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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">VPLJjnTp9GQ6Fjjv6vYBdRP</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2020000300576</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200198</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200198</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Posicionamento</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Posicionamento Brasileiro sobre Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente &#8211; 2020</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6583-6536</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Yugar-Toledo</surname>
            <given-names>Juan Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreno</surname>
            <given-names>Heitor</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gus</surname>
            <given-names>Miguel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosito</surname>
            <given-names>Guido Bernardo Aranha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scala</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz C&#233;sar Naz&#225;rio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Muxfeldt</surname>
            <given-names>Elizabeth Silaid</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alessi</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea Ara&#250;jo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Osni</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Feitosa</surname>
            <given-names>Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Passarelli</surname>
            <given-names>Oswaldo</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Dilma do Socorro Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amodeo</surname>
            <given-names>Celso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Kunz Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Ant&#244;nio Mota</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Annelise Machado Gomes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Costa Duarte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Miranda</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto Dischinger</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vilela-Martin</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nadruz</surname>
            <given-names>Wilson</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rodrigues</surname>
            <given-names>Cibele Isaac Saad</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Drager</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bortolotto</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Aparecido</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Consolim-Colombo</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Marciano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rcio Gon&#231;alves de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Borelli</surname>
            <given-names>Fl&#225;vio Antonio de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kaiser</surname>
            <given-names>S&#233;rgio Emanuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Salles</surname>
            <given-names>Gil Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Maria de F&#225;tima de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Luc&#233;lia Batista Neves Cunha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>P&#243;voa</surname>
            <given-names>Rui Manoel dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Malachias</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nogueira</surname>
            <given-names>Armando da Rocha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo C&#233;sar Brand&#227;o Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Thiago de Souza Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade Estadual de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Estadual de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto, S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Cuiab&#225;</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MT</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiab&#225;, MT &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>8</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>9</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>10</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <label>11</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia,S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12">
        <label>12</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Par&#225;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bel&#233;m</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Par&#225;, Bel&#233;m, PA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13">
        <label>13</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14">
        <label>14</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Macei&#243;</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AL</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio CESMAC, Macei&#243;, AL &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15">
        <label>15</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Liga de Combate &#224; Hipertens&#227;o de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Liga de Combate &#224; Hipertens&#227;o de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16">
        <label>16</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17">
        <label>17</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas e da Sa&#250;de</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de s&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas e da Sa&#250;de Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de s&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18">
        <label>18</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade Medicina Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo,S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff19">
        <label>19</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Natal</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RN</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff20">
        <label>20</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ci&#234;ncias</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Bahia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ci&#234;ncias da Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff21">
        <label>21</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais, Belo horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff22">
        <label>22</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff23">
        <label>23</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff24">
        <label>24</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: 20020-907. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>06</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <season>May-Jun</season>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>114</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>576</fpage>
      <lpage>596</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="8"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="174"/>
        <page-count count="21"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p><bold>Realiza&#231;&#227;o:</bold> Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial (DHA) da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</p>
    <p><bold>Conselho de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes (2020-2021):</bold> Brivaldo Markman Filho, Antonio Carlos Sobral Sousa, Aurora Felice Castro Issa, Bruno Ramos Nascimento, Harry Correa Filho, Marcelo Luiz Campos Vieira</p>
    <p><bold>Coordenador de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes (2020-2021):</bold> Brivaldo Markman Filho</p>
    <p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup width="13%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th colspan="8" style="font-weight:normal">Declara&#231;&#227;o de potencial conflito de interesses dos autores/colaboradores do Posicionamento Brasileiro sobre Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Se nos &#250;ltimos 3 anos o autor/colaborador do Posicionamento:</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Nomes Integrantes do Posicionamento</th>
              <th>Participou de estudos cl&#237;nicos e/ou experimentais subvencionados pela ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica ou de equipamentos relacionados &#224; diretriz em quest&#227;o</th>
              <th>Foi palestrante em eventos ou atividades patrocinadas pela ind&#250;stria relacionados &#224; diretriz em quest&#227;o</th>
              <th>Foi (&#233;) membro do conselho consultivo ou diretivo da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica ou de equipamentos</th>
              <th>Participou de comit&#234;s normativos de estudos cient&#237;ficos patrocinados pela ind&#250;stria</th>
              <th>Recebeu aux&#237;lio pessoal ou institucional da ind&#250;stria</th>
              <th>Elaborou textos cient&#237;ficos em peri&#243;dicos patrocinados pela ind&#250;stria</th>
              <th>Tem a&#231;&#245;es da ind&#250;stria</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td>Alexandre Alessi</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Andrea Ara&#250;jo Brand&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Abbott, EMS, Merck</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Medley</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Abbott</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Annelise Machado Gomes de Paiva</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Armando da Rocha Nogueira</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es Feitosa</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Omron</td>
              <td align="center">Omron</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Celso Amodeo</td>
              <td align="center">Medtronic</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Novo Nordisk</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Cibele Isaac Saad Rodrigues</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Dilma do Socorro Moraes de Souza</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Eduardo Costa Duarte Barbosa</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">EMS, Servier</td>
              <td align="center">EMS, Novartis, Medley</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Elizabeth Silaid Muxfeldt</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Fernanda Marciano Consolim-Colombo</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Merck</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Merck, Daiichi Sankyo</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Merck</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Flavio Antonio de Oliveira Borelli</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Libbs</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Gil Fernando Salles</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Guido Bernardo Aranha Rosito</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Heitor Moreno J&#250;nior</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Jos&#233; Fernando Vilela-Martin</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Juan Carlos Yugar-Toledo</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Luciano Ferreira Drager</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Luc&#233;lia Batista Neves Cunha Magalh&#227;es</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Merck</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Luiz C&#233;sar Naz&#225;rio Scala</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>M&#225;rcio Gon&#231;alves de Sousa</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marco Ant&#244;nio Mota Gomes</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Torrent, Abbott, Omron, Novartis, Astrazeneca</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Torrent, Abbott, Omron, Novartis, Astrazeneca</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Torrent, Abbott, Omron, Novartis, Astrazeneca</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var Malachias</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Abbott, Biolab, Libbs, Novo Nordisk, Takeda</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Abbott, Biolab, Farmoqu&#237;mica, Libbs, Novo Nordisk</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Maria de F&#225;tima de Azevedo</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Miguel Gus</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Osni Moreira Filho</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Servier, Merck</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Oswaldo Passarelli J&#250;nior</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Paulo C&#233;sar Brand&#227;o Veiga Jardim</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Biolab, Ach&#233;, Libbs</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Roberto Dischinger Miranda</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Rui Manoel dos Santos P&#243;voa</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>S&#233;rgio Emanuel Kaiser</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Novartis</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Thiago de Souza Veiga Jardim</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Torrent</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">Libbs, Torrent, Novartis</td>
              <td align="center">Torrent</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso</td>
              <td align="center">Amgen, AstraZeneca, Torrent, EMS, Novartis</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">EMS, Sandoz, Servier, Novartis</td>
              <td align="center">Medley, Sandoz, EMS</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Wilson Nadruz J&#250;nior</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Sum&#225;rio</p>
    <p>1. Defini&#231;&#227;o e Epidemiologia 580</p>
    <p>1.1. Defini&#231;&#227;o/Novos Conceitos 580</p>
    <p>1.2. Controle da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial no Brasil e no Mundo 580</p>
    <p>1.3. Incid&#234;ncia e Preval&#234;ncia de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente 580</p>
    <p>1.4. Fatores Relacionados &#224; Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente 580</p>
    <p>2. Aspectos Progn&#243;sticos 581</p>
    <p>2.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 581</p>
    <p>2.2. Press&#227;o Arterial de Consult&#243;rio e Monitoramento Ambulatorial da Press&#227;o Arterial 581</p>
    <p>2.3. Les&#245;es de &#211;rg&#227;os-Alvo 581</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.3.1. Press&#227;o Arterial Central e Rigidez Arterial 581</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.3.2. Hipertrofia Ventricular Esquerda 581</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.3.3. Albumin&#250;ria 581</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.3.4. Biomarcadores Inflamat&#243;rios 581</bold>
    </p>
    <p>3. Fluxograma de Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente 581</p>
    <p>3.1. Fluxograma na Abordagem Diagn&#243;stica da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente 581</p>
    <p>4. Medida da Press&#227;o Arterial 582</p>
    <p>4.1. Press&#227;o Arterial de Consult&#243;rio na Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente 582</p>
    <p>4.2. Monitoramento Ambulatorial da Press&#227;o Arterial em Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente 582</p>
    <p>4.3. Monitoramento Residencial da Press&#227;o Arterial e Automedida da Press&#227;o Arterial 583</p>
    <p>4.4. Medida da Press&#227;o Arterial Central 583</p>
    <p>5. Les&#245;es de &#211;rg&#227;os-Alvo 583</p>
    <p>5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 583</p>
    <p>5.2. Altera&#231;&#245;es Vasculares 583</p>
    <p>5.3. Altera&#231;&#245;es Cerebrais 583</p>
    <p>5.4. Altera&#231;&#245;es Card&#237;acas 584</p>
    <p>5.5. Altera&#231;&#245;es Renais 584</p>
    <p>6. Fen&#243;tipo do Paciente com Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente 585</p>
    <p>6.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 585</p>
    <p>6.2. Fen&#243;tipo do Paciente com Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente 585</p>
    <p>6.3. Fen&#243;tipo da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente Controlada e da N&#227;o Controlada 585</p>
    <p>
      <bold>6.3.1. Aspectos Fisiopatol&#243;gicos 585</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>6.3.2. Diferen&#231;as Cl&#237;nicas 585</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>6.3.3. Progn&#243;stico 585</bold>
    </p>
    <p>6.4. Fen&#243;tipo do Paciente com Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Refrat&#225;ria 585</p>
    <p>7. Causas Secund&#225;rias de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente 586</p>
    <p>7.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 586</p>
    <p>7.2. Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Secund&#225;ria de Causas N&#227;o End&#243;crinas 586</p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.2.1. Apneia Obstrutiva do Sono 586</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.2.2. Doen&#231;a do Par&#234;nquima Renal 586</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.2.3. Estenose da Art&#233;ria Renal 587</bold>
    </p>
    <p>7.3. Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Secund&#225;ria de Causas End&#243;crinas 587</p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.3.1. Hiperaldosteronismo Prim&#225;rio 587</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.3.2. Feocromocitoma 587</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.3.3. Hipotireoidismo e Hipertireoidismo 588</bold>
    </p>
    <p>8. Tratamento N&#227;o Farmacol&#243;gico 589</p>
    <p>8.1. Perda Ponderal 589</p>
    <p>8.2. Restri&#231;&#227;o de Sal 589</p>
    <p>8.3. Ingest&#227;o de &#193;lcool 589</p>
    <p>8.4. Atividade F&#237;sica 589</p>
    <p>9. Tratamento Farmacol&#243;gico da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente) 589</p>
    <p>10. Novos Tratamentos da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente 590</p>
    <p>10.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 590</p>
    <p>10.2. Estimula&#231;&#227;o Direta do Seio Carot&#237;deo 590</p>
    <p>10.3. Denerva&#231;&#227;o Simp&#225;tica Renal 591</p>
    <p>10.4. Uso de Press&#227;o Positiva Cont&#237;nua em Vias A&#233;reas 591</p>
    <p>10.5. F&#237;stula Arteriovenosa 591</p>
    <p>Refer&#234;ncias 591</p>
    <sec>
      <title>1. Defini&#231;&#227;o e Epidemiologia</title>
      <p><bold>Coordenador:</bold> Heitor Moreno J&#250;nior.</p>
      <p><bold>Autores:</bold> Juan Carlos Yugar-Toledo, Heitor Moreno J&#250;nior, Miguel Gus, Guido Bernardo Aranha Rosito e Luiz C&#233;sar Naz&#225;rio Scala.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>1.1. Defini&#231;&#227;o/Novos Conceitos</title>
        <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente (HAR) &#233; definida quando a press&#227;o arterial (PA) permanece acima das metas recomendadas com o uso de tr&#234;s anti-hipertensivos de diferentes classes, incluindo um bloqueador do sistema renina-angiotensina (inibidor da enzima conversora da angiotensina [IECA] ou bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina [BRA]), um bloqueador dos canais de c&#225;lcio (BCC) de a&#231;&#227;o prolongada e um diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico (DT) de longa a&#231;&#227;o em doses m&#225;ximas preconizadas e toleradas, administradas com frequ&#234;ncia, dosagem apropriada e comprovada ades&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Outros f&#225;rmacos podem ser associados aos primeiros em caso de falha deles (antagonistas da aldosterona, betabloqueadores e &#945;-metildopa); entretanto, especialistas conflitam sobre o assunto em alguns pontos referentes &#224; dose/pot&#234;ncia, embora a maior discuss&#227;o seja quanto ao uso da clortalidona ou da hidroclorotiazida como principais DT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nesta defini&#231;&#227;o est&#225; inclu&#237;do o subgrupo de pacientes hipertensos resistentes, cuja PA &#233; controlada com quatro ou mais medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, chamada de HAR controlada (HAR-C).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A classifica&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a em HAR-C e HAR n&#227;o controlada (HAR-NC),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> incluindo a HAR refrat&#225;ria (HAR-Ref), um fen&#243;tipo extremo de HAR-NC em uso de cinco ou mais anti-hipertensivos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> &#233; uma proposta que ganha espa&#231;o na literatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Assim, HAR-NC &#233; definida como uma PA que permanece acima do n&#237;vel desejado (140/90 mmHg), apesar do uso concomitante de quatro ou mais agentes anti-hipertensivos de diferentes classes e um quarto f&#225;rmaco, que geralmente &#233; um antagonista do receptor mineralocorticoide ou um bloqueador simp&#225;tico central (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Quadro 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Quadro 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Classifica&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
									</th>
                  <th>N&#250;mero de anti-hipertensivos</th>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
									</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="4">HIpertens&#227;o resistente controlada</td>
                  <td align="center">N</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="4">Hipertens&#227;o resistente n&#227;o controlada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">3</td>
                  <td align="center">Hipertens&#227;o resistente</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt; 140/90</td>
                  <td align="center">Press&#227;o arterial (mmHg)</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 140/90</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Normotens&#227;o</td>
                  <td>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">Hipertens&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.2. Controle da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial no Brasil e no Mundo</title>
        <p>A an&#225;lise de 135 estudos populacionais com 1 milh&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos indica que 31,1% da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta &#233; hipertensa (IC 95%; 30 a 32%), com valor estimado em 28,5 e 31,5% nos pa&#237;ses de maior e menor condi&#231;&#227;o socioecon&#244;mica, respectivamente. O controle press&#243;rico varia dependendo das condi&#231;&#245;es socioecon&#244;micas, chegando a 28,4% nos pa&#237;ses mais desenvolvidos e apenas 7,7% naqueles com menor grau de desenvolvimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup>No Brasil, a taxa de controle varia de 10,4 a 35,2% nas popula&#231;&#245;es estudadas em tr&#234;s regi&#245;es do pa&#237;s.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um estudo envolvendo 291 centros das cinco regi&#245;es brasileiras e 2.810 pacientes avaliou a taxa de controle conforme perfil de risco e metas press&#243;ricas. Para pacientes de menor risco e meta &lt; 140/90 mmHg, o controle foi de 61,7%, enquanto para hipertensos de alto risco com meta &lt; 130/80 mmHg o valor correspondente foi de 41,8%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.3. Incid&#234;ncia e Preval&#234;ncia de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
