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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">38FFsm9YqKpWkMV5bGG7NKj</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2020000200295</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20180433</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Passive Cigarette Smoking Impact on Blood Pressure Response to Epinephrine and Felypressin in 1K1C Hypertensive Rats Treated or not with Atenolol</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fleury</surname>
            <given-names>Camila A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Elizandra P. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dionisio</surname>
            <given-names>Thiago J.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Calvo</surname>
            <given-names>Adriana M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0990-7106</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriela M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amaral</surname>
            <given-names>Sandra L.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2876-0955</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faria</surname>
            <given-names>Fl&#225;vio A. C.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Bauru</city>
          <state>SP</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo - Ci&#234;ncias Biol&#243;gicas - Farmacologia, Bauru, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Educa&#231;&#227;o F&#237;sica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Bauru</city>
          <state>SP</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa Conjunto de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Fisiol&#243;gicas - Departamento de Educa&#231;&#227;o F&#237;sica - Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias - Universidade Estadual de S&#227;o Paulo, Bauru, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Carlos F. Santos,</bold> Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo - Ci&#234;ncias Biol&#243;gicas - Farmacologia - Alameda Oct&#225;vio Pinheiro Brisolla, 9-75. Postal Code 17012-901, Bauru, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>cfsantos@fob.usp.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Fleury CA, Almeida EPM, Amaral SL, Santos CF, Faria FAC; Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Fleury CA, Moretto E, Dionisio TJ, Calvo AM, Oliveira GM, Amaral SL, Santos CF, Faria FAC; Statistical analysis: Fleury CA, Dionisio TJ, Calvo AM, Oliveira GM, Santos CF, Faria FAC; Writing of the manuscript: Fleury CA, Dionisio TJ, Calvo AM, Oliveira GM, Amaral SL, Santos CF, Faria FAC.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>20</day>
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>114</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>295</fpage>
      <lpage>303</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Cigarette smoking is usually associated with hypertension and may modify vasoconstrictor response.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>The present study aimed to analyze and compare the interaction of passive cigarette smoking and hypertension on epinephrine and felypressin blood pressure effects after intravascular injection.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Method:</title>
          <p>45-day male Wistar rats had the main left renal artery partially constricted and the right kidney removed (1K1C model). Rats were placed in the chamber for exposition to passive cigarette smoking (10 cigarettes) during 10 min (6 days a week). Hypertensive rats received atenolol (90 mg/kg/day) by gavage for two weeks. Hypotensive and hypertensive response, response duration and heart rate were recorded from direct blood pressure values. The significance level was 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>Passive cigarette smoking increased maximal hypertensive response to epinephrine in normotensive and 1K1C-atenolol treated rats and to felypressin only in 1K1C-atenolol treated rats; it also reduced epinephrine hypotensive response. Epinephrine increased heart rate in normotensive and hypertensive passive smokers or non-smoker rats. Comparing the two vasoconstrictors, epinephrine showed greater hypertensive response in normotensive smokers, 1K1C-atenolol treated smokers and non-smokers. However, in normotensive-nonsmoker rats, felypressin showed a greater and longer hypertensive effect.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions:</title>
          <p>Our results suggest that passive cigarette smoking may reduce epinephrine vasodilation and increase hypertensive response when compared to felypressin. Therefore, felypressin may be safe for hypertensive patients to avoid tachycardia and atenolol interaction, but for normotensive and non-smoker patients, epinephrine may be safer than felypressin.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Tobacco Use Disorder</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Rats</kwd>
        <kwd>Felypressin</kwd>
        <kwd>Atenolol</kwd>
        <kwd>Epinephrine</kwd>
        <kwd>Tobacco Smoke Pollution</kwd>
        <kwd>Nicotine/adverse effects</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Introduction</p>
    <p>Vasoconstrictor drugs are essential for dental and medical procedures performed under local anesthesia, since the local anesthetic must stay in contact with sensitive nerves. One single local anesthetic cartridge administered via intravascular route can be fatal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Therefore, vasoconstrictors are also used to avoid its absorption and adverse effects: seizures, arrhythmia and cardiac arrest. There are studies indicating vasoconstrictor absorption and systemic effects. Epinephrine can be detected in plasma after infiltration and can increase heart rate in normal subjects.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> There are no clinical data comparing epinephrine and felypressin efficacy or safety, but there is evidence that isolated local anesthetics results in shorter and low quality pain control.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></p>
    <p>Vasoconstrictor drugs have systemic effects that can be critical in patients with cardiovascular diseases: coronary vasoconstriction, tachycardia, increases in cardiac contraction force, etc. Such effects are related to the most common causes of death in the modern world: heart attack, stroke and thrombosis; and patients usually have multifactorial diseases. Cigarette smoking and hypertension are included in the National Cholesterol Education Program algorithm to predict cardiovascular disease risk, addressing both as modifiable causes of atherosclerosis in prevention efforts.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> The WHO estimates that the global prevalence of adults smoking any tobacco product is 36% in adult men and 8% in adult women.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></p>
    <p>The number of cigarettes show a positive correlation with higher blood pressure values but not with heart rate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Nicotine also affects the autonomous nervous system, having a different effect than cigarette smoking products.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Catecholamine release and atherosclerotic lipoproteins are increased in the blood levels of smoker patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> The vasoactive drugs present, therefore, alter the vascular response of smokers, since the nitric oxide (NO) pathway, adrenergic and cholinergic systems are affected. Although epinephrine is considered the safest vasoconstrictor drug in patients with cardiovascular disease by The American Dental Association,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> patients receiving betablocker treatment who smoke cigarettes must be treated differently.</p>
