <label>Table 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Flowchart from the 7th Brazilian Guideline of Arterial Hypertension for clinical and laboratory diagnosis of cases of pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Clinical findings</th>
                  <th>Suspected diagnosis</th>
                  <th>Additional studies</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Paroxysmal hypertension with headache, sweating, and palpitations</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="3">Pheochromocytoma</td>
                  <td align="center">- Free plasma metanephrines</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="1" rowspan="2">- Resistant hypertension</td>
                  <td align="center">- Urinary metanephrines and serum catecholamines</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">- Imaging tests</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04001">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Imaging methods for diagnostic confirmation of pheochromocytoma.</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-04-0736-90731-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Whole-body scintigraphy is obtained to identify the location of extra-adrenal neuroendocrine tumors (paragangliomas). This test is recommended in cases of abnormal biochemical tests and negative imaging tests. It should always be performed after verification and discontinuation of medications that may interfere with their interpretation (sympathomimetics, calcium-channel blockers, cocaine, antidepressants, and labetalol), which should be suspended 14 days prior to the test. Whole-body scintigraphy is contraindicated during pregnancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> After a diagnosis of neuroendocrine tumor, the proposed treatment is always surgical, preceded by pharmacological preparation and hydration to prevent or mitigate the occurrence of HC or hypotension during surgery ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6001">Table 5</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> In this situation, intravenous antihypertensive medications are administered (initially alpha-blockers and later beta-blockers). Continuous infusion of sodium nitroprusside (0.25 to 10 mg/kg/min) or phentolamine (continuous infusion of 1 to 5 mg with a maximum dose of 15 mg) may be used with markedly increased BP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t6001">
            <label>Table 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Preoperative care in cases of pheochromocytoma</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">High-sodium diet and hydration (lacks evidence):</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Saline infusion during surgery (1 to 2 L)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Revert volume contraction</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Prevent hypotension</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Pharmacological preparation:</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Alpha-adrenergic blockade</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Beta-blockers</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- Calcium-channel blockers</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- No evidence regarding target blood pressure</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Laparoscopic adrenalectomy (most cases):</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- For paragangliomas (minority)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Open adrenalectomy (for paragangliomas):</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>- For pheochromocytoma (minority)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>13. Illicit Drugs and Hypertensive Emergency</title>
        <p>In the emergency room, patients with HC and sympathetic hyperactivity should raise suspicion of amphetamine or cocaine intoxication, as well as abusive use of other drugs like serotonin reuptake inhibitors, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and use of cytotoxic or antiangiogenic medications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Cocaine has multiple cardiovascular and hematological effects that contribute to BP elevation, development of myocardial ischemia, and/or AMI due to coronary vasoconstriction. Cocaine, even in small doses, blocks norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake in presynaptic adrenergic terminals, causing catecholamine accumulation in the postsynaptic receptor, thus acting as a powerful sympathomimetic agent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> As a result, cocaine causes a dose-dependent increase in heart rate and BP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> In addition, cocaine use may reduce left ventricular function associated with increased parietal stress at the end of systole and increased oxygen demand. The chronotropic effects of cocaine use are intensified by alcohol consumption.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> Cocaine-induced vasoconstriction is secondary to stimulation of alpha-adrenergic receptors in the smooth muscle cells of the coronary circulation. This drug also increases the release of endothelin-1<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> and decreases the bioavailability of nitric oxide, promoting BP elevation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> Treatment with benzodiazepines is initially indicated. When BP reduction is required, a competitive intravenous alpha-blocker agent is indicated (phentolamine). Alternatively, nicardipine or sodium nitroprusside may be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> Clonidine may also be considered because of its sedative effect in addition to sympatholytic action.</p>