        <p>A preval&#234;ncia de HAR no mundo &#233; estimada entre 10 e 20% dos hipertensos, o que significa aproximadamente 200 milh&#245;es de hipertensos resistentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A variabilidade deve-se, principalmente, &#224; diferen&#231;a de crit&#233;rios para HAR e &#224;s caracter&#237;sticas das popula&#231;&#245;es estudadas.</p>
        <p>O National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) demonstrou uma preval&#234;ncia de cerca de 9% dos hipertensos tendo HAR, correspondendo a 12,8% daqueles que utilizam anti-hipertensivos nos EUA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No entanto, a real preval&#234;ncia de HAR n&#227;o &#233; conhecida. Uma metan&#225;lise de Achelrod et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>avaliando popula&#231;&#245;es de hipertensos tratados encontrou uma preval&#234;ncia de 13,72% (IC 95%; 11,19 a 16,24%), de acordo com 20 estudos observacionais, e 16,32% (IC 95%; 10,68 a 21,95%) para quatro ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>No Brasil, um estudo multic&#234;ntrico e utilizando o monitoramento ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial (MAPA) (ReHOT study) mostrou uma preval&#234;ncia de HAR de 11,7%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Daugherty et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> analisaram a incid&#234;ncia de HAR em 205.750 hipertensos que iniciaram tratamento anti-hipertensivo entre 2002 e 2006. A taxa foi de 1,9% com um ano e meio de acompanhamento (0,7 por 100 pacientes ao ano), acarretando um risco cardiovascular (CV) 1,47 maior em 3,8 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.4. Fatores Relacionados &#224; Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
        <p>A HAR &#233; mais prevalente em idosos, obesos e afrodescendentes, bem como em pacientes com hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, diabetes melito, nefropatia cr&#244;nica, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, elevada ingest&#227;o de &#225;lcool e/ou sal e sedentarismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Os fatores relacionados &#224; HAR abrangem in&#250;meros aspectos, como: 1) diagn&#243;sticos: t&#233;cnica inadequada de aferi&#231;&#227;o da PA, efeito do avental branco;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup>2) causais: maior sensibilidade ao sal, expans&#227;o vol&#234;mica por ingest&#227;o excessiva de sal ou doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (DRC), uso de anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o hormonais, esteroides anab&#243;licos, contraceptivos orais, simpaticomim&#233;ticos (descongestionantes nasais, inibidores do apetite, coca&#237;na), quimioter&#225;picos, antidepressivos, eritropoietina, imunodepressores, &#225;lcool;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> 3) causas secund&#225;rias de hipertens&#227;o, destacando-se: hiperaldosteronismo prim&#225;rio, apneia obstrutiva do sono (AOS), DRC, estenose de art&#233;ria renal, doen&#231;as tire&#243;ideas;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> 4) terap&#234;uticos: f&#225;rmacos inapropriados ou em doses insuficientes, in&#233;rcia m&#233;dica, baixa ader&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Tanto a hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica quanto a diast&#243;lica podem ser resistentes, sendo a primeira mais prevalente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2. Aspectos Progn&#243;sticos</title>
      <p><bold>Coordenadora:</bold> Elizabeth Silaid Muxfeldt.</p>
      <p><bold>Autores:</bold> Alexandre Alessi, Andrea Ara&#250;jo Brand&#227;o, Osni Moreira Filho e Elizabeth Silaid Muxfeldt.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>2.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A HAR est&#225; relacionada a uma alta morbimortalidade CV, apresentando um risco 47% maior de desenvolver eventos CV quando comparados aos hipertensos em geral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.2. Press&#227;o Arterial de Consult&#243;rio e Monitoramento Ambulatorial da Press&#227;o Arterial</title>
        <p>A HAR verdadeira, diagnosticada pelo MAPA, tem o dobro do risco CV em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; HAR relacionada a efeito do avental branco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> De modo geral, as m&#233;dias de PA obtidas nos tr&#234;s per&#237;odos do MAPA s&#227;o fortes preditoras de risco CV, enquanto a PA de consult&#243;rio n&#227;o demonstrou nenhum valor progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup>Estudos longitudinais destacaram a PA no sono elevada e a aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno como importantes preditores de risco CV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> A import&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica do comportamento noturno da PA tamb&#233;m j&#225; foi demonstrada em metan&#225;lises.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.3. Les&#245;es de &#211;rg&#227;os-Alvo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3.1. Press&#227;o Arterial Central e Rigidez Arterial</title>
          <p>A velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP) tem valor preditivo independente em v&#225;rios subgrupos de pacientes hipertensos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Nos resistentes, foi observado maior rigidez arterial que nos controlados, sendo um marcador de progn&#243;stico e de resposta terap&#234;utica anti-hipertensiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Em hipertensos existe um valor aditivo quando a VOP &#233; agregada a escores de risco CV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3.2. Hipertrofia Ventricular Esquerda</title>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico eletrocardiogr&#225;fico de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) foi preditor de risco para doen&#231;a coronariana (&#237;ndice de Cornell) e cerebrovascular (&#237;ndice de Sokolow-Lyon), e a regress&#227;o desses dois &#237;ndices reduziu o risco de eventos CV em 35 e 40%, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3.3. Albumin&#250;ria</title>
          <p>Na HAR h&#225; implica&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas tanto da albumin&#250;ria inicial como do seu padr&#227;o evolutivo. Em uma grande coorte prospectiva com 531 hipertensos resistentes, a albumin&#250;ria moderadamente elevada (AME) inicial foi um preditor independente de eventos compostos e mortalidade total.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Uma nova an&#225;lise do mesmo grupo, por&#233;m envolvendo 1.048 pacientes, identificou que a AME aumenta em 40% o risco de eventos CV fatais e n&#227;o fatais e de mortalidade total.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Evolutivamente, a persist&#234;ncia da AME em 2 anos foi um fator de risco para eventos CV, enquanto a normoalbumin&#250;ria persistente foi fator de prote&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Outra coorte envolvendo 143 pacientes com HAR, analisados no momento basal e ap&#243;s 6 anos de seguimento, mostrou que o desenvolvimento de AME ou a sua persist&#234;ncia estavam relacionados a maior risco de eventos CV. Em contrapartida, a persist&#234;ncia de normoalbumin&#250;ria, ou a regress&#227;o da AME, se associou a menor risco de eventos maiores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3.4. Biomarcadores Inflamat&#243;rios</title>
          <p>A prote&#237;na C reativa elevada foi preditora independente de doen&#231;a coronariana e cerebrovascular, sendo um marcador mais importante para hipertensos resistentes mais jovens, obesos, com MAPA n&#227;o controlado e padr&#227;o n&#227;o <italic>dipper</italic> (descenso noturno ausente ou atenuado).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Fluxograma de Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
      <p><bold>Coordenador:</bold> Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es Feitosa.</p>
      <p><bold>Autores:</bold> Oswaldo Passarelli J&#250;nior, Dilma do Socorro Moraes de Souza e Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es Feitosa.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>3.1. Fluxograma na Abordagem Diagn&#243;stica da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
        <p>Diante da suspeita cl&#237;nica de HAR, &#233; necess&#225;rio verificar a confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, e a primeira etapa na investiga&#231;&#227;o &#233; a exclus&#227;o das causas de pseudorresist&#234;ncia, tais como falta de ades&#227;o ao tratamento (farmacol&#243;gico e n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico), posologia inadequada, t&#233;cnica impr&#243;pria de aferi&#231;&#227;o da PA e efeito do avental branco<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref>). O MAPA e o monitoramento residencial da press&#227;o arterial (MRPA) s&#227;o os exames para confirma&#231;&#227;o do controle inadequado da PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>
                <italic><bold>&#8211;</bold> Fluxograma de avalia&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente. MAPA: monitoramento ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial; MRPA: monitoramento residencial da press&#227;o arterial; Na+: s&#243;dio; PA: press&#227;o arterial.</italic>
              </title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-03-0576-00198-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Uma vez afastada a pseudorresist&#234;ncia, confirma-se a exist&#234;ncia da HAR e inicia-se uma investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica com exames espec&#237;ficos, conforme a orienta&#231;&#227;o das Diretrizes de Hipertens&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o ao comprometimento de les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo e hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup>A ocorr&#234;ncia de comorbidades associadas deve ser detectada com exames especializados de acordo com a suspeita cl&#237;nica.</p>
        <p>A medida da PA fora do consult&#243;rio &#233; fundamental, pois ela costuma ser mais elevada em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; medida domiciliar; desse modo, o efeito do avental branco &#233; frequente nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. A ades&#227;o ao tratamento &#233; sempre um grande desafio, especialmente nos servi&#231;os p&#250;blicos.</p>
        <p>Alguns problemas relacionados aos pacientes podem ocorrer, como: rejei&#231;&#227;o a n&#250;mero excessivo de f&#225;rmacos em posologias complexas (muitas tomadas e comprimidos), efeitos colaterais dos medicamentos, problemas socioculturais e desconhecimento da hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a, al&#233;m de outros referentes ao m&#233;dico, como: rela&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dico-paciente ruim, posologias n&#227;o sin&#233;rgicas ou doses equivocadas e omiss&#227;o ou desconhecimento na investiga&#231;&#227;o das causas secund&#225;rias trat&#225;veis. Um problema relacionado aos servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de pode ser a dificuldade de acesso aos m&#233;dicos, medicamentos e exames complementares.</p>
        <p>Todos esses fatores dificultam a ades&#227;o ao tratamento farmacol&#243;gico e n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico; por isso, devem ser verificados e contornados.</p>
        <p>A ingesta de sal precisa sempre ser conferida, se poss&#237;vel com a verifica&#231;&#227;o do s&#243;dio em urina de 24 horas, pois frequentemente a ingest&#227;o &#233; excessiva em fun&#231;&#227;o do consumo de alimentos industrializados e do desconhecimento dos pacientes em rela&#231;&#227;o ao consumo excessivo de sal.</p>
        <p>A otimiza&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica deve ser realizada preferencialmente com o mesmo m&#233;dico, por um per&#237;odo m&#237;nimo de 6 meses, para o fortalecimento da rela&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dico-paciente. Somam-se a isso orienta&#231;&#227;o constante em rela&#231;&#227;o ao estilo de vida saud&#225;vel e a verifica&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua da ades&#227;o ao tratamento, com esquemas posol&#243;gicos sin&#233;rgicos e ajustes medicamentosos adequados, respeitando a exist&#234;ncia de comorbidades que indiquem ou contraindiquem determinada classe de f&#225;rmaco anti-hipertensivo.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Medida da Press&#227;o Arterial</title>
      <p><bold>Coordenador:</bold> Celso Amodeo.</p>
      <p><bold>Autores:</bold> Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso, Marco Ant&#244;nio Mota Gomes, Annelise Machado Gomes de Paiva e Eduardo Costa Duarte Barbosa.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>4.1. Press&#227;o Arterial de Consult&#243;rio na Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
        <p>A verifica&#231;&#227;o da PA de consult&#243;rio, apesar de n&#227;o ser diagn&#243;stica para HAR, deve ser realizada, e o procedimento de aferi&#231;&#227;o precisa seguir as orienta&#231;&#245;es da VII Diretriz Brasileira de Hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> A verifica&#231;&#227;o da PA pode ser feita com esfigmoman&#244;metros manuais, semiautom&#225;ticos ou autom&#225;ticos. A recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; realiz&#225;-la v&#225;rias vezes com o paciente sentado em ambiente calmo e confort&#225;vel, para melhorar a reprodutibilidade e aproximar os valores obtidos no consult&#243;rio &#224;queles fornecidos pelo MAPA na vig&#237;lia.</p>
        <p>Deve ser observada a possibilidade de ocorrer efeito do avental branco, fen&#244;meno que envolve duas situa&#231;&#245;es. A primeira &#233; a hipertens&#227;o do avental branco, quando a PA est&#225; elevada em medidas isoladas no consult&#243;rio e normais no MAPA ou no MRPA. A segunda situa&#231;&#227;o &#233; o efeito do avental branco, caracterizado por PA de consult&#243;rio elevada em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; m&#233;dia de press&#227;o de vig&#237;lia no MAPA ou &#224; m&#233;dia semanal do MRPA, sem haver altera&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico, seja de hipertens&#227;o ou normotens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Essas duas situa&#231;&#245;es podem levar ao falso diagn&#243;stico de HAR, acarretando a realiza&#231;&#227;o de exames e o uso de medica&#231;&#227;o de modo desnecess&#225;rio. &#201; poss&#237;vel referir-se &#224; hipertens&#227;o do avental branco como uma causa de hipertens&#227;o arterial pseudorresistente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.2. Monitoramento Ambulatorial da Press&#227;o Arterial em Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
        <p>Esse exame &#233; necess&#225;rio para afastar a hip&#243;tese de hipertens&#227;o do avental branco, que falsamente sugere HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> O diagn&#243;stico se confirma quando as m&#233;dias press&#243;ricas nos per&#237;odos de vig&#237;lia e de 24 h est&#227;o abaixo de 135/85 mmHg e de 130/80 mmHg, respectivamente. Quando comparados com as medidas casuais da PA, os valores obtidos s&#227;o mais fortemente relacionados com os riscos decorrentes da hipertens&#227;o arterial, principalmente nos exames de MAPA nos quais se identifica uma aus&#234;ncia ou atenua&#231;&#227;o do descenso da press&#227;o com o sono, como tamb&#233;m um aumento no diferencial de press&#227;o sist&#243;lica-diast&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Quadro 2</xref> apresenta as principais aplicabilidades do MAPA em hipertens&#227;o arterial, exame fundamental na avalia&#231;&#227;o, no diagn&#243;stico e na evolu&#231;&#227;o da HAR.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Quadro 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Principais informa&#231;&#245;es obtidas com o monitoramento ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>M&#250;ltiplas medidas ao longo de um per&#237;odo de observa&#231;&#227;o</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o press&#243;rica durante o per&#237;odo de vig&#237;lia</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Correla&#231;&#227;o das medidas de vig&#237;lia com atividades e sintomas</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o press&#243;rica durante o sono</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Possibilidade de correla&#231;&#227;o da variabilidade press&#243;rica com sintomas, atividades e f&#225;rmacos</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Complementa&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica do paciente</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do efeito anti-hipertensivo</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.3. Monitoramento Residencial da Press&#227;o Arterial e Automedida da Press&#227;o Arterial</title>
        <p>As medidas domiciliares da PA s&#227;o mais precisas do que a medida casual e apresentam melhor predi&#231;&#227;o de risco para os desfechos CV, contribuindo para maior ades&#227;o ao tratamento medicamentoso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, a MRPA e a automedida da PA (AMPA) se apresentam como alternativas vi&#225;veis e eficazes tanto para o diagn&#243;stico adequado quanto para a melhora na ades&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.4. Medida da Press&#227;o Arterial Central</title>
        <p>A rigidez arterial &#233; reconhecida como um importante &#237;ndice progn&#243;stico e potencial alvo terap&#234;utico em pacientes hipertensos. Em fun&#231;&#227;o disso, a press&#227;o sist&#243;lica central (PSc) e a VOP foram investigadas recentemente em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> A idade m&#233;dia dessa popula&#231;&#227;o era de 58,7 &#177; 15,3 anos, e 65% (n = 53) eram do sexo feminino. A press&#227;o braquial e central estavam aumentadas em todos os pacientes, e o valor de VOP foi superior ao valor de refer&#234;ncia para a idade, sendo essa diferen&#231;a estatisticamente maior para VOP no sexo feminino.</p>
        <p>Outro estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> tratou de observar se existia uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre HAR e rigidez arterial e mostrou que os pacientes com HAR apresentaram maior rigidez vascular do que o grupo com hipertens&#227;o bem controlada. A VOP aumentou com a rigidez arterial e foi correlacionada aos n&#237;veis de PA, justificando a necessidade de um controle adequado dela.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5. Les&#245;es de &#211;rg&#227;os-Alvo</title>
      <p><bold>Coordenador:</bold> Roberto Dischinger Miranda.</p>
      <p><bold>Autores:</bold> Jos&#233; Fernando Vilela-Martin, Juan Carlos Yugar-Toledo, Wilson Nadruz J&#250;nior e Cibele Isaac Saad Rodrigues.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A HAR, controlada ou n&#227;o, est&#225; associada a maior preval&#234;ncia de les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo (LOA) e a maior risco CV e de mortalidade, quando comparada &#224; hipertens&#227;o arterial controlada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Por isso, a investiga&#231;&#227;o de LOA na HAR &#233; fundamental para complementar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e estabelecer o progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.2. Altera&#231;&#245;es Vasculares</title>
        <p>Hipertensos resistentes apresentam altera&#231;&#245;es vasculares funcionais e estruturais decorrentes n&#227;o s&#243; da hipertens&#227;o arterial n&#227;o controlada, mas tamb&#233;m do envelhecimento vascular precoce.. Esse &#233; um processo complexo que envolve altera&#231;&#245;es bioqu&#237;micas, enzim&#225;ticas e celulares que modificam a fun&#231;&#227;o e a estrutura do vaso, culminando com a degenera&#231;&#227;o precoce e progressiva da sa&#250;de arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos incluem aumento do estresse oxidativo, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, remodelamento vascular, hipertrofia de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas, aumento da rigidez arterial por altera&#231;&#245;es na distribui&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno/elastina, inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular e maior express&#227;o de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios e metaloproteinases de repara&#231;&#227;o de matriz, al&#233;m de aumento dos produtos finais da glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada e calcifica&#231;&#227;o parietal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Entre os mecanismos moleculares do envelhecimento vascular, citam-se as altera&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas de segmentos envolvidos na prote&#231;&#227;o e repara&#231;&#227;o do DNA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> e na atividade metab&#243;lica mitocondrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na microcircula&#231;&#227;o, a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial promove vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o, remodelamento eutr&#243;fico (aumento da rela&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia/l&#250;men [M/L] sem modifica&#231;&#227;o externa), diminui&#231;&#227;o da reserva vasodilatadora e rarefa&#231;&#227;o vascular, esta &#250;ltima avaliada por capilaroscopia <italic>in vivo</italic>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> bi&#243;psia de gl&#250;teo ou, ainda, por mensura&#231;&#227;o da rela&#231;&#227;o M/L com Dopplerfluxometria a <italic>laser</italic> de art&#233;rias retinianas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> e videomicroscopia &#243;ptica. Nas grandes art&#233;rias, o remodelamento parietal leva ao aumento da rigidez arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A rigidez arterial &#233; estimada pela VOP car&#243;tida-femoral (VOP c-f), e o c&#225;lculo do &#237;ndice de incremento (<italic>augmentation index (AIx)</italic>, por tonometria de aplana&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Essas altera&#231;&#245;es de par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos e biomarcadores celulares da rigidez arterial est&#227;o associadas ao aumento da morbimortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O comprometimento macrovascular &#233; caracterizado ainda pelas doen&#231;as ateroscler&#243;tica carot&#237;dea, cerebral, coronariana e perif&#233;rica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.3. Altera&#231;&#245;es Cerebrais</title>
        <p>O comprometimento cerebrovascular na HAR ocorre de maneira sutil e insidiosa. Les&#245;es microsc&#243;picas da subst&#226;ncia branca t&#234;m in&#237;cio precoce e podem evoluir de modo irrevers&#237;vel, promovendo d&#233;ficit cognitivo e progress&#227;o para dem&#234;ncia vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pacientes com HAR t&#234;m maior risco de infarto cerebral e isquemia cerebral transit&#243;ria, fato apontado pelos estudos KAISER Permanente<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> e REGARDS,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> que mostram um aumento de risco de 17 e 14%, respectivamente. Aterosclerose carot&#237;dea e dos pequenos vasos cerebrais s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por fen&#244;menos isqu&#234;micos e tromboemb&#243;licos. A oclus&#227;o de art&#233;ria retiniana &#233; um marcador de les&#227;o de pequenos vasos e tem sido associada a maior risco de evento cerebral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Hipertens&#227;o n&#227;o controlada &#233; a principal causa de acidente vascular hemorr&#225;gico. Pacientes com HAR apresentam microangiopatia (aneurismas de Charcot-Bouchard), que afetam as art&#233;rias penetrantes do c&#233;rebro e causam hemorragia intraparenquimatosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es na rigidez de grandes art&#233;rias tamb&#233;m est&#227;o associadas a maior ocorr&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es microvasculares e maior predisposi&#231;&#227;o para eventos cerebrovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.4. Altera&#231;&#245;es Card&#237;acas</title>