    <p>Felypressin may be a safe alternative vasoconstrictor in such populationce since it is a non-adrenergic vasoconstrictor. There is no reported interaction between cigaretes smoking and vasopressin. A previous study showed reduced hypertensive effect of felypressin in rats treated with atenolol.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> In order to increase the knowledge about the safety of epinephrine and felypressin, this study attempted to test them isolated in intravascular administration to simulate the maximal error in local anesthesia, providing information for the formulation of safer local anesthetic solutions. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the effects of direct intravenous injection of epinephrine and felypressin on blood pressure of smoker or non-smoker normotensive, hypertensive and atenolol-treated hypertensive rats.</p>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <p>For the present study, all norms for animal research were reviewed and approved by the institutional review board before the experiments (protocol #010/2010). Male Wistar rats weighing 140 to 320 g provided by <italic>Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru</italic> facilities were used in all groups of this study. The experimental hypertension method, indirect and direct BP measurements, were performed as previously described<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. All rats received a normal diet, free water and food access and were submitted to 12 hour light/dark cycle. Rats weighing 110 to 150 g were anesthetized with an injection of ketamine (50 mg/kg weight, im, Dopalen<sup>&#174;</sup>- Sespo Industry and Trade Ltda., Animal Health Vetbrands Division - Jacare&#237;, S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil) plus xylazine (10 mg/kg weight, im, Anasedan<sup>&#174;</sup>- Sespo). The left renal artery was isolated, and a 0.25 mm gap silver clip was installed around it, and the right kidney was completely removed. 40,000 IU of small-animal antibiotic (Fontoura Wyeth S.A. - S&#227;o Bernardo do Campo, S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil) was injected. It is worth mentioning that surgery for clips implantation in the renal arteries was performed in 10 animals per group, that is, 120 rats. However, each groups consisted of 6 animals, since part of the rats did not have systolic blood pressure above 150 mmHg. Therefore, 72 was the total number of animals used in the study and there were no criteria for the definition of this sample, being defined by convenience.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Passive Smoking Method</title>
        <p>Passive smoking was performed based on previous emphysema induction studies<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. One day after hypertension induction, the rats were intoxicated one time a day (10 cigarettes per exposure period), 6 days a week. The exposure protocol consisted of confining 10 rats in the inhalation chamber during 10 min of compressed air ventilation (10 L/min).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Indirect and Direct Blood Pressure Measurements</title>
        <p>1K1C rats were heated in individual cages containing an electrical resistance and tail pneumatic cuffs were installed and connected to a digital system for indirect blood pressure record (Physiological Pressure Transducer, ADInstruments Pty. Ltd. - Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand). Rats that presented systolic blood pressure equal to or higher than 150 mmHg in the indirect measurement 15 days after clip surgery were accepted in the hypertensive group or treated with atenolol (90 mg/kg/day; Crist&#225;lia Pharmaceutical and Chemical Products - Itapira, S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil) administered by gavage in 1mL for 2 weeks.</p>
        <p>All groups had blood pressure measured directly for 28-35 days after clip surgery, or the equivalent time in the control group: after ketamine/xylazine anesthesia, a saline-filled polyethylene catheter PE-50 (Clay Adams - Franklin Lakes, New Jersey, USA) with an occluded external extremity was implanted in the left carotid artery and in the right jugular vein. The arterial catheter was connected to a pressure transducer coupled to an invasive blood pressure recording system, using appropriate software (Physiological Pressure Transducer; PowerLab 4/30; Chart Pro - ADInstruments Pty. Ltd). The experiments of intravenous injection of vasoconstrictor drugs were performed with anesthetized rats right after catheter implantation. A scheme of the experiments design are detailed in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Schematic study protocol: at 45 days of life, the rats were submitted to clip implantation (1K1C hypertension induction); on the next day, the smoker groups were exposed to cigarette smoke; at 60 days of life, blood pressure was measured by indirect means and atenolol treatment was started; approximately at 75 days of life, direct blood pressure experiments were performed. An example of pulsatile recording after epinephrine administration details how parameters were calculated.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-02-0295-80433-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Dose-Response Curves to Epinephrine and Felypressin</title>
        <p>Exogenous epinephrine (Adren<sup>&#174;</sup>- HipolaborFarmac&#234;uticaLtda - Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil) diluted in saline solution was injected at the doses of 80, 160, 320, 640 and 1,280 ng in bolus through tin venous catheter to obtain dose-response curves. Felypressin alone (Dentsply Pharmaceutical, Catanduva, S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil) was used at doses of 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2 and 3mIU. Intravenous injections in random order were performed after a 3-min interval for each response to stabilize blood pressure. Animals were euthanized with intravenous injection of excessive doses of the anesthetic drug thiopental (Thiopentax<sup>&#174;</sup>, Crist&#225;lia - Chemical and Pharmaceutical Products). The following parameters were analyzed using PAM values (PAM = 1/3 Systolic Pressure + 2/3 Diastolic Pressure): minimal hypotensive response, maximal hypertensive response and response duration. Duration was determined using global pressure alterations, since epinephrine has a complex blood pressure response where there is a hypertensive peak followed by hypotensive response and normalization; previous studies have clarified this pattern<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. Heart rate was recorded 30 s after the injection during one min to avoid bias caused by longer duration or great blood pressure changes since the program used pulsatile pressure to determine these parameter. In order to compare epinephrine and felypressin, doses that corresponded to 1, 2, 4 and 8 local anesthetic cartridges which would have been administered to the rats, were used. The following formula was used: D = 18,000 (for epinephrine*) or 54 mIU (for felypressin*) x 4,286 x 10<sup>-3</sup> (a weight correction from humans (70 kg) to rats (300 g).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistics</title>