        <p>In ACS, treatment with nitroglycerin and aspirin is recommended concomitantly with benzodiazepines. In the presence of ACS with tachyarrhythmias, non-dihydropyridine calcium-channel blockers (diltiazem and verapamil) are recommended. Beta-blockers (including labetalol) are contraindicated since these agents are unable to reduce the coronary vasoconstriction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> Nicardipine may also be a good alternative for patients with HE induced by cytotoxic or antiangiogenic drugs.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>14. Postoperative Hypertensive Emergency Following Vascular Surgery</title>
        <p>The concept of &#8220;postoperative hypertensive emergency&#8221; differs from that of ambulatory hypertensive emergency/urgency because of the occurrence of this unique clinical situation in an atypical (postoperative) setting. Notably, moderately elevated BP values in the postoperative setting may require immediate treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Postoperative hypertensive emergency (POHE) is arbitrarily defined as elevation of SBP to levels &gt; 190 mmHg and/or DBP to levels &gt; 100 mmHg confirmed in two consecutive readings during the immediate postoperative period.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup> A 40 to 50 mmHg elevation in SBP or increase in BP values greater than 20% in relation to baseline values may also characterize postoperative hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup> This increase in BP values usually begins 10 to 20 minutes after surgery and can last up to 4 hours. The pathophysiology of POHE in patients previously normotensive is associated with peripheral vasoconstriction, catecholamine release, reduced baroreceptor sensitivity, central adrenergic activation, vasopressin release, stimulation of the renin-angiotensin system with consequent angiotensin II production, release of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6), and sodium retention. All these changes result in vasoconstriction, increase in afterload and SBP/DBP, and tachycardia. If left untreated, postoperative hypertension increases the risk of myocardial ischemia, AMI, APE, stroke, and bleeding, as well as postoperative mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup></p>
        <p>POHE occurs in 40 to 80% of the patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy or open cardiac surgery, 57% of the patients undergoing abdominal aortic surgery and 29% of those undergoing peripheral vascular surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> In particular, acute and severe hypertension with SBP elevation &gt; 220 mmHg may occur in 9% of the individuals undergoing carotid endarterectomy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> This manifestation, which may be transient, is related to carotid sinus manipulation and may cause hematoma, myocardial ischemia, and cerebral hyperperfusion with consequent neurological damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup> Other proposed mechanisms include iatrogenic denervation,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> decreased baroreflex activity,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> reduced carotid sinus sensitivity, and increased production of cerebral renin and/or catecholamines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup></p>
        <p>HE may also occur after surgical correction of aortic coarctation. The etiology is multifactorial and includes changes in the baroreceptor reflex, activation of the sympathetic system and renin-angiotensin system, and expansion of the extracellular volume.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> The stimulation of sympathetic nerve fibers located in the middle layer and adventitia of the aortic isthmus has two effects, both resulting in hypertension. Initially, peripheral release of norepinephrine occurs, with consequent vasoconstriction and BP elevation. Next, stimulation of juxtaglomerular cells occurs, releasing renin and promoting additional hypertension. Secondarily, increased renin production causes blood shunting from the mesenteric arteries, thus triggering abdominal symptoms in the so-called post-coarctectomy syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Before initiating antihypertensive pharmacological treatment, reversible causes of postoperative hypertension should be investigated, such as pain, hypoxia, hypercapnia, agitation, bladder distension, and hypervolemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> Proper analgesia and sedation are considered to be requirements before the initiation of antihypertensive therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> When POHE is present, the distinction between emergency and urgency is mandatory.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The therapeutic goal is not necessarily to normalize BP but to interrupt the vascular injury and reverse the pathological process. Progressive BP reductions, as reported in the general principles of HE treatment, should be achieved.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Development: Department of Hypertension of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Norms and Guidelines Council (2020-2021): Brivaldo Markman Filho, Antonio Carlos Sobral Sousa, Aurora Felice Castro Issa, Bruno Ramos Nascimento, Harry Correa Filho, Marcelo Luiz Campos Vieira</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Norms and Guidelines Coordinator (2020-2021): Brivaldo Markman Filho</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>This statement should be cited as: Vilela-Martin JF, Yugar-Toledo JC, Rodrigues MC, Barroso WKS, Carvalho LCBS, Gonz&#225;lez FJT et al. Luso-Brazilian Position Statement on Hypertensive Emergencies &#8211; 2020. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2020; 114(4)736-751</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Note: These statements are for information purposes and are not to replace the clinical judgment of a physician, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for each patient.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