        <p>Diversas altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas, tais como HVE, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (DDVE) e isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, podem ser observadas em pacientes com HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> A HVE &#233; um preditor independente de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria (DAC), arritmias e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No Brasil, a preval&#234;ncia de HVE em pacientes com HAR, avaliada por ecocardiografia, varia de 68 a 87%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> sendo a HVE conc&#234;ntrica ao padr&#227;o geom&#233;trico mais encontrado nesses indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A DDVE predisp&#245;e a eventos cardiovasculares e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, independentemente da massa card&#237;aca e dos n&#237;veis de PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> A preval&#234;ncia exata de DDVE em pacientes com HAR &#233; incerta, mas a forte associa&#231;&#227;o entre essa condi&#231;&#227;o e a HVE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup>sugere que a DDVE &#233; bastante frequente nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Cerca de um ter&#231;o dos pacientes com HAR t&#234;m diagn&#243;stico de DAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> Contudo, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de DAC manifesta, at&#233; 28% dos pacientes com HAR apresentam isquemia mioc&#225;rdica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> a qual pode resultar de diminui&#231;&#245;es na reserva coron&#225;ria, de aumentos no consumo de oxig&#234;nio mioc&#225;rdico, especialmente nos portadores de HVE, e de aumentos na rigidez arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.5. Altera&#231;&#245;es Renais</title>
        <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre HAR e DRC est&#225; bem estabelecida, podendo ser causa ou consequ&#234;ncia. O substrato anatomopatol&#243;gico &#233; a nefroesclerose hipertensiva, decorrente de altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas (hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o e hipertrofia glomerular) que culminam em glomeruloesclerose. A nefroesclerose, denominada erroneamente como &#8220;benigna&#8221;, caracteriza-se por arteriosclerose e arteriolosclerose, hialinose, les&#245;es tubulointersticiais e glomerulosclerose segmentar focal e global.</p>
        <p>S&#227;o fatores de risco conhecidos para progress&#227;o da DRC: idade &gt; 50 anos, sexo masculino, predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica, hist&#243;ria familiar, afrodescend&#234;ncia, dura&#231;&#227;o e est&#225;gio da hipertens&#227;o arterial, baixo n&#237;vel socioecon&#244;mico, intensidade da albumin&#250;ria, grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, dislipidemia, obesidade, diabetes, estilo de vida (dieta hipers&#243;dica, hiperproteica e fumo), uso de subst&#226;ncias nefrot&#243;xicas, entre outros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> Albumin&#250;ria e redu&#231;&#227;o do ritmo de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular estimado (RFG-e) identificam pacientes de alto risco CV e renal, e a diminui&#231;&#227;o da albumin&#250;ria pode ser objetivo terap&#234;utico na HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o e no acompanhamento da les&#227;o renal, s&#227;o recomendados: exame de urina, creatinina s&#233;rica para estimar o RFG pelas f&#243;rmulas MDRD ou CKD-EPI, dispon&#237;veis no site http://ckdepi.org/equations/gfr-calculator/, ultrassonografia renal e de vias urin&#225;rias e c&#225;lculo da raz&#227;o albumin&#250;ria ou protein&#250;ria/creatinin&#250;ria visando &#224; classifica&#231;&#227;o do est&#225;gio de DRC<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>
                <italic><bold>&#8211;</bold> Progn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica de acordo com os graus de albumin&#250;ria e de decl&#237;nio do RFG-e.<sup>76</sup> Verde: baixo risco; amarelo: risco moderado; laranja: alto risco; vermelho: risco muito alto.</italic>
              </title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-03-0576-00198-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6. Fen&#243;tipo do paciente com Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
      <p><bold>Coordenador:</bold> Luciano Ferreira Drager</p>
      <p><bold>Autores:</bold> Heitor Moreno J&#250;nior, Juan Carlos Yugar-Toledo e Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto</p>
      <sec>
        <title>6.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Nesta se&#231;&#227;o, ser&#227;o descritas inicialmente as caracter&#237;sticas que distinguem um hipertenso resistente de um n&#227;o resistente. Posteriormente, ser&#227;o discutidas as diferen&#231;as entre os hipertensos resistentes controlados e os n&#227;o controlados, finalizando com a abordagem do fen&#243;tipo extremo dos pacientes com hipertens&#227;o resistente, que &#233; o hipertenso refrat&#225;rio.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.2. Fen&#243;tipo do paciente com Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
        <p>O paciente com HAR apresenta comumente algumas caracter&#237;sticas que o distinguem daqueles com a n&#227;o resistente, tais como: idade mais avan&#231;ada; obesidade; perfil de alta ingest&#227;o de sal; DRC; diabetes; presen&#231;a de LOA, como a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda; sexo feminino e ra&#231;a negra.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> O estudo multic&#234;ntrico brasileiro ReHOT mostrou que diabetes, hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de acidente vascular encef&#225;lico e PA na entrada do estudo &#8805; 180/110 mmHg (est&#225;gio 3 da hipertens&#227;o arterial) foram preditores independentes da verdadeira resist&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Enquanto algumas dessas caracter&#237;sticas s&#227;o intuitivas, outras como ser do sexo feminino, ainda n&#227;o t&#234;m explica&#231;&#245;es bem definidas para a predi&#231;&#227;o na HAR.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.3. Fen&#243;tipo da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente Controlada e da N&#227;o Controlada</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.3.1. Aspectos Fisiopatol&#243;gicos</title>
          <p>A HAR-C evidencia maior depend&#234;ncia do <italic>status</italic> vol&#234;mico que a HAR-NC, devido a importante persist&#234;ncia de reten&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica, sensibilidade aumentada ao s&#243;dio, hiperaldosteronismo e disfun&#231;&#227;o renal. Al&#233;m disso, maior expans&#227;o de conte&#250;do plasm&#225;tico avaliado por bioimped&#226;ncia tor&#225;cica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> maior concentra&#231;&#227;o de aldosterona plasm&#225;tica e urin&#225;ria, supress&#227;o da atividade de renina,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> elevada rela&#231;&#227;o aldosterona/renina plasm&#225;tica, assim como altos n&#237;veis de pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico atrial (ANP) e cerebral (BNP) s&#227;o observados nesses indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> Essa rela&#231;&#227;o entre volume e press&#227;o elevados &#233; a base fisiopatol&#243;gica demonstrada em v&#225;rios estudos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup>e justifica o uso de diur&#233;ticos em pacientes com HAR-C.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em contraste, portadores de HAR-NC frequentemente t&#234;m hiperatividade do sistema simp&#225;tico, evidenciada por eleva&#231;&#227;o de metanefrinas urin&#225;rias (24 h) e da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de repouso e redu&#231;&#227;o da sua variabilidade em 24 h (an&#225;lise espectral), al&#233;m de maior rigidez vascular (aumento da VOP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> Esses marcadores de atividade simp&#225;tica aumentada, em conjunto com outros fatores ligados ao hiperaldosteronismo,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> est&#227;o vinculados a mecanismos que mant&#234;m a PA alta mesmo com o uso de quatro ou mais agentes anti-hipertensivos, caracterizando a HAR-NC. Valores mais elevados de VOP denotam rigidez arterial exacerbada,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> e n&#237;veis elevados de citocinas, incluindo o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> provavelmente assinalam o dano vascular em pacientes com HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Outros fatores e mecanismos, como idade, obesidade, AOS,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> afrodescend&#234;ncia, adipocitocinas alteradas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, maior atividade das metaloproteinases-2 e 9 e das mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m est&#227;o envolvidos nesse processo.</p>
          <p>Polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos, especialmente do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona e da sintase endotelial do &#243;xido n&#237;trico (eNOS) v&#234;m sendo correlacionados &#224; HAR<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3</xref>); todavia, grandes estudos convenientemente caracterizados em indiv&#237;duos com a doen&#231;a s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para definir a import&#226;ncia da gen&#233;tica nesse grupo de pacientes.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>
                  <italic><bold>&#8211;</bold> Mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos predominantes na hipertens&#227;o resistente controlada (HAR-C) e n&#227;o controlada (HAR-NC). Hipertens&#227;o arterial refrat&#225;ria (n&#227;o controlada com cinco f&#225;rmacos ou mais) &#233; inclu&#237;da no grupo da HAR-NC.</italic>
                </title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-03-0576-00198-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.3.2. Diferen&#231;as Cl&#237;nicas</title>
          <p>Em 2011, Martins et al. publicaram um estudo comparativo entre pacientes com HAR-C e HAR-NC,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> mais exatamente sobre fatores biol&#243;gicos que contribuiriam para a resist&#234;ncia aos anti-hipertensivos. Os &#237;ndices de massa corporal, rigidez arterial (VOP), &#237;ndice de massa ventricular esquerda (IMVE) e concentra&#231;&#227;o de aldosterona plasm&#225;tica (AP) foram maiores no grupo da HAR-NC, quando comparados com o grupo da HAR-C. Al&#233;m disso, por an&#225;lise multivariada, os autores demonstraram que a VOP era dependente da idade nos grupos, embora sua influ&#234;ncia fosse mais importante nos pacientes com HAR-NC.</p>
          <p>Eles tamb&#233;m demonstraram que o grupo da HAR-NC apresentava maiores valores de espessura &#237;ntima m&#233;dia de car&#243;tidas (EIMC) e VOP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> Finalmente, o descenso do sono (<italic>dipping pattern</italic>) foi menos pronunciado no grupo da HAR-NC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.3.3. Progn&#243;stico</title>
          <p>Pierdomenico et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> avaliaram desfechos CV em indiv&#237;duos com HAR-C e HAR-NC. A ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos CV fatais e n&#227;o fatais foi investigada em 340 pacientes com HAR-C (PA &lt; 140/90 mmHg ou PA diurna &lt; 135/85 mmHg) e 130 com HAR-NC (PA &#8805; 140 ou 90 mmHg e PA diurna &gt; 135 ou 85 mmHg). Durante o seguimento (4,98 &#177; 2,9 anos), as taxas de eventos por 100 pacientes/ano foram de 0,87 e 4,1, respectivamente. Esses dados mostraram tamb&#233;m que pacientes com HAR-NC t&#234;m maior risco de DAC, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico, arteriopatia, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva (ICC), doen&#231;a renal e mortes de todas as causas quando comparados a pacientes com HAR-C.</p>
          <p>6.4. Fen&#243;tipo do Paciente com Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Refrat&#225;ria</p>
          <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial refrat&#225;ria parece ser um fen&#243;tipo extremo do hipertenso resistente. Recentemente, a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica mostrou que esses pacientes s&#227;o mais jovens do que os resistentes em geral, mais comumente mulheres, com maior frequ&#234;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e, de maneira destacada, t&#234;m maior atividade simp&#225;tica do que os pacientes resistentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Esses achados s&#227;o importantes pilares para a fisiopatologia da refratariedade, constituindo potencialmente um alvo terap&#234;utico para procedimentos como a desnerva&#231;&#227;o renal. Estudos nesta &#225;rea est&#227;o atualmente em desenvolvimento.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7. Causas Secund&#225;rias de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
      <p><bold>Coordenadora:</bold> Fernanda Marciano Consolim-Colombo</p>
      <p><bold>Autores:</bold> M&#225;rcio Gon&#231;alves de Sousa, Fl&#225;vio Antonio de Oliveira Borelli, Cibele Isaac Saad Rodrigues e Fernanda Marciano Consolim-Colombo</p>
      <sec>
        <title>7.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial secund&#225;ria (HASec) &#233; definida como um aumento da PA devido a uma causa identific&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup> Frente a um paciente com HAR, torna-se imperativa a investiga&#231;&#227;o das causas mais prevalentes de HASec &#8220;n&#227;o end&#243;crina&#8221; e &#8220;end&#243;crina&#8221; ap&#243;s exclus&#227;o de uso de f&#225;rmacos que podem interferir com os valores press&#243;ricos: anti-inflamat&#243;rios, glicocorticoides, descongestionantes nasais, inibidores de apetite, antidepressivos, imunossupressores, eritropoietina, contraceptivos e drogas il&#237;citas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.2. Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Secund&#225;ria de Causas N&#227;o End&#243;crinas</title>
        <sec>
          <title>7.2.1. Apneia Obstrutiva do Sono</title>
          <p>Definida como cessa&#231;&#227;o total ou parcial do fluxo respirat&#243;rio durante o sono, esta s&#237;ndrome promove dessatura&#231;&#227;o da oxi-hemoglobina e microdespertares durante o sono. Estima-se que a preval&#234;ncia de AOS seja de 17% dos adultos americanos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> e 30% da popula&#231;&#227;o de hipertensos, podendo afetar 60 a 80% dos hipertensos resistentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup> Uma recente metan&#225;lise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup>concluiu que a presen&#231;a de AOS est&#225; relacionada a maior risco de HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico e as altera&#231;&#245;es humorais s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por modifica&#231;&#245;es na integridade do endot&#233;lio vascular, e suas consequ&#234;ncias nos pacientes com AOS incluem aumento da PA, desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica, arritmias card&#237;acas, dentre outras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup> A suspeita cl&#237;nica pode ser rastreada a partir do question&#225;rio de Berlin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico &#233; feito com o exame de polissonografia, que registra os &#237;ndices de apneia/hipopneia superiores a cinco eventos/hora.</p>
          <p>No tratamento, devem ser institu&#237;das orienta&#231;&#245;es sobre higiene do sono e perda de peso, dentre outras; para a desobstru&#231;&#227;o das vias de respira&#231;&#227;o, o uso de equipamento que produz press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua nas vias respirat&#243;rias (CPAP, <italic>continuous positive airway pressure</italic>) &#233; o mais difundido. No entanto, o impacto desse tratamento na redu&#231;&#227;o dos valores de PA ainda &#233; mat&#233;ria de debate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.2.2. Doen&#231;a do Par&#234;nquima Renal</title>
          <p>A doen&#231;a do par&#234;nquima renal (DPR) &#233; uma das causas mais prevalentes de HASec. Seu diagn&#243;stico &#233; relativamente simples, pois a investiga&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o dos rins faz parte da abordagem de rotina do hipertenso. A hipertens&#227;o arterial tem alta preval&#234;ncia nos pacientes em di&#225;lise e nos transplantados renais, e os eventos CV s&#227;o os respons&#225;veis pela alta morbimortalidade dessa popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o renal nos portadores de DPR &#233; diretamente relacionada aos valores press&#243;ricos, e as metas press&#243;ricas devem ser alcan&#231;adas para reduzir a morbimortalidade CV. Nos portadores de DPR e nos transplantados renais, os IECA e os antagonistas dos receptores da angiotensina II demonstraram prote&#231;&#227;o adicional aos rins, al&#233;m da obtida pela redu&#231;&#227;o do n&#237;vel press&#243;rico, sendo, por isso, os f&#225;rmacos preferenciais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.2.3. Estenose da Art&#233;ria Renal</title>
          <p>A doen&#231;a renovascular &#233; o termo usado para definir o acometimento das art&#233;rias renais por diferentes patologias, como doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica, displasia fibromuscular e vasculites, que podem levar &#224; obstru&#231;&#227;o dos vasos. Quando h&#225; discreta obstru&#231;&#227;o arterial, comumente n&#227;o h&#225; sintomas associados; por&#233;m, quando h&#225; obstru&#231;&#245;es superiores a 70% da art&#233;ria, pode ocorrer hipertens&#227;o arterial grave e at&#233; mesmo nefropatia isqu&#234;mica.</p>
          <p>A estenose da art&#233;ria renal (EAR) de origem ateroscler&#243;tica est&#225; presente em 12,5% dos pacientes hipertensos resistentes com idade acima de 50 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> O diagn&#243;stico deve sempre ser feito, mas o manuseio dessa condi&#231;&#227;o ainda &#233; muito discutido na literatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> O controle press&#243;rico adequado e o bloqueio na progressiva deteriora&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o renal s&#227;o os objetivos principais do tratamento desses pacientes. Para isso, duas s&#227;o as possibilidades terap&#234;uticas nesta popula&#231;&#227;o: cl&#237;nica ou intervencionista (cir&#250;rgica ou percut&#226;nea, com ou sem implante de pr&#243;teses vasculares [<italic>stents</italic>]).</p>
          <p>As interven&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o recomendadas para os pacientes com HAR ou hipertens&#227;o arterial acelerada com perda progressiva da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, com estenose bilateral ou com estenose em rim &#8220;&#250;nico&#8221;, ou com graves complica&#231;&#245;es (ICC e edema agudo de pulm&#227;o de repeti&#231;&#227;o).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Outras potenciais indica&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas s&#227;o: obstru&#231;&#227;o total da art&#233;ria renal, grandes f&#237;stulas arteriovenosas, les&#227;o de aorta englobando as art&#233;rias renais e insucesso no tratamento cl&#237;nico ou endovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7.3. Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Secund&#225;ria de Causas End&#243;crinas</title>
      <sec>
        <title>7.3.1. Hiperaldosteronismo Prim&#225;rio</title>
        <p>Considerado no passado como um tipo raro de HASec (preval&#234;ncia na ordem de 1%), atualmente, julga-se que o hiperaldosteronismo pode chegar at&#233; 22% em popula&#231;&#245;es com HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup> O adenoma da suprarrenal &#233; a causa mais frequente, sendo a hiperplasia uni ou bilateral menos detectadas. Carcinomas, apesar de infrequentes, ou formas gen&#233;ticas, tamb&#233;m podem ser respons&#225;veis pela instala&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a.</p>
        <p>A aldosterona, por meio da ativa&#231;&#227;o dos receptores mineralocorticoides, est&#225; relacionada &#224; resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial; consequentemente, ela participa do desenvolvimento da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e das les&#245;es CV e renais associadas ao quadro de HAR. Assim, o bloqueio desses receptores mineralocorticoides promove melhora da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e contribui para melhor resposta ao tratamento da HAR e das LOA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na realiza&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico, todos os portadores de HAR (n&#227;o apenas aqueles que apresentem hipocalemia) devem ser avaliados quanto &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de hiperaldosteronismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> A triagem inclui avalia&#231;&#227;o da raz&#227;o aldosterona plasm&#225;tica (expressa em ng/dL) pela atividade de renina plasm&#225;tica (expressa ng/mL/h) (AP/ARP). Esse m&#233;todo tem grande sensibilidade, mas pode apresentar resultados falso-positivos. Desse modo, recomenda-se utilizar como valores m&#237;nimos de AP e de ARP, respectivamente, 15 ng/dL e 0,5 ng/mL/h. Se a raz&#227;o AP/ARP for &#8805; 100, o diagn&#243;stico ser&#225; de hiperaldosteronismo; valores &lt; 20 a 30 indicam baixa probabilidade; e valores entre esses extremos detectam &#8220;potenciais portadores&#8221; dessa condi&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup>Nesse &#250;ltimo caso, testes para avalia&#231;&#227;o do eixo renina-aldosterona (prova de infus&#227;o de volume, caminhada, uso de diur&#233;ticos) podem ser realizados.</p>
        <p>Para identifica&#231;&#227;o de adenomas ou hiperplasia na suprarrenal por imagem, usa-se a tomografia ou a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica. A aus&#234;ncia de um tumor vis&#237;vel &#224; tomografia n&#227;o exclui um microadenoma, da&#237; a import&#226;ncia da procura de um excesso na produ&#231;&#227;o de aldosterona. Imagens funcionais, obtidas pela cintilografia de adrenal, podem ser &#250;teis na detec&#231;&#227;o dos adenomas, podendo diferenci&#225;-los das hiperplasias nodulares em at&#233; 90% dos casos. A coleta de amostra de sangue na veia suprarrenal pode ser utilizada para confirmar a lateraliza&#231;&#227;o na secre&#231;&#227;o de aldosterona e a presen&#231;a de adenoma unilateral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quanto ao tratamento, na presen&#231;a de adenoma unilateral, a ressec&#231;&#227;o unilateral geralmente corrige a produ&#231;&#227;o excessiva de aldosterona e a perda de pot&#225;ssio. A resposta da PA ao tratamento cir&#250;rgico &#233; vari&#225;vel. As hiperplasias s&#227;o beneficiadas com o bloqueio dos receptores de aldosterona.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.3.2. Feocromocitoma</title>