        <p>For all groups, n = 6. The results were expressed as Mean &#177; Standard Deviation (SD) for data with normal distribution according to Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. In cases where normal distribution did not occur in one group or more, data were presented as Median &#177; interquartile interval.</p>
        <p>When more than one response was obtained from the same animal, repeatd -measures one-way analysis of variance was used (Repeaed- measures One-Way ANOVA). To compare complete curves from two or more groups, repeaed- measures Two-Way analysis of variance was used (Repeaed- measures Two-Way ANOVA). When there was a significant difference between the doses in each curve or in independent groups and normal distribution, comparison was performed by Holm-Sidak&#8217;s or Tukeyhodtest. For non-parametric results, Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used. The level of significance in this study was set at 5% (p &lt; 0.05). All tests were performed using STATISTICA Software (StatSoft South America).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>Basal blood pressure values during the first five minutes are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> and used as the initial reference. Atenolol significantly reduced blood pressure in hypertensive animals, whose values were still significantly higher than in control animals.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Basal values</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="14%"/>
            <col width="16%"/>
            <col width="14%"/>
            <col width="14%"/>
            <col width="14%"/>
            <col width="14%"/>
            <col width="14%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">&#160;</th>
              <th align="center">&#160;</th>
              <th align="center">Weight (g)</th>
              <th align="center">Mean BP (mmHg)</th>
              <th align="center">Systolic BP (mmHg)</th>
              <th align="center">Diastolic BP (mmHg)</th>
              <th align="center">Heart rate (BPM)</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" rowspan="3">Non-smoker</td>
              <td align="center">Normotensive</td>
              <td align="center">285.00 &#177; 25.09</td>
              <td align="center">112.7 (101.7-118.8)</td>
              <td align="center">140.5 (123.2-144.0)</td>
              <td align="center">99.6 (93.1-103.4)</td>
              <td align="center">210.5 (194.1-225.1)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">1K1C Hypertensive</td>
              <td align="center">297.83 &#177; 30.20</td>
              <td align="center">163.1 (155.3-177.7)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">201.1 (188.3-231.9)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">135.2 (127.9-148.6)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">205.9 (196.2-248.9)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">1K1C Atenolol-Treated</td>
              <td align="center">215.00 &#177; 34.29<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">148.9 (136.1-163.4)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref>.<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">b</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">184.9 (175.3-201.2)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref>.<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">b</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">132.5 (119.3-142.8)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref>.<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">b</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">185.7 (176.5-207.7)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" rowspan="3">Smoker</td>
              <td align="center">Normotensive</td>
              <td align="center">302.50 &#177; 19.04</td>
              <td align="center">104.1 (93.6-112.4)</td>
              <td align="center">134.8 (119.2-145.2)</td>
              <td align="center">86.2 (81.6-95.8)</td>
              <td align="center">225.1 (206.2-249.4)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">1K1C Hypertensive</td>
              <td align="center">250.58 &#177; 16.21<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">c</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">156.6 (152.7-160.3)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">194.35 (188.8-203.3)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">129.7 (126.5-145.3)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">219.7 (207.6-231.1)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">1K1C Atenolol-Treated</td>
              <td align="center">254.42 &#177; 21.86<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">c</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">126.2 (117.7-138.1)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref>.<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">b</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">153.5 (148.6-167.5)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref>.<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">b</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">106.1 (102.8-111.1)<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref>.<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">b</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">212.6 (200.0-218.7)</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <p>Values of weight; basal values for mean, systolic, diastolic arterial pressure and heart rate obtained during the first five minutes for smoker and non-smoker normotensive, 1K1C hypertensive and 1K1C atenolol-treated groups (n = 12). Weight - Mean &#177; Standard Deviation. Arterial Pressure and Heart Rate - Median (25<sup>th</sup> Percentile-75<sup>th</sup> Percentile).</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN2">
            <label>a</label>
            <p>p &lt; 0.05 compared with normotensive group.</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN3">
            <label>b</label>
            <p>p &lt; 0.05 compared with hypertensive group</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN4">
            <label>c</label>
            <p>p &lt; 0.05 compared with non-smoker respective group.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <sec>
        <title>Maximal Hypertensive Response</title>
        <p>Maximal hypertensive response curves for epinephrine and felypressin, smokers vs. non-smokers, are shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>. Smoking significantly increased epinephrine maximal hypertensive responses in normotensive and atenolol-treated rats. Smoke significantly increased felypressin maximal hypertensive response only in the atenolol-treated group.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Maximal hypertensive response curves after intravenous injection in bolus of epinephrine (A) or felypressin (B) in control non-smoker normotensive and smoker normotensive rats, non-smoker 1K1C hypertensive and smoker 1K1C hypertensive, non-smoker 1K1C atenolol-treated and smoker 1K1C atenolol-treated rats. n = 6 for all groups. Median (25<sup>th</sup> Percentile-75<sup>th</sup> Percentile). *p &lt; 0.05 vs non-smokers groups.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-02-0295-80433-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Minimal Hypotensive Response</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref> shows epinephrine minimal hypotensive response curves. Smoke significantly reduced the hypotensive response in normotensive rats (p &lt; 0.05). There was a significant reduction in vasodilator response in 1K1C atenolol-treated group after epinephrine administration. Felypressin, as expected, did now result in significant hypotensive response in the three studied groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3B</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Minimal hypotensive response curves after intravenous injection in bolus of epinephrine in control non-smoker normotensive and smoker normotensive rats, non-smoker 1K1C hypertensive and smoker 1K1C hypertensive, non-smoker 1K1C atenolol-treated and smoker 1K1C atenolol treated rats. n = 6. Mean &#177; Standard Deviation. *p &lt; 0.05 vs non-smokers groups.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-02-0295-80433-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Heart Rate</title>
        <p>Epinephried caused a significant increase in heart rate in normotensive and 1K1C hypertensive rats when compared with basal values for each group, but smoking did not alter such effect (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4A</xref>). 1K1C atenolol-treated rats showed no changes in this parameter, probably due to the antagonistic effect of atenolol on b<sub>1</sub>-receptors. Felypressin showed a significant reduction in heart rate for non-smoker, normotensive rats when compared with basal values (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4B</xref>). Smoke significantly increased heart rate only at 1 and 2 mIU doses of felypressin, when compared with non-smoker normotensive control rats.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Heart rate before and after intravenous injection in bolus of epinephrine (A) and felypressin (B) in control non-smoker normotensive and smoker normotensive rats, non-smoker 1K1C hypertensive and smoker 1K1C hypertensive, non-smoker 1K1C atenolol-treated and smoker 1K1C atenolol-treated rats. n = 6 for all groups. Median (25<sup>th</sup> Percentile-75<sup>th</sup> Percentile). *p &lt; 0.05 vs non-smokers groups. &#8225; p &lt; 0.05 compared to basal values.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-02-0295-80433-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Response Duration</title>
        <p>Response duration is described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>. Felypressin showed a significantly longer duration of blood pressure responses than epinephrine in all studied groups.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Response Duration</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
              <col width="7%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="3">Number of cartridges</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="4">Normotensive</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="4">Hypertensive</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="4">Atenolol-treated rats</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                <th align="center" colspan="2">Nonsmoker</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2">Smoker</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2">Nonsmoker</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2">Smoker</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2">Nonsmoker</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2">Smoker</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="center">Epinephrine </th>
                <th align="center">Felypressin </th>
                <th align="center">Epinephrine </th>
                <th align="center">Felypressin </th>
                <th align="center">Epinephrine </th>
                <th align="center">Felypressin </th>
                <th align="center">Epinephrine </th>
                <th align="center">Felypressin </th>
                <th align="center">Epinephrine </th>
                <th align="center">Felypressin </th>
                <th align="center">Epinephrine </th>
                <th align="center">Felypressin </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">1</td>
                <td align="center">453.5<break/>(412-517)</td>
                <td align="center">905.2<break/>(748,6-945)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">276.5<break/>(214-298)</td>
                <td align="center">908<break/>(880-948)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">297<break/>(278-333)</td>
                <td align="center">911.5<break/>(880-949)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">325.5<break/>(277-492)</td>
                <td align="center">818.5<break/>(610-876)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">291.5<break/>(260-352)</td>
                <td align="center">811<break/>(754-914)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">426<break/>(382-470)</td>
                <td align="center">692.5<break/>(552-738)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">2</td>
                <td align="center">427<break/>(399-471)</td>
                <td align="center">1,042<break/>(928.2-1118.9)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">268.5<break/>(256-302)</td>
                <td align="center">888.5<break/>(796-947)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">421<break/>(376-436)</td>
                <td align="center">979.5<break/>(934-1012)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">344<break/>(329-497)</td>
                <td align="center">875.5<break/>(771-972)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">398<break/>(345-444)</td>
                <td align="center">545<break/>(496-708)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">498<break/>(413-616)</td>
                <td align="center">960<break/>(920-976)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">4</td>
                <td align="center">445<break/>(378-466)</td>
                <td align="center">1,117<break/>(1,050-1,184.4)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">287<break/>(294-323)</td>
                <td align="center">1,004.5<break/>(876-1,086)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">422.5<break/>(351-464)</td>
                <td align="center">1,021<break/>(920-1,080)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">475<break/>(357-513)</td>
                <td align="center">954.5<break/>(882-1,042)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">415.5<break/>(380-453)</td>
                <td align="center">712<break/>(552-858)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">421<break/>(405-464)</td>
                <td align="center">938<break/>(783-1,111)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">8</td>
                <td align="center">455<break/>(423-506)</td>
                <td align="center">1,077.1<break/>(983-1,193)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">353<break/>(332-365)</td>
                <td align="center">1,066.5 (1,000-1,170)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">455<break/>(425-538)</td>
                <td align="center">1,032.5<break/>(1,011-1,229)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">472.5<break/>(400-507)</td>