        <p>O feocromocitoma &#233; um tumor neuroend&#243;crino raro, origin&#225;rio de c&#233;lulas cromafins (produtoras de catecolaminas), cuja manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica mais comum &#233; a eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA, podendo ser origin&#225;rio da medula adrenal ou de parag&#226;nglios extra-adrenais (paragangliomas). Seu pico de exacerba&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica est&#225; entre a terceira e quarta d&#233;cadas de vida, mas 10% dos casos surgem na inf&#226;ncia.</p>
        <p>O tumor pode apresentar-se de modo espor&#225;dico ou associado a s&#237;ndromes gen&#233;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup> Geralmente &#233; unilateral; por&#233;m, nas s&#237;ndromes familiares, pode ser bilateral, m&#250;ltiplo e extra-adrenal, benigno ou maligno (5 a 26% dos casos). Essa etiologia deve ser investigada em todos os pacientes que apresentem HAR e/ou sintomas ou sinais sugestivos de libera&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica. A hipertens&#227;o parox&#237;stica ocorre em 30% dos casos, sendo desencadeada por atividades f&#237;sicas habituais, exerc&#237;cios mais intensos, procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos e pelo uso de algumas subst&#226;ncias, como antidepressivos tric&#237;clicos, histamina e opi&#225;ceos. Os paroxismos podem ser acompanhados de cefaleia (60 a 90%), sudorese (55 a 75%) e palpita&#231;&#245;es (50 a 70%). Sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e altera&#231;&#245;es no eletrocardiograma podem ser indicativos de miocardite induzida por excesso de catecolaminas.</p>
        <p>No diagn&#243;stico, a dosagem de metanefrinas (metab&#243;litos das catecolaminas), tanto no plasma quanto na urina de 24 h, apresenta maior sensibilidade e especificidade que a dosagem direta de catecolaminas. Quando os exames laboratoriais n&#227;o forem elucidativos, o teste de supress&#227;o com clonidina pode ser realizado (administra&#231;&#227;o de 0,2 mg de clonidina com dosagem de catecolaminas 1 h antes e 2 h ap&#243;s a ingest&#227;o do f&#225;rmaco).</p>
        <p>Para o diagn&#243;stico topogr&#225;fico dos tumores e eventualmente de met&#225;stases, os m&#233;todos de imagens recomendados s&#227;o tomografia computadorizada e resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, ambas com sensibilidade pr&#243;xima a 100% para tumores adrenais. O mapeamento de corpo inteiro com metaiodobenzilguanidina (MIBG) 131 ou 121 apresenta sensibilidade de 56 a 85% (tumores malignos) e alta especificidade. O octreoscan, o mapeamento &#243;sseo e o PET scan (com diferentes marcadores) podem ser decisivos quando os exames de localiza&#231;&#227;o anteriores s&#227;o negativos ou na investiga&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a maligna.</p>
        <p>O tratamento &#233; cir&#250;rgico. Por&#233;m, na terapia medicamentosa pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria ou cr&#244;nica, s&#227;o usados inicialmente alfabloqueadores (prazosin, doxazocin e dibenzilina), combinados ou n&#227;o a outros agentes, como betabloqueadores (ap&#243;s alfabloqueio efetivo), IECA e BCC. Para a interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, recomenda-se controle pr&#233;vio dos n&#237;veis de PA e reposi&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup> Em crises agudas e durante a cirurgia, nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio pode ser utilizado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.3.3. Hipotireoidismo e Hipertireoidismo</title>
        <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial pode estar presente em 40% dos portadores de dist&#250;rbios da tireoide, pois a corre&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o glandular geralmente &#233; respons&#225;vel pelo controle da PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref></sup> Uma vez corrigido o hipo ou o hipertireoidismo, e persistindo n&#237;veis elevados de PA, est&#225; indicado o uso de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As causas de HASec em pacientes com HAR s&#227;o sumarizadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Preval&#234;ncia, achados cl&#237;nicos e estudos adicionais das causas mais comuns de hipertens&#227;o arterial secund&#225;ria em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="20%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Causa secund&#225;ria</th>
                  <th>Preval&#234;ncia geral</th>
                  <th>Preval&#234;ncia na HAR</th>
                  <th>Achados cl&#237;nicos</th>
                  <th>Investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Apneia obstrutiva do sono<sup>94,107,109</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 5 a 15%</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 30%</td>
                  <td align="center">Ronco, sonol&#234;ncia diurna, cefaleia matinal, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica</td>
                  <td align="center">Question&#225;rio de Berlim, <italic>stop-bang</italic>, Escala de sonol&#234;ncia de Epworth Polissonografia (padr&#227;o-ouro) ou polissonografia residencial. Diagn&#243;stico. &#205;ndice apneia e/ou hipopneia &gt; 5 eventos por hora de sono</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Doen&#231;a do par&#234;nquima renal<sup>113</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">1,6 a 8%</td>
                  <td align="center">2 a 10%</td>
                  <td align="center">Edema, anorexia, nict&#250;ria, fadiga, anemia, ureia e creatinina elevadas, altera&#231;&#245;es do sedimento urin&#225;rio</td>
                  <td align="center">Exame de urina (densidade baixa, hemat&#250;ria glomerular ou albumin&#250;ria), c&#225;lculo do RFG estimado, US renal, Pesquisa de albumin&#250;ria e rela&#231;&#227;o protein&#250;ria/creatinin&#250;ria em amostra isolada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Estenose da art&#233;ria renal<sup>115,116</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">1 a 8%</td>
                  <td align="center">2,5 a 20%</td>
                  <td align="center">Sopro abdominal, edema agudo de pulm&#227;o, altera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o renal por medicamentos que bloqueiam o SRAA, rins assim&#233;tricos</td>
                  <td align="center">Rastreio: US com Doppler de art&#233;rias renais (operador dependente) e/ou renograma com ou sem captopril, angiorresson&#226;ncia, tomografia computadorizada, arteriografia renal convencional (padr&#227;o-ouro)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hiperaldosteronismo prim&#225;rio<sup>119-121</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">1,4 a 10%</td>
                  <td align="center">6 a 23%</td>
                  <td align="center">Maioria assintom&#225;tica HAR hipopotassemia (n&#227;o obrigat&#243;ria e n&#227;o habitual) N&#243;dulo adrenal incidental</td>
                  <td align="center">Rela&#231;&#227;o AP/ARP &gt; 30 na aus&#234;ncia de antagonistas de aldosterona. Testes confirmat&#243;rios (supress&#227;o com fludrocortisona ou infus&#227;o salina) Exames de imagem: tomografia computadorizada helicoidal com cortes finos (preferencial) ou resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Doen&#231;as da tireoide<sup>32</sup> Hipotiroidismo</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">1 a 2%</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">1 a 3%</td>
                  <td align="center">Fadiga, ganho de peso, perda de cabelo, hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, fraqueza muscular.</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">TSH e T4 Livre</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hipertiroidismo</td>
                  <td align="center">Intoler&#226;ncia ao calor, perda de peso, hipertens&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica, palpita&#231;&#245;es, exoftalmia, tremores, taquicardia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>S&#237;ndrome de Cushing<sup>32</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">0,5%</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                  <td align="center">Ganho de peso, fadiga, hirsutismo, amenorreia, &#8220;f&#225;cies em lua cheia&#8221;, &#8220;corcova dorsal&#8221;, estrias purp&#250;ricas, obesidade central, hipopotassemia</td>
                  <td align="center">Cortisol salivar Cortisol urin&#225;rio de 24 horas Cortisol matinal (8 horas) e 8 horas ap&#243;s administra&#231;&#227;o de dexametasona (1 mg) &#224;s 24 h. Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Feocromocitoma<sup>127,128</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">0,2 a 0,5%</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                  <td align="center">Hipertens&#227;o arterial epis&#243;dica, l&#225;bil ou resistente, paroxismos de cefaleia, sudorese profusa e palpita&#231;&#245;es, palidez</td>
                  <td align="center">Metanefrinas plasm&#225;ticas livres e/ou urin&#225;rias de 24 h (valores o dobro ou triplo do normal), catecolaminas plasm&#225;ticas e/ou urin&#225;rias de 24 h e/ou tomografia computadorizada e resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Coarcta&#231;&#227;o de aorta<sup>129</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                  <td align="center">Diferen&#231;a de PAS/PAD &gt; 20/10 mmHg entre membros superiores e inferiores; sopro ejetivo em regi&#227;o interescapular</td>
                  <td align="center">Entalhe da borda inferior da costela na radiografia de t&#243;rax, rastreio com ecodopplercardiograma, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica ou angiografia da aorta tor&#225;cica</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>
                  <italic>Adaptada de Rimoldi SF et al.<sup>105</sup> AP/ARP: aldosterona plasm&#225;tica/atividade de renina plasm&#225;tica; HAR: hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; RFG: ritmo de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular; SRAA: sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona; US: ultrassonografia.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8. Tratamento N&#227;o Farmacol&#243;gico</title>
      <p><bold>Coordenador:</bold> S&#233;rgio Emanuel Kaiser</p>
      <p><bold>Autores:</bold> Gil Fernando Salles, Maria de F&#225;tima de Azevedo e Luc&#233;lia Batista Neves Cunha Magalh&#227;es.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>8.1. Perda Ponderal</title>
        <p>V&#225;rios mecanismos favorecem a manuten&#231;&#227;o de uma PA elevada em hipertensos obesos, como AOS, hiperatividade simp&#225;tica, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, modifica&#231;&#227;o da microbiota intestinal, todos capazes de promover um fen&#243;tipo inflamat&#243;rio e perpetuar um ciclo vicioso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup> Pacientes com &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) &#8805; 30 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> t&#234;m 50% mais chances de apresentar PA n&#227;o controlada do que aqueles com IMC normal (&lt; 25 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup> Um IMC &gt; 40 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> triplica as chances de se requererem m&#250;ltiplos f&#225;rmacos para controle da PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma perda ponderal de 10 kg associa-se a uma redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de 6,0 mmHg na PA sist&#243;lica e 4,0 mmHg na PA diast&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup> Surpreendentemente, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias consistentes sobre o efeito da perda de peso induzida por dieta em hipertensos resistentes, mas essa recomenda&#231;&#227;o atende ao bom senso e &#224;s evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis nos demais subgrupos. Tamb&#233;m n&#227;o existem dados sobre o efeito da cirurgia bari&#225;trica sobre a PA nesse subgrupo. Recente estudo aleatorizado demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o de ao menos 30% no n&#250;mero de anti-hipertensivos em 84% dos pacientes operados, em compara&#231;&#227;o a 12,4% do grupo tratado clinicamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.2. Restri&#231;&#227;o de Sal</title>
        <p>O controle no consumo de sal &#233; especialmente eficaz em idosos, afrodescendentes e indiv&#237;duos com filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular diminu&#237;da.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref></sup> Nessas situa&#231;&#245;es, restringe-se a capacidade de excre&#231;&#227;o de &#225;gua e s&#243;dio pelos rins, tornando a PA mais dependente de varia&#231;&#245;es vol&#234;micas. N&#227;o por acaso, a sensibilidade ao s&#243;dio e a sobrecarga vol&#234;mica respondem pelo principal mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico da maioria dos casos de HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref></sup> Uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise envolvendo 34 estudos com 3.230 participantes, sobre o efeito da redu&#231;&#227;o em longo prazo na ingest&#227;o de s&#243;dio, revelou queda na PA sist&#243;lica de 5,8 mmHg (2,5 a 9,2; p = 0,001) associada a redu&#231;&#227;o da excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de s&#243;dio at&#233; 100 mmol em 24 h, o que corresponde a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o de sal de aproximadamente 6 g/dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> Em hipertensos resistentes, uma dieta hiposs&#243;dica com 2,5 g di&#225;rios de sal foi capaz de reduzir a PA em at&#233; 23,0/9,0 mmHg, em clara demonstra&#231;&#227;o da efic&#225;cia dessa medida, n&#227;o obstante a possibilidade de comprometimento da ader&#234;ncia a longo prazo a t&#227;o acentuada restri&#231;&#227;o no consumo de sal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.3. Ingest&#227;o de &#193;lcool</title>
        <p>Fruto da rela&#231;&#227;o direta entre a quantidade de &#225;lcool consumida e os n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos, o consumo excessivo de &#225;lcool contribui significativamente para a dificuldade no controle da PA;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup> afinal, o consumo di&#225;rio de mais de dois &#8220;<italic>drinks</italic>&#8221; (cerca de 24 g/dia) associa-se &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> Recente metan&#225;lise de 36 estudos com 2.865 participantes revelou que a redu&#231;&#227;o de 50% na ingest&#227;o di&#225;ria de &#225;lcool entre os consumidores de seis ou mais &#8220;<italic>drinks</italic>&#8221; (72 g) promoveu queda de 5,50 mmHg na PA sist&#243;lica (IC 95%; 6,70 a 4,30) e de 3,97 mmHg na PA diast&#243;lica (IC 95%; 4,70 a 3,25).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref></sup> N&#227;o h&#225; estudos publicados em hipertensos resistentes; por&#233;m, com base nas informa&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis, recomenda-se a restri&#231;&#227;o do consumo di&#225;rio de &#225;lcool a menos de dois &#8220;<italic>drinks</italic>-padr&#227;o&#8221; (cerca de 24 g) ou at&#233; sua cessa&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.4. Atividade F&#237;sica</title>
        <p>Apesar de avaliada apenas em pequenos grupos de hipertensos resistentes, a atividade f&#237;sica &#233; provavelmente t&#227;o ou mais ben&#233;fica nestes do que em n&#227;o resistentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup>Exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico regular diminui a PA de consult&#243;rio e a ambulatorial em hipertensos resistentes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup> al&#233;m de atenuar a caracter&#237;stica ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-humoral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup> N&#227;o obstante a inexist&#234;ncia de estudos sobre exerc&#237;cio resistido nesse subgrupo, sup&#245;e-se haver vantagem ao menos semelhante &#224; observada em hipertensos n&#227;o resistentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a melhor capacidade cardiorrespirat&#243;ria obtida com atividade f&#237;sica parece reduzir a mortalidade de hipertensos resistentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148">148</xref></sup> Portanto, essa categoria de pacientes deve ser incentivada a realizar atividade f&#237;sica regular de moderada intensidade sob supervis&#227;o adequada. Naqueles com PA muito elevada (PA sist&#243;lica &#8805; 180 mmHg ou PA diast&#243;lica &#8805; 110 mmHg), a atividade f&#237;sica deve ser adiada at&#233; que a otimiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento medicamentoso promova a redu&#231;&#227;o da PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>9. Tratamento Farmacol&#243;gico da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
      <p><bold>Coordenador:</bold> Rui Manoel dos Santos P&#243;voa</p>
      <p><bold>Autores:</bold> Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var Malachias, Armando da Rocha Nogueira e Paulo C&#233;sar Brand&#227;o Veiga Jardim</p>
      <p>O objetivo do tratamento medicamentoso na HAR &#233; detectar as causas do n&#227;o controle e encontrar a melhor combina&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos, visando o alcance das metas press&#243;ricas com menor ocorr&#234;ncia de efeitos adversos e maior ades&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Em geral, busca-se otimizar o tratamento tr&#237;plice com os f&#225;rmacos preferenciais, que s&#227;o: IECA ou BRA, BCC di-hidropirid&#237;nico e DT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os IECA ou BRA, por serem mais bem tolerados, precisam ser elevados &#224;s doses m&#225;ximas na HAR. Deve ser utilizado um DT de longa a&#231;&#227;o e maior pot&#234;ncia, como a clortalidona em lugar da hidroclorotiazida, em doses adequadas ao controle da volemia, de 12,5 a 50 mg, em dose &#250;nica pela manh&#227;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> A indapamida constitui uma segunda op&#231;&#227;o de DT na HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> A furosemida deve ser utilizada em casos de DRC, com RFG igual ou inferior a 30 ml/min.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Na HAR, o BCC deve ser preferencialmente, tomado &#224; noite, para que haja altern&#226;ncia de picos de a&#231;&#227;o dos anti-hipertensivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A intoler&#226;ncia aos BCC, devido a efeitos colaterais, muitas vezes &#233; uma das causas de resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento. Nesses casos, pode ser tentada a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de BCCs lipof&#237;licos (manidipino, lercanidipino, manidipino) ou o levanlodipino, em baixas doses, ou, em casos selecionados, um BCC n&#227;o di-hidropirid&#237;nico, como diltiazem e verapamil.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Na impossibilidade de uso de um BCC, pode ser considerada a introdu&#231;&#227;o de um betabloqueador, preferencialmente com a&#231;&#227;o vasodilatadora, como nebivolol ou carvedilol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup> Betabloqueadores tamb&#233;m podem ser considerados em associa&#231;&#227;o a um ou mais anti-hipertensivos preferenciais &#8211; IECA ou BRA, DT, BCC &#8211; em condi&#231;&#245;es especiais como insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, coronariopatia, frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca basal elevada, entre outras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O n&#227;o alcance da meta press&#243;rica com o esquema tr&#237;plice exige a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um 4<sup>o</sup> f&#225;rmaco, cuja op&#231;&#227;o preferencial atual &#233; a espironolactona, de 25 a 50 mg ao dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B154">154</xref></sup> Em casos de intoler&#226;ncia &#224; espironolactona, cujo efeito adverso principal &#233; a ocorr&#234;ncia de ginecomastia em homens, pode ser tentada a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de 12,5 mg ao dia. Como n&#227;o h&#225; disponibilidade de eplerenone em nosso meio, caso persista a intoler&#226;ncia &#224; espironolactona, mesmo em baixas doses, dever&#225; ser avaliada a sua substitui&#231;&#227;o por um simpatol&#237;tico central, preferencialmente a clonidina, de 0,100 a 0,200 mg, duas vezes ao dia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref></sup> ou um diur&#233;tico poupador de pot&#225;ssio, preferencialmente a amilorida (s&#243; dispon&#237;vel em nosso meio de forma isolada em formula&#231;&#245;es magistrais), de 10 a 20 mg;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup> ou um betabloqueador, preferencialmente com a&#231;&#227;o vasodilatadora, se n&#227;o tiver sido ainda empregado;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> ou um alfa bloqueador, preferencialmente a doxazosina, em dosagem de 1 a 16 mg, em uma tomada (noturna) ou duas tomadas di&#225;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Todos esses anti-hipertensivos podem ser utilizados em associa&#231;&#245;es, quando necess&#225;rio, para o controle press&#243;rico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Caso n&#227;o se obtenha o controle com a adi&#231;&#227;o do 4&#186; f&#225;rmaco ou com combina&#231;&#245;es das op&#231;&#245;es subsequentes, deve-se utilizar um vasodilatador direto, preferencialmente a hidralazina, em doses di&#225;rias de 50 a 150 mg, fracionadas em 2 a 3 tomadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> O vasodilatador minoxidil, em face de seus frequentes efeitos adversos, deve ser reservado para situa&#231;&#245;es muito resistentes, quando h&#225; falha de todas as alternativas anteriores<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f04">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; <italic>Fluxograma de tratamento de HA. BCC: bloqueador dos canais de c&#225;lcio; BRA: bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora da angiotensina; IRC: insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica; PA: press&#227;o arterial.</italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-03-0576-00198-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>No tratamento da HAR, deve-se estar atento aos poss&#237;veis efeitos adversos de cada um dos f&#225;rmacos empregados, assim como &#224;s suas poss&#237;veis intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10. Novos Tratamentos da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente</title>
      <p><bold>Coordenador:</bold> Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto</p>
      <p><bold>Autores:</bold> Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto, Luciano Ferreira Drager e Thiago de Souza Veiga Jardim</p>
      <sec>
        <title>10.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, novas formas de tratamento intervencionista t&#234;m sido avaliadas para pacientes com HAR, tais como:</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.2. Estimula&#231;&#227;o Direta do Seio Carot&#237;deo</title>
        <p>O est&#237;mulo dos barorreceptores carot&#237;deos leva ao aumento da atividade dos mesmos e, consequente, redu&#231;&#227;o do fluxo simp&#225;tico, resultando em diminui&#231;&#227;o da PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref></sup> Interven&#231;&#245;es que promovem esta estimula&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m sido usadas para o tratamento de pacientes com HAR n&#227;o responsivos a tratamento cl&#237;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> A terapia de ativa&#231;&#227;o do barorreflexo (TAB) &#233; um procedimento cir&#250;rgico onde eletrodos s&#227;o implantados cirurgicamente na por&#231;&#227;o externa do seio carot&#237;deo bilateral ou unilateral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> A TAB mostrou redu&#231;&#245;es significativas da PA, que persistem por at&#233; 3 anos em estudos randomizados e controlado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> Entretanto, o procedimento &#233; invasivo, de alto custo e apresenta efeitos colaterais, que restringem sua indica&#231;&#227;o na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> Outra forma de est&#237;mulo &#233; a amplifica&#231;&#227;o do barorreflexo endovascular (implante de dispositivo expans&#237;vel dentro da car&#243;tida), que demonstrou resultados promissores no controle da PA na HAR, com maior seguran&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref></sup> Estes procedimentos n&#227;o est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis no Brasil.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.3. Denerva&#231;&#227;o Simp&#225;tica Renal</title>