                <td align="center">1,087<break/>(998-1,154)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">454<break/>(393-489)</td>
                <td align="center">946<break/>(800-1,103)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">511.5<break/>(479-586)</td>
                <td align="center">1,063.5<break/>(987-1,240)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <p>Response duration (in seconds) after intravascular administration of epinephrine or felypressin (dose contained in the corresponding number of local anesthetic cartridges) in smoker and non-smoker normotensive, 1K1C hypertensive and 1K1C atenolol-treated groups (n = 6 for all groups). Median (25<sup>th</sup> Percentile-75<sup>th</sup> Percentile).</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN6">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>p &lt; 0.05 compared with epinephrine.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Comparison between Epinephrine and Felypressin</title>
        <p>When comparing felypressin to epinephrine responses in each group, felypressin showed a reduced hypertensive effect on smoker normotensive, smoker 1K1C-atenolol treated and non-smoker 1KC -atenolol-treated rats (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>). In smoker and non-smoker hypertensive rats, there was no significant difference between both vasoconstrictors. In non-smoker normotensive rats, felypressin resulted in a greater hypertensive effect when compared with epinephrine.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Comparison of maximal hypertensive response curves after intravenous injection in bolus of epinephrine and felypressin in control non-smoker normotensive, smoker normotensive rats, non-smoker 1K1C hypertensive, smoker 1K1C hypertensive, non-smoker 1K1C atenolol-treated and smoker 1K1C atenolol-treated rats. n = 6 for all groups. Median (25<sup>th</sup> Percentile-75<sup>th</sup> Percentile). *p &lt; 0.05 in the comparison between drugs.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-02-0295-80433-gf05.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>We associated smoke with hypertension and atenolol treatment in an attempt to reproduce a multifactorial disease. In order to provide safety information about isolated use of vasoconstrictors via intravascular route, which cannot be tested in humans, our study aimed to test if epinephrine is contraindicated in the smoker and hypertensive population and to provide a safe alternative through the analyses of systemic effects. Epinephrine was used as the vasoconstrictor of choice for hypertensive patients according to the American Heart Association (AHA,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>, compared to felypressin, less often studied and not associated with the sympathetic autonomous nervous system<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
      <p>Our data show that epinephrine maintained the same blood pressure responses, either in hypertensive smoker or hypertensive nonsmoker rats without atenolol treatment (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figures 2A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">3</xref>), but significantly increased heart rate (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4A</xref>). However, in atenolol-treated non-smoker rats, the blood pressure response was higher compared with smokers. Considering all data about epinephrine safety in combination with local anesthetic use in the hypertensive population<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>, our results suggest that the hypertensive response to epinephrine in hypertensive smoker and non-smoker rats without atenolol treatment, remains unchanged. On the other hand, the hypertensive, smoker and atenolol-treated rats showed significantly higher blood pressure measurements when compared with non-treated animals.</p>
      <p>It is still not clear if cigaretes smoking increases blood pressure values, as some studies indicted that it can potentiate family history and increase systolic, diastolic and mean arterial pressure value.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>. In our study, the smokers groups did not show increased basal blood pressure values when compared with non-smokers (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). Smoke exposure was carried out for 4 weeks, as expected, and this time was sufficient to alter vasoconstrictor response. Rats were submitted to an epinephrine or felypressin intravascular injection under ketamine/xylazine anesthesia; it was shown in a previous study by our group that such mixture reduced basal heart rate but did not alter blood pressure responses<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>.</p>
      <p>Smoke and nicotine can act diversely; nicotine seems to reduce blood pressure when administered acutely, while cigaretes smoking products are associated with increased blood pressure value.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>. Tobacco smoke sidestream reduces acetylcholine endothelium-dependent relaxation when compared to non-smokers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Our data show that epinephrine-induced hypertensive responses were increased in normotensive and atenolol-treated hypertensive smoker rats when compared to the non-smokers groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>) and when compared to felypressin (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>). Blood pressure is defined by cardiac output multiplied by vascular peripheral resistance. Felypressin injected by the intravenous route shows only a vasoconstrictor effect, increasing vascular resistance and leading to an increase in blood pressure values. Epinephrine, on the other hand shows vasoconstrictor and vasodilator, cardiac inotropic and chronotropic effects, leading to complex blood pressure responses after an intravenous injection. Vasodilation reduces hypertensive responses when global blood pressure is measured in and normotensive non-smoker rats showed the highest values of hypotensive response for the lowest doses of epinephrine (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>), reducing hypertensive response when compared with felypressin (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>). Felypressin presents less cardiac effects, but significantly reduced heart rate on normotensive non-smoker rats; such results are consistent with previous studies, where this vasoconstrictor response was associated with prilocaine,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> which was associated with coronary artery constriction and baroreflex.</p>
      <p>There is a complex cardiovascular response to nicotine because of ganglionar nicotine receptors which influence autonomous sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. This response includes increase in catecholamine release and altered lipids metabolism which explains increase in cardiovascular disease development on in smokes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>. According to the Third Report of National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP), smoking cigarettes has a direct impact on atherosclerosis formation and increases cardiovascular disases risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> The association of hypertension and cigarettes smoking represents a delicate case for vasoconstrictor use. Felypressin response duration was significantly higher than epinephrine&#8217;s in all groups, which was expected since vasopressin half-life is approximately 17-35min,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> while epinephrine has a short half-life due to metabolism and synaptic reuptake.</p>
      <p>Cigarette smoking increases blood vessel stiffness by different pathways, including oxidative stress increase of endothelin-1 production and formation of smooth muscle cell.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Nicotine-free cigarette smoke extract administered by subcutaneous injection induced endothelial dysfunction, increased blood pressure values and reduced acetylcholine-induced vasodilatation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Although the chemical component responsible for epithelial dysfunction is not clear, cigarettes smoke extract reduces vascular relaxation by increasing oxidative stress and reducing NO bioavailability.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Smokers also showed altered lipoprotein metabolism, increased levels of oxidized low density lipoprotein (LDL) which may contribute to vasoconstriction.</p>
      <p>Chronic smoking impairs NO synthesis and enhances production of reactive oxygen species, while nicotine administration leads to hypertension due to increased sympathetic nervous system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Our study showed a significantly reduced minimal hypotensive response on the smoker normotensive group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). This reduced vasodilation caused by epinephrine may be related to the increase on the smooth muscle layer promoted by smoke. The heart rate effect was similar in both smoker and non-smoker groups.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Epinephrine and felypressin dosage corresponded to the content of 0.5 to 16 local anesthetic cartridges administered <italic>in bolus</italic> via intravascular route in hypertensive rats but there were no deaths. Our results support vasoconstrictor safety in associated vascular problems, mostly especially felypressin seems to be promising vasoconstrictor to smoker patients since there is no interaction with the sympathetic nervous system.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Elizandra P. M. Almeida, from <italic>Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</italic>.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the <italic>Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</italic> under the protocol number 10/2010. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Impacto do Tabagismo Passivo na Resposta Press&#243;rica &#224; Epinefrina e Felipressina em Ratos Hipertensos 1K1C Tratados ou n&#227;o com Atenolol</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fleury</surname>
            <given-names>Camila A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Elizandra P. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dionisio</surname>
            <given-names>Thiago J.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Calvo</surname>
            <given-names>Adriana M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0990-7106</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriela M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amaral</surname>
            <given-names>Sandra L.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2876-0955</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faria</surname>
            <given-names>Fl&#225;vio A. C.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo - Ci&#234;ncias Biol&#243;gicas - Farmacologia, Bauru, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa Conjunto de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Fisiol&#243;gicas - Departamento de Educa&#231;&#227;o F&#237;sica - Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias - Universidade Estadual de S&#227;o Paulo, Bauru, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Carlos F. Santos,</bold> Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo - Ci&#234;ncias Biol&#243;gicas - Farmacologia - Alameda Oct&#225;vio Pinheiro Brisolla, 9-75. CEP 17012-901, Bauru, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>cfsantos@fob.usp.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Fleury CA, Almeida EPM, Amaral SL, Santos CF, Faria FAC; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Fleury CA, Moretto E, Dionisio TJ, Calvo AM, Oliveira GM, Amaral SL, Santos CF, Faria FAC; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Fleury CA, Dionisio TJ, Calvo AM, Oliveira GM, Santos CF, Faria FAC; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Fleury CA, Dionisio TJ, Calvo AM, Oliveira GM, Amaral SL, Santos CF, Faria FAC.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>O tabagismo geralmente est&#225; associado &#224; hipertens&#227;o e pode modificar a resposta vasoconstritora.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>O presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar e comparar a intera&#231;&#227;o do tabagismo passivo e hipertens&#227;o sobre os efeitos da epinefrina e felipressina na press&#227;o arterial ap&#243;s inje&#231;&#227;o intravascular.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Ratos Wistar machos de 45 dias tiveram a art&#233;ria renal principal esquerda parcialmente obstru&#237;da e o rim direito removido (modelo 1K1C). Os ratos foram colocados na c&#226;mara para exposi&#231;&#227;o ao tabagismo passivo (10 cigarros) durante 10 minutos (6 dias por semana). Ratos hipertensos receberam atenolol (90 mg/kg/dia) por gavagem durante duas semanas. A resposta hipotensora e hipertensiva, a dura&#231;&#227;o da resposta e a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca foram registradas a partir da medida dos valores diretos da press&#227;o arterial. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia foi de 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>O tabagismo passivo aumentou a resposta hipertensiva m&#225;xima &#224; epinefrina em ratos normotensos e ratos 1K1C tratados com atenolol e &#224; felipressina apenas em ratos 1K1C tratados com atenolol; tamb&#233;m reduziu a resposta hipotensiva &#224; epinefrina. A epinefrina aumentou a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em ratos fumantes passivos ou n&#227;o-fumantes, normotensos e hipertensos. Comparando os dois vasoconstritores, a epinefrina apresentou maior resposta hipertensiva em fumantes normotensos, ratos 1K1C fumantes e n&#227;o fumantes tratados com atenolol. No entanto, em ratos normotensos e n&#227;o fumantes, a felipressina apresentou um efeito hipertensivo maior e mais prolongado.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es:</title>
          <p>Nossos resultados sugerem que o tabagismo passivo pode reduzir a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o da epinefrina e aumentar a resposta hipertensiva quando comparado &#224; felipressina. Portanto, a felipressina pode ser segura para pacientes hipertensos, com o objetivo de evitar a intera&#231;&#227;o entre taquicardia e atenolol, mas para pacientes normotensos e n&#227;o-fumantes, a epinefrina pode ser mais segura que a felipressina.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Tabagismo</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Ratos</kwd>
        <kwd>Felipressina</kwd>
        <kwd>Epinefrina</kwd>
        <kwd>Atenolol</kwd>
        <kwd>Polui&#231;&#227;o por Fuma&#231;a de Tabaco</kwd>