        <p>A denerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica renal (DSR) por cateter de abla&#231;&#227;o reduz a atividade eferente renal, com consequente aumento do fluxo sangu&#237;neo renal, diminui&#231;&#227;o da ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona e da reten&#231;&#227;o de &#225;gua, e tamb&#233;m da atividade aferente renal que, atrav&#233;s de sinais cerebrais, diminui a&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica sobre cora&#231;&#227;o e vasos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dados obtidos em estudos n&#227;o controlados mostraram redu&#231;&#245;es de at&#233; 30 mmHg na PA sist&#243;lica de consult&#243;rio em pacientes com HAR, sem complica&#231;&#245;es do procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref></sup> Entretanto, o estudo SYMPLICITY HTN-3,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup> randomizado e controlado com procedimento <italic>sham</italic>, n&#227;o mostrou efeito significativamente superior de redu&#231;&#227;o da PA ap&#243;s 6 meses com a DSR. Uma metan&#225;lise com 11 estudos controlados comparando DSR com tratamento medicamentoso otimizado ou procedimento <italic>sham</italic> em pacientes com HAR n&#227;o demonstrou superioridade da DSR em reduzir a PA, havendo heterogeneidade de respostas nos estudos devido principalmente a falta de controle sham na maioria das publica&#231;&#245;es e heterogeneidade na avalia&#231;&#227;o da ades&#227;o ao tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163">163</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O desenvolvimento de novos cateteres circunferenciais com aplica&#231;&#245;es distais nas art&#233;rias renais pode promover DSR mais completa, e efeitos de redu&#231;&#227;o da PA t&#234;m sido demonstrados em pacientes hipertensos n&#227;o tratados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No posicionamento de 2018 da Sociedade Europeia de Hipertens&#227;o, DSR n&#227;o &#233; recomendada em geral para o tratamento de hipertens&#227;o arterial, mas h&#225; recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a sua realiza&#231;&#227;o no contexto de estudos cl&#237;nicos controlados com procedimento <italic>sham</italic> e terapia otimizada para avalia&#231;&#227;o da seguran&#231;a e da efic&#225;cia em popula&#231;&#227;o com grande n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Com base nessas evid&#234;ncias, no momento, a DSR seria uma alternativa apenas para pacientes com HAR-NC com tratamento farmacol&#243;gico otimizado e comprovada ades&#227;o terap&#234;utica ou com importantes efeitos adversos das medica&#231;&#245;es, sempre em centros de refer&#234;ncia treinados para o procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.4. Uso de Press&#227;o Positiva Cont&#237;nua em Vias A&#233;reas</title>
        <p>A AOS &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica presente em mais da metade dos pacientes com HAR<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup> e seu principal tratamento &#233; o CPAP, um compressor de ar que provoca press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua na via a&#233;rea do paciente. At&#233; o momento, sete estudos randomizados analisaram o efeito do tratamento da AOS com CPAP em pacientes com HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165">165</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref></sup> Com exce&#231;&#227;o de um deles,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup> os demais encontraram redu&#231;&#245;es significativas de PA (5 mmHg em m&#233;dia; um dos estudos mostrou redu&#231;&#245;es &#8805; 10 mmHg ap&#243;s uso do CPAP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No entanto, a propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes que alcan&#231;ou a meta de PA (&lt; 140/90 mmHg) com o CPAP &#233; baixa, possivelmente explicada pela pouca ades&#227;o ao CPAP. Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica observa-se que a resposta da PA ao CPAP pode ser vari&#225;vel, mesmo em pacientes com boa ades&#227;o. Recente estudo mostrou biomarcadores preditores de melhor resposta da PA ao uso do CPAP em pacientes com HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172">172</xref></sup> A valida&#231;&#227;o e a aplica&#231;&#227;o em larga escala desses biomarcadores podem ajudar a selecionar melhor os pacientes que ter&#227;o mais benef&#237;cios com a redu&#231;&#227;o da PA.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>10.5. F&#237;stula Arteriovenosa</title>
          <p>A aplica&#231;&#227;o de uma f&#237;stula arteriovenosa (FAV) pode promover diminui&#231;&#227;o da PA por mecanismos relacionados a: redu&#231;&#227;o na resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica total e no volume sangu&#237;neo, inibi&#231;&#227;o de barorreflexo e libera&#231;&#227;o de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup> Em estudo prospectivo randomizado e controlado, a cria&#231;&#227;o de FAV il&#237;aca&#8211;central por um dispositivo implant&#225;vel em 44 pacientes com HAR foi acompanhada de significativa redu&#231;&#227;o da PA sist&#243;lica de consult&#243;rio e ambulatorial de 24 h, quando comparada a tratamento medicamentoso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup> Entretanto, houve uma taxa elevada de complica&#231;&#245;es devido a estenose venosa ipsilateral, necessitando de interven&#231;&#227;o no grupo com a FAV.</p>
          <p>Novos estudos com maior n&#250;mero de pacientes e compara&#231;&#245;es da FAV com o procedimento <italic>sham</italic> est&#227;o sendo realizados para comprovar os benef&#237;cios dela na HAR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <italic><bold>Nota:</bold> estes posicionamentos se prestam a informar e n&#227;o a substituir o julgamento cl&#237;nico do m&#233;dico que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, deve determinar o tratamento apropriado para seus pacientes.</italic>
        </p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>Este posicionamento dever&#225; ser citado como:</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>
          <italic>Yugar-Toledo JC, Moreno J&#250;nior H, Gus M, Rosito GBA, Scala LCN, Muxfeldt ES, et al. Posicionamento Brasileiro sobre Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente &#8211; 2020. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2020; 114(3):576-596</italic>
        </p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Errata</p>
        <p>Na figura 1 da vers&#227;o portugu&#234;s, onde &#233; mencionado "hipertens&#227;o segund&#225;ria", o correto &#233; "Hipertens&#227;o arterial pseudorresistente&#8221;. Na vers&#227;o em ingl&#234;s, onde "anormal" &#233; mencionado, lado direito da figura 1, o correto &#233; "normal". Na vers&#227;o em ingl&#234;s, onde "abnormal" &#233; mencionado, lado direito da figura 1, o correto &#233; "normal".</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Statement</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Brazilian Position Statement on Resistant Hypertension &#8211; 2020</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6583-6536</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Yugar-Toledo</surname>
            <given-names>Juan Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreno</surname>
            <given-names>Heitor</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gus</surname>
            <given-names>Miguel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosito</surname>
            <given-names>Guido Bernardo Aranha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scala</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz C&#233;sar Naz&#225;rio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Muxfeldt</surname>
            <given-names>Elizabeth Silaid</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alessi</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea Ara&#250;jo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Osni</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Feitosa</surname>
            <given-names>Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10001">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Passarelli</surname>
            <given-names>Oswaldo</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11001">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Dilma do Socorro Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12001">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amodeo</surname>
            <given-names>Celso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11001">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Kunz Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13001">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Ant&#244;nio Mota</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14001">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Annelise Machado Gomes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14001">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Costa Duarte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15001">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Miranda</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto Dischinger</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16001">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vilela-Martin</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nadruz</surname>
            <given-names>Wilson</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rodrigues</surname>
            <given-names>Cibele Isaac Saad</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17001">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Drager</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18001">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bortolotto</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Aparecido</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18001">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Consolim-Colombo</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Marciano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18001">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rcio Gon&#231;alves de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11001">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Borelli</surname>
            <given-names>Fl&#225;vio Antonio de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11001">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kaiser</surname>
            <given-names>S&#233;rgio Emanuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Salles</surname>
            <given-names>Gil Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Maria de F&#225;tima de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19001">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Luc&#233;lia Batista Neves Cunha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20001">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>P&#243;voa</surname>
            <given-names>Rui Manoel dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16001">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Malachias</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21001">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nogueira</surname>
            <given-names>Armando da Rocha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22001">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo C&#233;sar Brand&#227;o Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23001">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24001">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Thiago de Souza Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23001">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Estadual de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto, S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiab&#225;, MT &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9001">
        <label>9</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10001">
        <label>10</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11001">
        <label>11</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12001">
        <label>12</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Par&#225;, Bel&#233;m, PA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13001">
        <label>13</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14001">
        <label>14</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio CESMAC, Macei&#243;, AL &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15001">
        <label>15</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Liga de Combate &#224; Hipertens&#227;o de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16001">
        <label>16</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17001">
        <label>17</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas e da Sa&#250;de Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de s&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18001">
        <label>18</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade Medicina Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff19001">
        <label>19</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff20001">
        <label>20</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ci&#234;ncias da Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff21001">
        <label>21</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais, Belo horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff22001">
        <label>22</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff23001">
        <label>23</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff24001">
        <label>24</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"> Corresponding Address: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; Postal Code: 20020-907. Email: diretrizes@cardiol.br </corresp>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>Development: Department of Hypertension (DH) of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology</p>
      <p>Norms and Guidelines Council (2020-2021): Brivaldo Markman Filho, Antonio Carlos Sobral Sousa, Aurora Felice Castro Issa, Bruno Ramos Nascimento, Harry Correa Filho, Marcelo Luiz Campos Vieira</p>
      <p>Norms and Guidelines Coordinator (2020-2021): Brivaldo Markman Filho</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1001">
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="13%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="8" style="font-weight:normal">Declaration of potential conflict of interests of authors/collaborators of the Brazilian Position Statement on Resistant Hypertension &#8211; 2020 If, within the last 3 years, the author/collaborator of the statement:</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Names of statement collaborators</th>
                <th>Participated in clinical and/or experimental studies sponsored by pharmaceutical or equipment companies related to this guideline</th>
                <th>Spoke at events or activities sponsored by industry related to this guideline</th>
                <th>Was (is) a member of a board of advisors or a board of directors of a pharmaceutical or equipment industry</th>
                <th>Participated in normative committees of scientific research sponsored by industry</th>
                <th>Received personal or institutional funding from industry</th>
                <th>Wrote scientific papers in journals sponsored by industry</th>
                <th>Owns stocks in industry</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Alexandre Alessi</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Andrea Ara&#250;jo Brand&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Abbott, EMS, Merck</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Medley</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Abbott</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Annelise Machado Gomes de Paiva</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Armando da Rocha Nogueira</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es Feitosa</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Omron</td>
                <td align="center">Omron</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Celso Amodeo</td>
                <td align="center">Medtronic</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Novo Nordisk</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cibele Isaac Saad Rodrigues</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dilma do Socorro Moraes de Souza</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Eduardo Costa Duarte Barbosa</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">EMS, Servier</td>
                <td align="center">EMS, Novartis, Medley</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Elizabeth Silaid Muxfeldt</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fernanda Marciano Consolim-Colombo</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Merck</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Merck, Daiichi Sankyo</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Merck</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Flavio Antonio de Oliveira Borelli</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Libbs</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Gil Fernando Salles</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Guido Bernardo Aranha Rosito</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Heitor Moreno J&#250;nior</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Jos&#233; Fernando Vilela-Martin</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Juan Carlos Yugar-Toledo</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luciano Ferreira Drager</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luc&#233;lia Batista Neves Cunha Magalh&#227;es</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Merck</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luiz C&#233;sar Naz&#225;rio Scala</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>M&#225;rcio Gon&#231;alves de Sousa</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marco Ant&#244;nio Mota Gomes</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Torrent, Abbott, Omron, Novartis, Astrazeneca</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Torrent, Abbott, Omron, Novartis, Astrazeneca</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Torrent, Abbott, Omron, Novartis, Astrazeneca</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var Malachias</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Abbott, Biolab, Libbs, Novo Nordisk, Takeda</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Abbott, Biolab, Farmoqu&#237;mica, Libbs, Novo Nordisk</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Maria de F&#225;tima de Azevedo</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Miguel Gus</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Osni Moreira Filho</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Servier, Merck</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Oswaldo Passarelli J&#250;nior</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Paulo C&#233;sar Brand&#227;o Veiga Jardim</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Biolab, Ach&#233;, Libbs</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Roberto Dischinger Miranda</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Rui Manoel dos Santos P&#243;voa</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>S&#233;rgio Emanuel Kaiser</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Novartis</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Thiago de Souza Veiga Jardim</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Torrent</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">Libbs, Torrent, Novartis</td>
                <td align="center">Torrent</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso</td>
                <td align="center">Amgen, AstraZeneca, Torrent, EMS, Novartis</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">EMS, Sandoz, Servier, Novartis</td>
                <td align="center">Medley, Sandoz, EMS</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Wilson Nadruz J&#250;nior</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
                <td align="center">No</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Content</p>
      <p>1. Definition and Epidemiology 580</p>
      <p>1.1. Definition/New Concepts 580</p>
      <p>1.2. Control of Hypertension in Brazil and Worldwide 580</p>
      <p>1.3. Incidence and Prevalence of Resistant Hypertension 580</p>
      <p>1.4. Factors Related to Resistant Hypertension 580</p>
      <p>2. Prognostic Aspects 581</p>
      <p>2.1. Introduction 581</p>
      <p>2.2. Office Blood Pressure and Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring 581</p>
      <p>2.3. Target-Organ Damage 581</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.3.1. Central Arterial Pressure and Arterial Stiffening 581</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.3.2. Left Ventricular Hypertrophy 581</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.3.3. Albuminuria 581</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.3.4. Inflammatory Biomarkers 581</bold>
      </p>
      <p>3. Flowchart of Assessment of Resistant Hypertension 581</p>
      <p>3.1. Flowchart of the Diagnostic Approach in Resistant Hypertension 581</p>
      <p>4. Blood Pressure Measurement 582</p>
      <p>4.1. Office Blood Pressure in Resistant Hypertension 582</p>
      <p>4.2. Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring in Resistant Hypertension 582</p>
      <p>4.3. Home Blood Pressure Monitoring and Blood Pressure Self-Measurement 583</p>
      <p>4.4. Measurement of Central Arterial Pressure 583</p>
      <p>5. Target-Organ Damage 583</p>
      <p>5.1. Introduction 583</p>
      <p>5.2. Vascular Changes 583</p>
      <p>5.3. Cerebral Changes 583</p>
      <p>5.4. Cardiac Changes 583</p>
      <p>5.5. Renal Changes 584</p>
      <p>6. Phenotype of the Patient with Resistant Hypertension 584</p>
      <p>6.1. Introduction 584</p>
      <p>6.2. Phenotype of the Patient with Resistant Hypertension 584</p>
      <p>6.3. Phenotype of Controlled and Uncontrolled Resistant Hypertension 585</p>
      <p>
        <bold>6.3.1. Pathophysiological Aspects 585</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>6.3.2. Clinical Differences 585</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>6.3.3. Prognosis 585</bold>
      </p>
      <p>6.4. Phenotype of the Patient with Refractory Hypertension 586</p>
      <p>7. Secondary Causes of Resistant Hypertension 586</p>
      <p>7.1. Introduction 586</p>
      <p>7.2. Secondary Hypertension due to Non-Endocrine Causes 586</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.2.1. Obstructive Sleep Apnea 586</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.2.2. Renal Parenchymal Disease 586</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.2.3. Renal Artery Stenosis 586</bold>
      </p>
      <p>7.3. Secondary Hypertension due to Endocrine Causes 586</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.3.1. Primary Hyperaldosteronism 586</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.3.2. Pheochromocytoma 587</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.3.3. Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism 587</bold>
      </p>
      <p>8. Non-Pharmacological Treatment 587</p>
      <p>8.1. Weight Loss 587</p>
      <p>8.2. Salt Restriction 588</p>
      <p>8.3. Alcohol Intake 588</p>
      <p>8.4. Physical Activity 589</p>
      <p>9. Pharmacological Treatment of Resistant Hypertension 589</p>
      <p>10. New Treatments of Resistant Hypertension 589</p>
      <p>10.1. Introduction 589</p>
      <p>10.2. Direct Carotid Sinus Stimulation 589</p>
      <p>10.3. Renal Sympathetic Denervation 590</p>
      <p>10.4. Use of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure 590</p>
      <p>10.5. Arteriovenous Fistula 591</p>
      <p>References 591</p>
      <sec>
        <title>1. Definition and Epidemiology</title>
        <p><bold>Coordinator:</bold> Heitor Moreno J&#250;nior.</p>
        <p><bold>Authors:</bold> Juan Carlos Yugar-Toledo, Heitor Moreno J&#250;nior, Miguel Gus, Guido Bernardo Aranha Rosito, and Luiz C&#233;sar Naz&#225;rio Scala.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>1.1. Definition/New Concepts</title>
          <p>Resistant hypertension (RHTN) is defined as blood pressure (BP) persistently above the recommended target values despite the use of three antihypertensive agents of different classes, including one blocker of the renin-angiotensin system (angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor [ACEI] or angiotensin receptor blocker [ARB]), one long-acting calcium channel blocker (CCB), and one long-acting thiazide diuretic (TZD) at maximum recommended and tolerated doses, administered with appropriate frequency and doses and with proven adherence.</p>
          <p>Other drugs may be added if the above ones fail (aldosterone antagonists, beta-blockers, and &#945;-methyldopa). Experts disagree on issues related to dose/potency, although the main discussion occurs around the use of chlorthalidone or hydrochlorothiazide as the main TZD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The definition above includes a subgroup of patients with RHTN whose BP is controlled with four or more antihypertensive medications, known as controlled RHTN (C-RHTN).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A proposal to classify the disease into C-RHTN and uncontrolled RHTN (UC-RHTN),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> including refractory RHTN (Ref-RHTN), an extreme UC-RHTN phenotype involving use of five or more antihypertensive agents,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> has gained space in the literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Thus, UC-RHTN is defined by BP levels that remain above the desired level (140/90 mmHg) despite the concomitant use of four or more antihypertensive agents of different classes and a fourth drug, which is generally a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist or a central sympathetic inhibitor (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Chart 1</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Chart 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Classification of resistant hypertension</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
										</th>
                    <th>Number of antihypertensive agents</th>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">
										</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="4">Controlled resistant hypertension</td>
                    <td align="center">N</td>
                    <td align="center" rowspan="4">Uncontrolled resistant hypertension</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">6</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                    <td align="center">Resistant hypertension</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&lt; 140/90</td>
                    <td align="center">Blood pressure (mmHg)</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 140/90</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Normotension</td>
                    <td>
										</td>
                    <td align="center">Hypertension</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2. Control of Hypertension in Brazil and Worldwide</title>
          <p>An analysis of 135 population studies with 1 million individuals indicated that 31.1% of the adult population is hypertensive (95% CI; 30 to 32%), with an estimated rate of 28.5 and 31.5% in countries with the highest and lowest socioeconomic status, respectively. BP control varies according to socioeconomic status, reaching 28.4% in more developed countries and only 7.7% in those with a lower degree of development.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> In Brazil, the control rate varied from 10.4 to 35.2% in populations studied in three regions of the country.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A study conducted in 291 centers in all five Brazilian regions including 2,810 patients evaluated the control rates of hypertension according to risk profile and target BP. For patients with lower risk and target levels &lt; 140/90 mmHg, the control rate was 61.7%, while for those with high risk and target levels &lt; 130/80 mmHg, the corresponding value was 41.8%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.3. Incidence and Prevalence of Resistant Hypertension</title>
          <p>The prevalence of RHTN among individuals with hypertension is estimated at 10 to 20% worldwide, resulting in approximately 200 million individuals with RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> This variability is mainly due to differences in RHTN criteria and characteristics of the studied populations.</p>
          <p>The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) reported a prevalence of RHTN of about 9% in individuals with hypertension, corresponding to 12.8% of the individuals using antihypertensive agents in the US.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Still, the actual prevalence of RHTN is unknown. A meta-analysis by Achelrod et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> evaluating populations of individuals with treated hypertension found a prevalence of 13.72% (95% CI; 11.19 to 16.24%), according to 20 observational studies, and 16.32% (95% CI; 10.68 to 21.95%), according to four randomized controlled trials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> In Brazil, a multicenter study (ReHOT) including ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) showed a prevalence of RHTN of 11.7%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Daugherty et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> analyzed the incidence of RHTN in 205,750 patients with hypertension who initiated antihypertensive treatment between 2002 and 2006. The authors found a rate of 1.9% at 1.5 years of follow-up (0.7 per 100 patients per year), leading to a 1.47 higher cardiovascular (CV) risk at 3.8 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.4. Factors Related to Resistant Hypertension</title>
          <p>RHTN is more prevalent in elderly, obese, and African descent individuals, as well as in patients with left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), diabetes mellitus, chronic nephropathy, metabolic syndrome, increased alcohol and/or salt intake, and sedentary lifestyle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Aspects related to RHTN include the following: 1) diagnostic factors &#8211; inadequate BP measurement technique, white-coat effect;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> 2) causal factors &#8211; increased salt sensitivity, volume expansion due to excessive salt intake or chronic kidney disease (CKD), use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, anabolic steroids, oral contraceptives, sympathomimetic agents (nasal decongestants, appetite suppressants, cocaine), chemotherapeutic agents, antidepressants, erythropoietin, immunosuppressants, alcohol;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> 3) secondary causes of hypertension, including primary hyperaldosteronism, obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), CKD, renal artery stenosis, thyroid diseases;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> 4) therapeutic factors &#8211; medications that are either inappropriate or are used in insufficient doses, medical inertia, low adherence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Both systolic and diastolic hypertension may be resistant, the former being more prevalent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2. Prognostic Aspects</title>
        <p><bold>Coordinator:</bold> Elizabeth Silaid Muxfeldt.</p>
        <p><bold>Authors:</bold> Alexandre Alessi, Andrea Ara&#250;jo Brand&#227;o, Osni Moreira Filho, and Elizabeth Silaid Muxfeldt.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>RHTN is associated with high CV morbidity and mortality, increasing the risk of CV events by 47% in patients affected by this condition when compared with individuals with incident hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.2. Office Blood Pressure and Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring</title>
          <p>True RHTN, diagnosed by ABPM, is associated with twice the CV risk compared with RHTN due to a white-coat effect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Overall, the average BP measurements obtained in all three ABPM periods are strong predictors of CV risk, while office BP has shown no prognostic value.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Longitudinal studies have highlighted high BP during sleep and the absence of nocturnal dipping as important predictors of CV risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Prognostic importance of the nighttime BP pattern has also been shown in meta-analyses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3. Target-Organ Damage</title>
          <sec>
            <title>2.3.1. Central Arterial Pressure and Arterial Stiffening</title>
            <p>Pulse wave velocity (PWV) has an independent predictive value in several subgroups of patients with hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Reduced arterial relaxation and elasticity have been observed in patients with RHTN compared with individuals with well-controlled hypertension, being a marker of prognosis and response to antihypertensive therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> In hypertensive patients, PWV provides additive value when incorporated into CV risk scores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.3.2. Left Ventricular Hypertrophy</title>
            <p>The electrocardiographic diagnosis of LVH has emerged as a predictor of risk for coronary disease (Cornell index) and cerebrovascular disease (Sokolow-Lyon index), and the regression of both indices reduces the risk of CV events by 35 and 40%, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.3.3. Albuminuria</title>
            <p>Both baseline and serial changes in albuminuria have prognostic implications in RHTN. In a large prospective cohort of 531 patients with RHTN, the occurrence of moderately increased albuminuria (MIA) at baseline was an independent predictor of composite events and all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> A later analysis by the same group, this time including 1,048 patients, showed that MIA increased by 40% the risk of fatal and nonfatal CV events and all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
            <p>During follow-up, the persistence of MIA at 2 years was a risk factor for CV events, while persistent normoalbuminuria emerged as a protective factor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Another cohort of 143 patients with RHTN assessed at baseline and after 6 years of follow-up showed that the development or persistence of MIA was associated with an increased risk of CV events. In contrast, the persistence of normoalbuminuria or regression of MIA was associated with a lower risk of major events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.3.4. Inflammatory Biomarkers</title>
            <p>Elevated C-reactive protein is an independent predictor of coronary and cerebrovascular disease, and a more important marker in patients with RHTN who are younger, obese, and have uncontrolled ABPM and a non-dipping pattern (absent or attenuated nocturnal decline).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3. Flowchart of Assessment of Resistant Hypertension</title>
        <p><bold>Coordinator:</bold> Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es Feitosa.</p>
        <p><bold>Authors:</bold> Oswaldo Passarelli J&#250;nior, Dilma do Socorro Moraes de Souza, and Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es Feitosa.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1. Flowchart of the Diagnostic Approach in Resistant Hypertension</title>
          <p>On clinical suspicion of RHTN, diagnostic confirmation is required, and the first step in the investigation is the exclusion of causes of pseudoresistance, such as lack of treatment adherence (pharmacological and non-pharmacological), inadequate dosing, improper BP measurement technique, and white-coat effect<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref>). Lack of BP control should be confirmed by ABPM and home blood pressure monitoring (HBPM).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; <italic>Flowchart of the evaluation of resistant hypertension. ABPM: ambulatory blood pressure monitoring; HBPM: home blood pressure monitoring; Na<sup>+</sup>: sodium; BP: blood pressure.</italic></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-03-0576-00198-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Once pseudoresistance is excluded, the occurrence of RHTN is confirmed and a diagnostic investigation should be initiated with specific tests, according to recommendations of hypertension guidelines regarding the involvement of target-organ damage (TOD) and secondary hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> The occurrence of associated comorbidities should be evaluated with specialized tests according to clinical suspicion.</p>
          <p>Out-of-office BP measurement is fundamental since such readings are usually higher than those measured at home, reflecting the frequent occurrence of the white-coat effect in this population. Treatment adherence is always challenging, especially in public centers.</p>
          <p>Patient-related problems that may occur include rejection to the excessive number of medications in complex dosing (excessive doses and tablets), medication side effects, sociocultural issues and lack of knowledge of the natural history of the disease, as well as other problems related to the physician, including poor doctor-patient relationship, non-synergistic dosing or wrong doses and omission or lack of knowledge in the investigation of treatable secondary causes. A potential problem related to health care services is difficulty in access to physicians, medications, and complementary tests.</p>
          <p>All these factors hinder the adherence to pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment and must, therefore, be verified and circumvented.</p>
          <p>Salt intake should always be verified, if possible with a 24-hour urinary sodium measurement, as intake is often excessive due to the consumption of processed foods and lack of knowledge by the patients about excessive salt intake.</p>
          <p>Treatment should be optimized, preferably with the same physician and for a minimum of 6 months to strengthen the doctor-patient relationship. Added to that are regular recommendations regarding healthy lifestyle habits and continuous verification of treatment adherence, with synergistic dosing schedules and appropriate medication adjustments, respecting the occurrence of comorbidities indicating or contraindicating certain antihypertensive drug classes.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Blood Pressure Measurement</title>
        <p><bold>Coordinator:</bold> Celso Amodeo.</p>
        <p><bold>Authors:</bold> Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso, Marco Ant&#244;nio Mota Gomes, Annelise Machado Gomes de Paiva, and Eduardo Costa Duarte Barbosa.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1. Office Blood Pressure in Resistant Hypertension</title>
          <p>Although not diagnostic of RHTN, office BP should be verified, and the measurement procedure should follow the guidelines of the 7<sup>th</sup> Brazilian Guideline of Arterial Hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> The BP can be measured with a manual, semiautomatic, or automatic sphygmomanometer. Several measurements are recommended, with the patient sitting in a calm and comfortable environment to improve reproducibility and bring the values obtained in the office close to those obtained on ABPM during daytime.</p>
          <p>Consideration must be given to the occurrence of the white-coat effect, a phenomenon involving two situations. The first is a white-coat hypertension, in which BP is elevated in isolated office measurements but normal during ABPM or HBPM. The second is a white-coat effect, which is characterized by increased office BP in relation to the mean BP during daytime in the ABPM or the weekly average HBPM, without changing the diagnosis of hypertension or normotension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>These two situations can lead to a false diagnosis of RHTN, resulting in unnecessary test requests and medication use. White-coat hypertension may be referred to as a cause of pseudo-resistant hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2. Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring in Resistant Hypertension</title>
          <p>This test is necessary to rule out the hypothesis of white-coat hypertension, which falsely suggests RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> The diagnosis is confirmed when the mean BP during daytime and over 24 hours is below 135/85 mmHg and 130/80 mmHg, respectively. Compared with casual BP measurements, the values obtained are more strongly related to the risks arising from hypertension, especially during ABPM evaluation, when an absence or attenuation of the BP reduction during sleep is identified, along with an increase in the difference between systolic and diastolic BP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup><xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Chart 2</xref> presents the main applicability in hypertension of the ABPM, a fundamental test in RHTN evaluation, diagnosis, and follow-up.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3001">
              <label>Chart 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Key information obtained from ambulatory blood pressure monitoring</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Multiple measurements over an observation period</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Blood pressure assessment during daytime</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Correlation of daytime measurements with activities and symptoms</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Blood pressure assessment during sleep</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Possibility of correlating blood pressure variability with symptoms, activities, and medications</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Complement to the patient's diagnosis and prognosis</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Evaluation of the antihypertensive effect</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3. Home Blood Pressure Monitoring and Blood Pressure Self-Measurement</title>
          <p>Home BP measurements are more accurate than casual BP measurements and offer a better prediction of risk for CV outcomes, contributing to greater adherence to drug treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> In this context, HBPM and BP self-measurement (BPSM) are viable and effective alternatives for proper diagnosis and improved adherence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4. Measurement of Central Arterial Pressure</title>
          <p>Arterial stiffness is recognized as an important prognostic index and potential therapeutic target in patients with hypertension. As a result, central systolic blood pressure (cSBP) and PWV have been recently investigated in a population of patients with RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> The mean age of the population was 58.7 &#177; 15.3 years, and 65% (n = 53) were women. Brachial and central blood pressures were elevated in all patients. Additionally, the PWV value was higher than the reference value for age, and the difference was statistically higher for PWV in women.</p>
          <p>Another study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> analyzing associations between RHTN and arterial stiffness has shown that patients with RHTN have increased vascular stiffness compared with patients with well-controlled hypertension. PWV increased with arterial stiffness and correlated with BP levels, justifying the need for adequate BP control.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5. Target-Organ Damage</title>
        <p><bold>Coordinator:</bold> Roberto Dischinger Miranda.</p>
        <p><bold>Authors:</bold> Jos&#233; Fernando Vilela-Martin, Juan Carlos Yugar-Toledo, Wilson Nadruz J&#250;nior, and Cibele Isaac Saad Rodrigues.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>Both C-RHTN and UC-RHTN are associated with a higher prevalence of TOD and higher CV risk and mortality compared with controlled hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Therefore, the investigation of TOD in RHTN is fundamental to complement the risk stratification and establish the prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2. Vascular Changes</title>
          <p>Patients with RHTN present structural and functional vascular changes resulting not only from uncontrolled hypertension but also from early vascular aging. This is a complex process involving biochemical, enzymatic, and cellular changes that modify the function and structure of the artery, culminating in early and progressive degeneration of the arterial health.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Pathophysiological mechanisms include increased oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, vascular remodeling, smooth muscle cell hypertrophy, increased arterial stiffness due to changes in collagen/elastin distribution, vascular inflammation, and increased expression of inflammatory mediators and matrix repair metalloproteinases, in addition to increased advanced glycation end-products and parietal calcification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The molecular mechanisms of vascular aging include genetic alterations in segments involved in DNA protection and repair<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> and mitochondrial metabolic activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the microcirculation, endothelial dysfunction promotes vasoconstriction, eutrophic remodeling (increased media/lumen [M/L] ratio without external changes), decreased vasodilatory reserve and vascular rarefaction, the latter evaluated by <italic>in vivo</italic> capillaroscopy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> gluteus biopsy, or yet, measurement of the M/L ratio with laser Doppler flowmetry of retinal arteries<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> and optical videomicroscopy. In large arteries, parietal remodeling leads to increased arterial stiffness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Arterial stiffness is estimated by carotid-femoral PWV (c-f PWV) and calculation of the augmentation index (AIx) by applanation tonometry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> These changes in arterial stiffness hemodynamic parameters and cellular biomarkers are associated with increased morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The macrovascular involvement is further characterized by carotid, cerebral, coronary, and peripheral atherosclerotic diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.3. Cerebral Changes</title>