        <kwd>Nicotina/efeitos adversos</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Drogas vasoconstritoras s&#227;o essenciais para procedimentos odontol&#243;gicos e m&#233;dicos realizados sob anestesia local, uma vez que o anest&#233;sico local deve permanecer em contato com nervos sens&#237;veis. Um &#250;nico cartucho anest&#233;sico local administrado por via intravascular pode ser fatal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Portanto, os vasoconstritores tamb&#233;m s&#227;o utilizados para evitar sua absor&#231;&#227;o e efeitos adversos: convuls&#245;es, arritmia e parada card&#237;aca. Existem estudos indicando absor&#231;&#227;o de vasoconstritores e efeitos sist&#234;micos. A epinefrina pode ser detectada no plasma ap&#243;s a infiltra&#231;&#227;o e pode aumentar a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em indiv&#237;duos normais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> N&#227;o h&#225; dados cl&#237;nicos comparando a efic&#225;cia ou seguran&#231;a da epinefrina e da felipressina, mas h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que anest&#233;sicos locais isolados resultam em um controle da dor mais curto e de baixa qualidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></p>
        <p>Os f&#225;rmacos vasoconstritores apresentam efeitos sist&#234;micos que podem ser cr&#237;ticos em pacientes com doen&#231;as cardiovasculares: vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o coronariana, taquicardia, aumento da for&#231;a de contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca etc. Esses efeitos est&#227;o relacionados &#224; causa mais comum de morte no mundo moderno: ataque card&#237;aco, derrame e trombose; e os pacientes geralmente apresentam doen&#231;as multifatoriais. O tabagismo e a hipertens&#227;o est&#227;o inclu&#237;dos no algoritmo do Programa Nacional de Educa&#231;&#227;o em Colesterol para prever o risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, tratando ambos como causas modific&#225;veis de aterosclerose nos esfor&#231;os de preven&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> A OMS estima que a preval&#234;ncia global de adultos que fumam qualquer produto de tabaco &#233; de 36% para homens adultos e 8% para mulheres adultas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></p>
        <p>O n&#250;mero de cigarros apresenta correla&#231;&#227;o positiva com valores mais altos da press&#227;o arterial, mas n&#227;o com a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> A nicotina tamb&#233;m afeta o sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, com um efeito diferente dos cigarros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> A libera&#231;&#227;o de catecolaminas e lipoprote&#237;nas ateroscler&#243;ticas est&#227;o aumentados nos n&#237;veis sangu&#237;neos de pacientes fumantes. Portanto, as drogas vasoativas presentes alteram a resposta vascular de fumantes, uma vez que a via do &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) e os sistemas adren&#233;rgicos e colin&#233;rgicos s&#227;o afetados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Embora a epinefrina seja considerada a droga vasoconstritora mais segura para pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiovascular pela <italic>American Dental Association,</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> os pacientes em tratamento com betabloqueador que fumam cigarros devem ser tratados de maneira diferente.</p>
        <p>A felipressina pode ser um vasoconstritor alternativo seguro nessas popula&#231;&#245;es, uma vez que &#233; um vasoconstritor n&#227;o-adren&#233;rgico. N&#227;o h&#225; relato de intera&#231;&#227;o entre tabagismo e vasopressina. Um estudo anterior demonstrou efeito hipertensivo reduzido da felipressina em ratos tratados com atenolol.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Para aumentar o conhecimento sobre a seguran&#231;a da epinefrina e da felipressina, este estudo tentou test&#225;-las com administra&#231;&#227;o intravascular isolada para simular o erro m&#225;ximo na anestesia local, fornecendo informa&#231;&#245;es para a formula&#231;&#227;o de solu&#231;&#245;es anest&#233;sicas locais mais seguras. Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar e comparar os efeitos da inje&#231;&#227;o direta intravenosa de epinefrina e felipressina na press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea de ratos fumantes ou n&#227;o fumantes, normotensos, hipertensos, e hipertensos tratados com atenolol.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>Para o presente estudo, todas as regras para pesquisa com animais foram revisadas e aprovadas antes das experi&#234;ncias pelo comit&#234; de &#233;tica institucional (protocolo n&#186; 010/2010). Ratos machos Wistar pesando de 140 a 320 g, fornecidos pelo biot&#233;rio da Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru, foram utilizados em todos os grupos deste estudo.</p>
        <p>O m&#233;todo experimental de hipertens&#227;o, medidas arteriais indiretas e diretas da PA foram realizadas conforme descrito anteriormente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Todos os ratos receberam dieta normal, acesso livre a &#225;gua e alimentos e foram submetidos a 12 horas de ciclo claro/escuro. Ratos pesando de 110 a 150 g foram anestesiados com inje&#231;&#227;o de ketamina (50 mg/kg de peso, im, Dopalen<sup>&#174;</sup> - Sespo Ind&#250;stria e Com&#233;rcio Ltda., Divis&#227;o Vetbrands de Sa&#250;de Animal - Jacare&#237;, S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil) mais xilazina (10 mg/kg de peso, im, Anasedan<sup>&#174;</sup> - Sespo). A art&#233;ria renal esquerda foi isolada e um clipe de prata de 0,25 mm foi instalado ao seu redor, e o rim direito foi completamente removido. Foram injetados 40.000 UI de antibi&#243;tico para animais de pequeno porte (Fontoura Wyeth S.A. - S&#227;o Bernardo do Campo, S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil). Vale ressaltar que a cirurgia para implante dos clipes nas art&#233;rias renais foi realizada em 10 animais por grupo, ou seja, 120 ratos. No entanto, cada grupo foi constitu&#237;do por 6 animais, j&#225; que parte dos ratos n&#227;o apresentava press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica acima de 150 mmHg. Portanto, 72 foi o n&#250;mero total de animais utilizados no estudo e n&#227;o houve crit&#233;rios para a defini&#231;&#227;o desta amostra, sendo definida por conveni&#234;ncia.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todo de Tabagismo Passivo</title>
          <p>O tabagismo passivo foi realizado com base em estudos pr&#233;vios de indu&#231;&#227;o de enfisema.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Um dia ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o, os ratos foram intoxicados 1 vez ao dia (10 cigarros por per&#237;odo de exposi&#231;&#227;o) 6 dias por semana. O protocolo de exposi&#231;&#227;o consistiu em confinar 10 ratos na c&#226;mara de inala&#231;&#227;o durante 10 minutos com ventila&#231;&#227;o por ar comprimido (10 L/min).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Medidas Indiretas e Diretas da Press&#227;o Arterial</title>