          <p>The cerebrovascular involvement in RHTN is subtle and insidious. Microscopic white matter lesions begin early and may progress irreversibly, leading to cognitive impairment and progression to vascular dementia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Patients with RHTN have a higher risk of cerebral infarction and transient cerebral ischemia, a fact that has been pointed out by the Kaiser Permanente<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> and REGARDS studies,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> which showed risk increases of 17 and 14%, respectively. Atherosclerosis of the carotid and small cerebral vessels is responsible for ischemic and thromboembolic phenomena. Retinal artery occlusion is a marker of small vessel injury and has been associated with an increased risk of cerebral events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Uncontrolled hypertension is the leading cause of hemorrhagic stroke. Patients with RHTN have microangiopathy (Charcot-Bouchard aneurysms), which affect the penetrating arteries in the brain and cause intraparenchymal hemorrhage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Changes in large artery stiffness are also associated with increased occurrence of microvascular changes and a greater predisposition to cerebrovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.4. Cardiac Changes</title>
          <p>Several cardiac changes may be observed in patients with RHTN, including LVH, left ventricular diastolic dysfunction (LVDD), and myocardial ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> LVH is an independent predictor of heart failure, coronary artery disease (CAD), arrhythmias, and stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In Brazil, the prevalence of LVH assessed by echocardiography in patients with RHTN ranges from 68 to 87%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> with concentric LVH being the most common geometric pattern in these individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
          <p>LVDD predisposes to cardiovascular events and heart failure, regardless of cardiac mass and BP levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> The exact prevalence of LVDD in patients with RHTN is uncertain, but the strong association between this condition and LVH<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> suggests that LVDD is very frequent in this population. About one third of the patients with RHTN are diagnosed with CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> However, even in the absence of overt CAD, up to 28% of the patients with RHTN have myocardial ischemia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> which may result from decreased coronary reserve and increased myocardial oxygen consumption, particularly in patients with LVH, and increased arterial stiffness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.5. Renal Changes</title>
          <p>The association between RHTN and CKD is well established and may be causal or consequential. The anatomopathological substrate is hypertensive nephrosclerosis, resulting from hemodynamic abnormalities (glomerular hyperfiltration and hypertrophy), culminating in glomerulosclerosis. Nephrosclerosis (erroneously termed &#8220;benign&#8221;) is characterized by arteriosclerosis and arteriolosclerosis, hyalinosis, tubulointerstitial lesions, global glomerulosclerosis, and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis.</p>
          <p>Known risk factors for CKD progression include age &gt; 50 years, male sex, genetic predisposition, family history, African descent, hypertension duration and stage, low socioeconomic status, intensity of albuminuria, degree of renal dysfunction, dyslipidemia, obesity, diabetes, lifestyle habits (diet with excessive salt and/or protein, smoking), and use of nephrotoxic substances, among others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> Albuminuria and reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) identify patients at high CV and renal risks, and the reduction in albuminuria may be a therapeutic objective in RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Recommended tests for evaluation and follow-up of renal damage include urinalysis, serum creatinine for eGFR calculation using the equations MDRD or CKD-EPI, available at http://ckdepi.org/equations/gfr-calculator/, renal and urinary tract ultrasonography, and calculation of the albuminuria or urinary protein/creatinine ratio for CKD staging<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; <italic>Prognosis of chronic kidney disease according to degrees of albuminuria and decline in estimated GFR.<sup>76</sup> Green: low risk; yellow: moderate risk; orange: high risk; red: very high risk.</italic></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-03-0576-00198-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6. Phenotype of the Patient with Resistant Hypertension</title>
        <p><bold>Coordinator:</bold> Luciano Ferreira Drager.</p>
        <p><bold>Authors:</bold> Heitor Moreno J&#250;nior, Juan Carlos Yugar-Toledo, and Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>6.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>This section describes initially the characteristics that distinguish patients with RHTN from those with non-resistant hypertension. Subsequently, it discusses the differences between patients with C-RHTN and UC-RHTN, and finally, addresses the approach to the extreme phenotype of the RHTN patients, i.e., patients with refractory hypertension.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.2. Phenotype of the Patient with Resistant Hypertension</title>
          <p>Patients with RHTN often present some characteristics that distinguish them from those with non-resistant hypertension, including older age, obesity, a profile of increased salt intake, CKD, diabetes, presence of TODs such as LVH, female sex, and african descent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The Brazilian multicenter study ReHOT has shown that diabetes, prior stroke, and BP at study entry &#8805; 180/110 mmHg (hypertension stage 3) were independent predictors of true resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> While some of these characteristics are intuitive, others, including the female sex, still lack well-defined rationales in predicting RHTN.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.3. Phenotype of Controlled and Uncontrolled Resistant Hypertension</title>
          <sec>
            <title>6.3.1. Pathophysiological Aspects</title>
            <p>C-RHTN shows greater dependence on volume status than UC-RHTN, due to critical persistence of water retention, increased sodium sensitivity, hyperaldosteronism, and renal dysfunction. Additionally, these individuals present increased plasma volume expansion measured by thoracic bioimpedance,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> higher plasma and urinary aldosterone concentrations, suppression of renin activity,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> high plasma aldosterone/renin ratio (ARR), and increased levels of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> This relationship between increased volume and pressure is the pathophysiological basis demonstrated in several studies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup> and justifies the use of diuretics in patients with C-RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In contrast, patients with UC-RHTN often have sympathetic hyperactivity, evidenced by increased (24-hour) urinary metanephrines and resting heart rate, reduced 24-hour variability (spectral analysis), in addition to increased vascular stiffness (increased PWV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> These markers of increased sympathetic activity, together with other factors linked to hyperaldosteronism,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> are related to mechanisms that maintain high BP even with administration of four or more antihypertensive agents, characterizing UC-RHTN. Higher PWV values reflect exacerbated arterial stiffness,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> while elevated levels of cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-&#945;),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> probably indicate vascular damage in patients with RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Other factors and mechanisms, such as age, obesity, OSA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> African descent, adipokine deregulation,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> endothelial dysfunction, and increased activity of metalloproteinases-2, metalloproteinases-9 and adhesion molecules<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> are also involved in this process.</p>
            <p>Genetic polymorphisms, especially those involving the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), have been correlated to RHTN<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3</xref>). However, large studies conveniently characterized in individuals with the disease are needed to define the importance of genetics in this group of patients.</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f03001">
                <label>Figure 3</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; <italic>Predominant pathophysiological mechanisms in controlled (C-RH) and uncontrolled (U-RH) resistant hypertension. Refractory hypertension (uncontrolled with five or more medications) is included in the U-RH group.</italic></title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-03-0576-00198-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>6.3.2. Clinical Differences</title>
            <p>In 2011, Martins et al. published a comparative study in patients with C-RH and UC-RHTN<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> specifically assessing biological factors contributing to resistance to antihypertensive agents. Body mass index (BMI), arterial stiffness (PWV), left ventricular mass index (LVMI), and plasma aldosterone concentration (PAC) were higher in the UC-RHTN group when compared with the C-RHTN group. Additionally, the authors demonstrated using multivariate analysis that PWV was dependent on age in both groups, although this influence was more pronounced in patients with UC-RHTN. They also showed that the UC-RHTN group had higher values of carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) and PWV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> Finally, the drop in nocturnal BP (dipping pattern) was less pronounced in the UC-RHTN group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>6.3.3. Prognosis</title>
            <p>Pierdomenico et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> evaluated CV outcomes in subjects with C-RHTN and UC-RHTN. The occurrence of fatal and nonfatal CV events was investigated in 340 patients with C-RHtN (BP &lt; 140/90 mmHg or daytime BP &lt; 135/85 mmHg) and 130 patients with UC-RHTN (BP &#8805; 140 or 90 mmHg and daytime BP &gt; 135 or 85 mmHg). During follow-up (4.98 &#177; 2.9 years), the event rates per 100 patients/year were 0.87 and 4.1, respectively. These data also show that patients with UC-RHTN have a greater risk of CAD, stroke, arterial disease, congestive heart failure (CHF), kidney disease, and all-cause death compared with patients with C-RHTN.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.4. Phenotype of the Patient with Refractory Hypertension</title>
        <p>Refractory hypertension appears to be an extreme phenotype of patients with RHTN. Recently, phenotypic characterization has shown that these patients are younger than those with RHTN in general, are more commonly women, have a higher frequency of heart failure, and have particularly higher sympathetic activity than patients with RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> These findings are important pillars for the pathophysiology of refractoriness, potentially constituting a therapeutic target for procedures such as renal denervation. Studies in this area are currently under development.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7. Secondary Causes of Resistant Hypertension</title>
        <p><bold>Coordinator:</bold> Fernanda Marciano Consolim-Colombo</p>
        <p><bold>Authors:</bold> M&#225;rcio Gon&#231;alves de Sousa, Fl&#225;vio Antonio de Oliveira Borelli, Cibele Isaac Saad Rodrigues, and Fernanda Marciano Consolim-Colombo.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>Secondary hypertension (SecHTN) is defined as increased BP due to an identifiable cause.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup> Patients with RHTN should be investigated for the most prevalent causes of &#8220;non-endocrine&#8221; and &#8220;endocrine&#8221; SecHTN after exclusion of use of medications that may interfere with BP values: antiinflammatory drugs, glucocorticoids, nasal decongestants, appetite suppressants, antidepressants, immunosuppressants, erythropoietin, contraceptives, and illicit drugs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.2. Secondary Hypertension due to Non-Endocrine Causes</title>
          <sec>
            <title>7.2.1. Obstructive Sleep Apnea</title>
            <p>Defined as a total or partial cessation of respiratory flow during sleep, this syndrome promotes oxyhemoglobin desaturation and microarousals during sleep. OSA is estimated to have a prevalence of 17%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup>among American adults and 30% among hypertensive individuals and may affect 60 to 80% of the patients with RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup> A recent meta-analysis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup> has concluded that the presence of OSA is related to a higher risk of RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Activation of the sympathetic nervous system and humoral abnormalities are responsible for changes in vascular endothelial integrity, and their consequences in patients with OSA include increased BP, development of atherosclerotic disease, and cardiac arrhythmias, among others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup> Clinical suspicion can be verified with the Berlin questionnaire.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The diagnosis is established with polysomnography, which records apnea/hypopnea indices greater than five events/hour.</p>
            <p>Treatment should include recommendations on sleep hygiene and weight loss, among others. For airway clearance, the use of equipment producing continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the most recommended. However, the impact of this treatment on reducing BP values is still debatable.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.2.2. Renal Parenchymal Disease</title>
            <p>Renal parenchymal disease (RPD) is one of the most prevalent causes of SecHTN. The diagnosis of this condition is relatively simple since the assessment of renal function is part of the routine approach in patients with hypertension. Patients on dialysis and renal transplant recipients have a high prevalence of hypertension, and CV events are responsible for high morbidity and mortality in this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The progression of renal dysfunction in patients with RPD is directly related to BP values, and target BP levels should be achieved to reduce CV morbidity and mortality. In patients with RPD and renal transplant recipients, ACEIs and angiotensin-II receptor blockers have been shown to offer renal protection additional to that obtained by BP reduction, and are, therefore, the preferred medications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.2.3. Renal Artery Stenosis</title>
            <p>Renovascular disease is a term used to define renal artery involvement by different pathologies, including atherosclerotic disease, fibromuscular dysplasia, and vasculitis, which can lead to arterial obstruction. Usually, no symptoms are associated with mild arterial obstruction. However, with obstructions affecting more than 70% of the artery, severe hypertension and even ischemic nephropathy may occur.</p>
            <p>Renal artery stenosis (RAS) of atherosclerotic origin is present in 12.5% of the patients with RHTN older than 50 years of age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> The diagnosis should always be determined, but the treatment of this condition is still much discussed in the literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> Adequate BP control and interruption of progressive renal function deterioration are the primary treatment goals in these patients. To achieve that, two therapeutic possibilities are available for this population: clinical and interventional (surgical or percutaneous, with or without stent implantation).</p>
            <p>Interventions are recommended for patients with RHTN or accelerated hypertension with progressive loss of renal function, bilateral RAS or stenosis in a &#8220;single&#8221; kidney, or with severe complications (CHF and recurrent acute pulmonary edema).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Other potential surgical indications include total renal artery obstruction, large arteriovenous fistulas, aortic lesion encompassing the renal arteries, and failure in clinical or endovascular treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.3. Secondary Hypertension due to Endocrine Causes</title>
        <sec>
          <title>7.3.1. Primary Hyperaldosteronism</title>
          <p>Considered in the past to be a rare type of SecHTN (with a prevalence of about 1%), hyperaldosteronism is currently believed to occur in up to 22% of the cases in populations with RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup>The most frequent cause of hyperaldosteronism is adrenal adenoma, while unilateral or bilateral hyperplasia is less frequently detected. Carcinomas (albeit infrequent) and genetic forms of the disease may also be responsible for the occurrence of hyperaldosteronism.</p>
          <p>Aldosterone, through activation of mineralocorticoid receptors, is related to insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction and, consequently, participates in the development of metabolic syndrome and CV and renal lesions associated with RHTN. Thus, mineralocorticoid receptor blockade improves endothelial dysfunction and contributes to a better response to RHTN and TOD therapies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup></p>
          <p>During the diagnostic evaluation, all patients with RHTN (not only those with hypokalemia) should be evaluated for the occurrence of hyperaldosteronism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Screening should include the assessment of the plasma aldosterone concentration (PAC expressed in ng/dL) to plasma renin activity (PRA expressed in ng/mL/hr) called aldosterone/renin ratio (ARR). This method has excellent sensitivity but may yield false-positive results. Therefore, adoption of the minimum PAC and PRA values of 15 ng/dL and 0.5 ng/mL/h, respectively, are recommended. An ARR &#8805; 100 establishes the diagnosis of hyperaldosteronism, while values &lt; 20 to 30 indicate a low probability of the disease, and values in between detect &#8220;individuals potentially affected&#8221; by this condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup> In the latter case, tests assessing the renin-aldosterone axis (saline infusion test, walking, use of diuretics) may be performed.</p>
          <p>Tomography or magnetic resonance imaging is used for imaging identification of adrenal adenomas or hyperplasia. The absence of a visible tumor on tomography does not exclude the presence of a microadenoma, hence the importance of searching for excessive aldosterone production. Functional images, obtained by adrenal scintigraphy, may be useful in detecting adenomas and may differentiate them from nodular hyperplasia in up to 90% of the cases. Adrenal vein blood sampling can be used to confirm lateralization in aldosterone secretion and the presence of unilateral adenoma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In terms of treatment, unilateral resection usually corrects excessive aldosterone production and potassium loss in unilateral adenomas. The BP response to surgical treatment varies. Cases of hyperplasia benefit from aldosterone receptor blockade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.3.2. Pheochromocytoma</title>
          <p>Pheochromocytoma is a rare neuroendocrine tumor that originates from chromaffin cells (cells producing catecholamines). The most common clinical manifestation of this condition is elevated BP, and the disease may arise from the adrenal medulla or extra-adrenal paraganglia (paragangliomas). Clinical exacerbation peaks between the third and fourth decades of life, but 10% of the cases arise in childhood.</p>
          <p>These tumors may be sporadic or associated with genetic syndromes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup> They are usually unilateral; however, in familial syndromes, they may be bilateral, multiple, or extra-adrenal, and benign or malignant (5 to 26% of the cases). This etiology should be investigated in all patients presenting with RHTN and/or symptoms or signs suggestive of hyperadrenergic spells. Paroxysmal hypertension occurs in 30% of the cases, triggered by regular physical activity, exercises with increased intensity, surgical procedures, and use of certain substances such as tricyclic antidepressants, histamine, and opioids. Paroxysms may be accompanied by headache (60 to 90%), sweating (55 to 75%), and palpitations (50 to 70%). Symptoms of heart failure and electrocardiographic abnormalities may indicate myocarditis induced by catecholamine excess.</p>
          <p>At diagnosis, measurement of metanephrines (catecholamine metabolites) in plasma and 24-hour urine has higher sensitivity and specificity than direct catecholamine measurement. When laboratory tests are not elucidative, clonidine suppression test may be performed (administration of clonidine 0.2 mg and measurement of catecholamines 1 hour before and 2 hours after the medication).</p>
          <p>For a topographic diagnosis of the tumors and, eventually, the metastases, the recommended imaging methods are computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, both of which have sensitivity close to 100% for adrenal tumors. Whole-body 131 or 123 metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) has sensitivity of 56 to 85% (malignant tumors) and high specificity. Octreoscan, bone mapping, and PET scan (with different markers) can be decisive when previous localization tests are negative or in the investigation of malignant disease.</p>
          <p>Treatment is surgical. However, in preoperative or chronic medication therapy, alpha-blockers (prazosin, doxazosin, and dibenzyline) are initially used, combined or not with other agents such as beta-blockers (after effective alpha blockade), ACEIs, and CCBs. Control of BP levels and volume replacement are recommended before the surgical intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup> Sodium nitroprusside can be used in acute crises and during surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.3.3. Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism</title>
          <p>Hypertension may affect 40% of the patients with thyroid disorders, while correction of the glandular dysfunction usually results in BP control.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref></sup> If BP levels remain high after correction of the hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, use of antihypertensive drugs is indicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Causes of SecH in patients with RHTN are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 1</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t4001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Prevalence, clinical findings, and additional tests for the most common causes of secondary hypertension in patients with resistant hypertension</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="20%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Secondary cause</th>
                    <th>Overall prevalence</th>
                    <th>Prevalence in RHTN</th>
                    <th>Clinical findings</th>
                    <th>Diagnostic investigation</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Obstructive sleep apnea<sup>94,107,109</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">&gt; 5 to 15%</td>
                    <td align="center">&gt; 30%</td>
                    <td align="center">Snoring, daytime sleepiness, morning headache, metabolic syndrome</td>
                    <td align="center">Berlin questionnaire, STOP-Bang questionnaire, Epworth sleepiness scale, polysomnography (gold standard) or home polysomnography with five or more episodes of sleep apnea and/or hypopnea per hour of sleep</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Renal parenchymal disease<sup>113</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">1.6 to 8%</td>
                    <td align="center">2 to 10%</td>
                    <td align="center">Edema, anorexia, nocturia, fatigue, anemia, increased urea and creatinine, changes in urinary sediment</td>
                    <td align="center">Urinalysis (low density, glomerular hematuria or albuminuria), calculation of estimated GFR, renal US, screening for albuminuria and protein/creatinine ratio in random urine sample</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Renal artery stenosis<sup>115,116</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">1 to 8%</td>
                    <td align="center">2.5 to 20%</td>
                    <td align="center">Abdominal murmur, acute pulmonary edema, impaired renal function by RAAS blockers, asymmetric kidneys</td>
                    <td align="center">Screening: renal artery Doppler US (operator dependent) and/or renogram with or without captopril, magnetic resonance angiography, computed tomography, conventional renal arteriography (gold standard)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Primary hyperaldosteronism<sup>119-121</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">1.4 to 10%</td>
                    <td align="center">6 to 23%</td>
                    <td align="center">Mostly asymptomatic RH hypokalemia (not required and unusual) Incidental adrenal nodule</td>
                    <td align="center">ARR &gt; 30 in the absence of aldosterone antagonists. Confirmatory tests (suppression with fludrocortisone or saline infusion) Imaging tests: thin-slice helical computed tomography (preferred) or resonance magnetic imaging</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Thyroid diseases<sup>32</sup> Hypothyroidism</td>
                    <td align="center" rowspan="2">1 to 2%</td>
                    <td align="center" rowspan="2">1 to 3%</td>
                    <td align="center">Fatigue, weight gain, hair loss, systolic hypertension, muscle weakness.</td>
                    <td align="center" rowspan="2">TSH and free T4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hyperthyroidism</td>
                    <td align="center">Heat intolerance, weight loss, diastolic hypertension, palpitations, exophthalmos, tremors, tachycardia</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cushing&#8217;s syndrome<sup>32</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">0.5%</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                    <td align="center">Weight gain, fatigue, hirsutism, amenorrhea, &#8220;moon facies,&#8221; &#8220;buffalo hump,&#8221; purple striae, central obesity, hypokalemia</td>
                    <td align="center">Salivary cortisol 24-hour urinary cortisol Morning cortisol (8 AM) and 8 hours after administration of dexamethasone (1 mg) at 12 AM. Magnetic resonance</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pheochromocytoma<sup>127,128</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">0.2 to 0.5%</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                    <td align="center">Episodic, labile or resistant hypertension, episodic headache, profuse sweating and palpitations, pallor</td>
                    <td align="center">Free plasma and/or 24-hour urinary metanephrines (values twice or thrice above the normal), 24-hour plasma and/or urinary catecholamines and/or computed tomography and magnetic resonance</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Coarctation of aorta<sup>129</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                    <td align="center">SBP/DBP difference &gt; 20/10 mmHg between upper and lower limbs; ejection murmur in the interscapular region</td>
                    <td align="center">Lower rib notching on chest X-ray, screening with Doppler echocardiography, magnetic resonance imaging or thoracic aorta angiography</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>Adapted from Rimoldi SF et al.<sup>105</sup> PA/PRA: plasma aldosterone/plasma renin activity; RHTN: resistant hypertension; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; SBP: systolic blood pressure; GFR: glomerular filtration rate; RAAS: renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system; US: ultrasonography.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8. Non-Pharmacological Treatment</title>
        <p><bold>Coordinator:</bold> S&#233;rgio Emanuel Kaiser.</p>
        <p><bold>Authors:</bold> Gil Fernando Salles, Maria de F&#225;tima de Azevedo, and Luc&#233;lia Batista Neves Cunha Magalh&#227;es.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>8.1. Weight Loss</title>
          <p>Several mechanisms contribute to maintain high BP in obese patients with hypertension, including OSA, sympathetic hyperactivity, endothelial dysfunction, and modification of the intestinal microbiota &#8211; all these factors can promote an inflammatory phenotype and perpetuate a vicious cycle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup> Patients with BMI &#8805; 30 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> are 50% more likely to have uncontrolled BP than those with normal BMI (&lt; 25 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup> A BMI &gt; 40 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> triples the chances of the requirement of multiple drugs for BP control.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A weight loss of 10 kg is associated with mean reductions of 6.0 mmHg in systolic BP and 4.0 mmHg in diastolic BP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup> Surprisingly, there is no consistent evidence on the effect of diet-induced weight loss in patients with RHTN, but this recommendation meets the common sense and the evidence available in other subgroups. There are also no data on the effect of bariatric surgery on BP in this subgroup. A recent randomized trial showed a reduction of at least 30% in the number of antihypertensive drugs in 84% of operated patients, compared with 12.4% in the clinically treated group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.2. Salt Restriction</title>
          <p>Control of salt intake is especially effective in the elderly, in individuals of African descent, and in those with decreased glomerular filtration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref></sup> These situations restrict the ability of water and sodium excretion by the kidneys, and BP becomes more dependent on volume variations. Not surprisingly, sodium sensitivity and volume overload account for the primary pathophysiological mechanism in most cases of RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref></sup> A systematic review and meta-analysis involving 34 studies with 3,230 participants on the effect of long-term reduction in sodium intake revealed a decrease in systolic BP of 5.8 mmHg (2.5 to 9.2; p = 0.001) associated with a decrease in urinary sodium excretion of up to 100 mmol in 24 h, which corresponds to a reduction in salt intake of approximately 6 g/day.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> In patients with RHTN, a low-sodium diet with 2.5 g of salt daily reduced BP by up to 23.0/9.0 mmHg, clearly demonstrating the efficacy of this measure, despite the possibility of compromising the long-term adherence to such markedly restricted salt consumption.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.3. Alcohol Intake</title>
          <p>Due to the direct relationship between the amount of alcohol consumed and BP levels, excessive alcohol consumption contributes significantly to hinder BP control.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup>After all, daily consumption of more than two drinks (about 24 g/day) is associated with increased BP levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> A recent meta-analysis of 36 studies with 2865 participants revealed that a 50% reduction in daily alcohol intake among consumers of six or more drinks (72 g) led to a decrease of 5.50 mmHg in systolic BP (95% CI; 6.70 to 4.30) and 3.97 mmHg in diastolic BP (95% CI; 4.70 to 3.25).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref></sup> No studies have been published on patients with RHTN; however, based on available information, daily alcohol consumption is recommended to be restricted to less than two standard drinks (about 24 g) or even interrupted.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.4. Physical Activity</title>
          <p>Despite having been evaluated only in small groups of patients with RHTN, physical activity is probably as much &#8211; or even more &#8211; beneficial in these individuals compared with those with non-resistant hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup> Regular aerobic exercise decreases office and ambulatory BP in patients with RHTN<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup> and attenuates the characteristic neurohumoral activation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup> Despite the lack of studies on resistance exercise in this subgroup, it is assumed that there is at least an advantage similar to that observed in patients with non-resistant hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Furthermore, the improved cardiorespiratory capacity obtained with physical activity appears to reduce mortality in patients with RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148">148</xref></sup> Therefore, this category of patients should be encouraged to perform regular physical activity of moderate intensity under proper supervision. In patients with very high BP (systolic BP &#8805; 180 mmHg or diastolic BP &#8805; 110 mmHg), physical activity should be delayed until the optimization of pharmacological treatment promotes BP reduction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9. Pharmacological Treatment of Resistant Hypertension</title>
        <p><bold>Coordinator:</bold> Rui Manoel dos Santos P&#243;voa.</p>
        <p><bold>Authors:</bold> Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var Malachias, Armando da Rocha Nogueira, and Paulo C&#233;sar Brand&#227;o Veiga Jardim.</p>
        <p>The objective of pharmacological treatment in RHTN is to identify the causes of lack of control and find the best combination of drugs, aiming at achieving the target BP with few adverse effects and greater adherence.</p>
        <p>In general, triple treatment optimization is attempted with preferred drugs, namely, ACEIs or ARBs, dihydropyridine CCBs, and TZDs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Because they are better tolerated, ACEIs or ARBs must be increased to maximum doses in RHTN. Long-acting, higher potency TZDs, such as chlorthalidone instead of hydrochlorothiazide, should be used at appropriate doses for volume control, from 12.5 to 50 mg in a single dose in the morning.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> Indapamide is a second TZD option in RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup>Furosemide should be used in cases of CKD with a eGFR of 30 mL/min or less.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> In RHTN, CCB should preferably be taken at night to alternate the peaks of action of the antihypertensive drugs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Intolerance to CCBs due to side effects is often one of the causes of treatment resistance. In such cases, lipophilic CCBs (manidipine, lercanidipine, manidipine) or levamlodipine, at low doses, may be attempted or, in selected cases, a non-dihydropyridine CCB such as diltiazem and verapamil.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> If a CCB cannot be used, introduction of a beta-blocker may be considered, preferably one with vasodilatory action, such as nebivolol or carvedilol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup> Beta-blockers may also be considered in association with one or more preferred antihypertensive drugs &#8211; ACEI or ARB, TZD, CCB &#8211; in special conditions such as heart failure, CAD, and increased basal heart rate, among others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Failure to reach the target BP with triple therapy requires the use of a fourth drug, which current preferred option is spironolactone, 25 to 50 mg daily.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B154">154</xref></sup> In cases of intolerance to spironolactone, which main adverse effect is gynecomastia in men, 12.5 mg daily may be attempted. As eplerenone is not available in our country, if intolerance to spironolactone persists even at low doses, replacement with a central sympatholytic agent should be considered, preferably clonidine, between 0.100 and 0.200 mg twice daily,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref></sup> or a potassium-sparing diuretic, preferably amiloride (only available sparingly in our country in compounded formulations), from 10 to 20 mg;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup> or a beta-blocker, preferably with vasodilatory action, if not yet used;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> or an alpha-blocker, preferably doxazosin 1 to 16 mg in one (nighttime) or two daily doses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup></p>
        <p>All these antihypertensive agents may be used in combination when necessary for BP control.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> When no control is obtained with the addition of the fourth drug or combinations of the following options, a direct vasodilator must be used, preferably hydralazine, at doses between 50 and 150 mg administered twice or thrice daily.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup>Due to frequent adverse effects, the vasodilator minoxidil should be reserved for situations of extreme resistance when all previous alternatives fail<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04001">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Flowchart of RH treatment. CCB: calcium channel blocker; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; HR: heart rate; ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; CKD: chronic kidney disease; BP: blood pressure.</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-03-0576-00198-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>In RHTN treatment, attention must be given to possible adverse effects of each drug used, along with their possible interactions.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10. New Treatments of Resistant Hypertension</title>
        <p><bold>Coordinator:</bold> Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto.</p>
        <p><bold>Authors:</bold> Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto, Luciano Ferreira Drager, and Thiago de Souza Veiga Jardim</p>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>In recent years, new types of interventional treatment have been evaluated in patients with RHTN, including:</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.2. Direct Carotid Sinus Stimulation</title>
          <p>Stimulation of carotid baroreceptors increases their activity and, consequently, reduces sympathetic flow, resulting in decreased BP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref></sup> Interventions promoting this stimulation have been used to treat patients with RHTN lacking response to clinical treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> Baroreflex activation therapy (BAT) is a surgical procedure in which electrodes are surgically implanted on the external portion of the carotid sinus unilaterally or bilaterally.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> BAT has shown significant reductions in BP persisting for up to 3 years in randomized controlled trials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> However, this procedure is invasive and expensive and is associated with side effects, limiting its indication in clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> Another form of stimulation is the amplification of the endovascular baroreflex (implantation of an expandable device within the carotid artery), which has shown promising results with greater safety in controlling BP in RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref></sup> These procedures are not available in Brazil.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3. Renal Sympathetic Denervation</title>
          <p>Renal sympathetic denervation (RSD) by ablation catheter reduces renal efferent activity and, consequently, increases renal blood flow and decreases activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, water retention, and renal afferent activity, which through brain signaling, decreases sympathetic action on heart and vessels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Data from uncontrolled studies have shown reductions of up to 30 mmHg in office systolic BP in patients with RHTN, without complications related to the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref></sup> However, the SYMPLICITY HTN-3 trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup> a randomized sham-controlled study, showed no significantly superior effect of BP reduction after 6 months from RSD. A meta-analysis of 11 controlled studies comparing RSD with optimized pharmacological treatment or sham procedure in patients with RHTN showed that RSD was not superior in reducing BP, with heterogeneity of responses in the studies, mainly due to lack of a sham control in most publications and heterogeneity in assessment of treatment adherence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163">163</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The development of new circumferential catheters with distal renal artery applications may promote a more complete RSD, and their effects on BP reduction have been demonstrated in patients with untreated hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The 2018 European Society of Hypertension position paper does not recommend RSD for treatment of hypertension in general but includes a recommendation of this procedure in the context of controlled clinical studies with sham procedures and optimized therapy for safety and efficacy assessment in populations with a large number of individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Based on this evidence, RSD is currently an alternative only for patients with UC-RHTN with optimized pharmacological treatment and proven therapeutic adherence or with important drug-related adverse effects, to be always performed at referral centers trained for the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.4. Use of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure</title>
          <p>OSA is a clinical condition affecting more than half of the patients with RHTN<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup> and is mainly treated with CPAP, an air compressor that applies continuous positive pressure to the patient&#8217;s airway. To date, seven randomized trials have analyzed the effect of treatment of OSA with CPAP in patients with RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165">165</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref></sup> Except for one of these studies,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup> the others found significant reductions in BP (5 mmHg on average; one study showed reductions &#8805; 10 mmHg after CPAP use).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup></p>
          <p>However, the proportion of patients who achieved the target BP (&lt; 140/90 mmHg) with CPAP was low, possibly due to poor CPAP adherence. In clinical practice, the BP response to CPAP varies, even in patients with good adherence. A recent study showed predictive biomarkers of better BP response to CPAP in patients with RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172">172</xref></sup> Validation and large-scale application of these biomarkers could help select better those patients who benefit most from BP reduction.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.5. Arteriovenous Fistula</title>
          <p>The creation of an arteriovenous fistula (AVF) can decrease BP by reducing total peripheral resistance and blood volume and inducing baroreflex inhibition and release of natriuretic peptides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup> In a prospective randomized controlled trial, the creation of a central iliac AVF by an implantable device in 44 patients with RHTN led to significant reductions in 24-hour office and ambulatory systolic BP compared with pharmacological treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup> However, there was a high rate of complications due to ipsilateral venous stenosis, requiring intervention in the AVF group.</p>
          <p>Further studies with a greater number of patients and with a comparison of AVF versus sham procedure are being conducted to verify the benefits of AVF in RHTN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>This statement should be cited as:</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>
            <italic>Yugar-Toledo JC, Moreno J&#250;nior H, Gus M, Rosito GBA, Scala LCN, Muxfeldt ES, et al. Brazilian Position Statement on Resistant Hypertension &#8211; 2020. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2020; 114(3):576-596</italic>
          </p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <italic><bold>Note:</bold> These statements are for information purposes and are not to replace the clinical judgment of a physician, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for each patient.</italic>
          </p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Erratum</bold>
          </p>
          <p>In the figure 1 of the Portuguese version, where "hipertens&#227;o segund&#225;ria" is mentioned, the correct is "Hipertens&#227;o arterial pseudorresistente". In the English version, where "abnormal" is mentioned, right side of the figure 1, the correct is "normal".</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