          <p>Os ratos 1K1C foram aquecidos em gaiolas individuais com resist&#234;ncia el&#233;trica e manguitos pneum&#225;ticos foram instalados na cauda e conectados a um sistema digital para registro indireto da press&#227;o arterial (<italic>Physiological Pressure Transducer</italic>, ADInstruments Pty. Ltd. - Dunedin, Otago, Nova Zel&#226;ndia). Os ratos que apresentaram press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica igual ou superior a 150 mmHg em medida indireta 15 dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia com clipe foram aceitos no grupo hipertenso ou tratados com atenolol (90 mg/kg/dia; Crist&#225;lia Produtos Qu&#237;micos e Farmac&#234;uticos - Itapira, S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil) administrado por gavagem em 1 mL por 2 semanas.</p>
          <p>Todos os grupos tiveram a press&#227;o arterial direta medida de 28 a 35 dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia com clipe, ou tempo equivalente no grupo controle: ap&#243;s anestesia com ketamina/xilazina, um cateter de polietileno PE-50 (Clay Adams - Franklin Lakes, Nova Jersey, EUA) com solu&#231;&#227;o salina com a extremidade externa oclu&#237;da, foi implantado na art&#233;ria car&#243;tida esquerda e na veia jugular direita. O cateter arterial foi conectado a um transdutor de press&#227;o acoplado ao sistema de registro invasivo da press&#227;o arterial, utilizando o software apropriado (<italic>Physiological Pressure Transducer</italic>; PowerLab 4/30; Chart Pro - ADInstruments Pty. Ltd). Os experimentos de inje&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de drogas vasoconstritoras foram realizados com ratos anestesiados logo ap&#243;s o implante do cateter. Um esquema do experimento &#233; detalhado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f6">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Protocolo esquem&#225;tico do estudo: ratos com 45 dias de idade foram submetidos a implante de clipe (indu&#231;&#227;o de hipertens&#227;o 1K1C); no dia seguinte, os grupos de fumantes foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro; aos 60 dias de vida, a press&#227;o arterial foi medida por meios indiretos e o tratamento com atenolol foi iniciado; aproximadamente aos 75 dias de vida foram realizados experimentos diretos de press&#227;o arterial. Um exemplo do registro puls&#225;til ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o de epinefrina detalha como os par&#226;metros foram calculados.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-02-0295-80433-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Curvas Dose-Resposta &#224; Epinefrina e Felipressina</title>
          <p>Epinefrina ex&#243;gena (Adren<sup>&#174;</sup> - Hipolabor Farmac&#234;utica Ltda - Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil), dilu&#237;da em solu&#231;&#227;o salina, foi injetada em doses de 80, 160, 320, 640 e 1.280 ng em bolus atrav&#233;s do cateter venoso para a obten&#231;&#227;o das curvas dose-resposta. A felipressina isolada (Dentsply Farmac&#234;utica, Catanduva, S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil) foi utilizada em doses de 0,125, 0,25, 0,5, 1, 2 e 3 mUI. Inje&#231;&#245;es intravenosas em ordem aleat&#243;ria foram realizadas ap&#243;s um intervalo de 3 minutos para cada resposta para estabilizar a press&#227;o arterial. Os animais foram sacrificados com inje&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de doses excessivas do anest&#233;sico tiopental (Thiopentax<sup>&#174;</sup>, Crist&#225;lia - Produtos Qu&#237;micos e Farmac&#234;uticos). Os seguintes par&#226;metros foram analisados utilizando os valores de PAM (PAM = 1/3 da Press&#227;o Sist&#243;lica + 2/3 da Press&#227;o Diast&#243;lica): resposta hipotensiva m&#237;nima, resposta hipertensiva m&#225;xima e dura&#231;&#227;o da resposta. A dura&#231;&#227;o foi determinada utilizando altera&#231;&#245;es press&#243;ricas globais, uma vez que a epinefrina apresenta uma resposta complexa &#224; press&#227;o arterial onde h&#225; um pico hipertensivo seguido de resposta hipotensora e normaliza&#231;&#227;o; estudos anteriores esclareceram esse padr&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> A frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca foi registrada 30s ap&#243;s a inje&#231;&#227;o, durante um minuto, para evitar vi&#233;s causado por maior dura&#231;&#227;o ou grandes altera&#231;&#245;es da press&#227;o arterial, uma vez que o programa utilizou a press&#227;o puls&#225;til para determinar esses par&#226;metros. Para comparar a epinefrina e a felipressina, foram utilizadas doses correspondentes a 1, 2, 4 e 8 cartuchos de anest&#233;sico local que seriam administrados aos ratos. Utilizou-se a seguinte f&#243;rmula: D = 18.000 (para epinefrina*) ou 54 mUI (para felipressina*) x 4.286 x 10<sup>-3</sup> (uma corre&#231;&#227;o de peso de humanos (70 kg) para ratos (300 g).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Para todos os grupos, n = 6. Os resultados foram expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP) para dados com distribui&#231;&#227;o normal de acordo com o teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. Nos casos em que a distribui&#231;&#227;o normal n&#227;o ocorreu em um grupo ou mais, os dados foram apresentados como mediana &#177; intervalo interquartil.</p>
          <p>Quando mais de uma resposta foi obtida do mesmo animal, foi utilizada a an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia de uma via para medidas repetidas (ANOVA de uma via para medidas repetidas). Para comparar curvas completas de dois ou mais grupos, foi utilizada a an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia de duas vias para medidas repetidas (ANOVA de duas vias para medidas repetidas). Quando houve diferen&#231;a significativa entre as doses em cada curva ou em grupos independentes e distribui&#231;&#227;o normal, a compara&#231;&#227;o foi realizada pelo m&#233;todo de Holm-Sidak ou Tukey. Para resultados n&#227;o param&#233;tricos, foram utilizados os testes de Mann-Whitney e Kruskal-Wallis. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia neste estudo foi estabelecido em 5% (p &lt; 0,05). Todos os testes foram realizados utilizando-se o <italic>software</italic> STATISTICA (<italic>StatSoft South Am&#233;rica</italic>).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>Os valores b&#225;sicos da press&#227;o arterial durante os primeiros cinco minutos est&#227;o resumidos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>, e foram usados como refer&#234;ncia inicial. O atenolol reduziu de forma significativa a press&#227;o arterial em animais hipertensos, cujos valores ainda eram significantemente mais altos do que nos animais controle.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Valores basais</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="16%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">Peso (g)</th>
                <th align="center">PA m&#233;dia (mmHg)</th>
                <th align="center">PA sist&#243;lica (mmHg)</th>
                <th align="center">PA diast&#243;lica (mmHg)</th>
                <th align="center">Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (BPM)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" rowspan="3">N&#227;o fumante</td>
                <td align="center">Normotenso</td>
                <td align="center">285,00 &#177; 25,09</td>
                <td align="center">112,7 (101,7-118,8)</td>
                <td align="center">140,5 (123,2-144,0)</td>
                <td align="center">99,6 (93,1-103,4)</td>
                <td align="center">210,5 (194,1-225,1)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">1K1C hipertenso</td>
                <td align="center">297,83 &#177; 30,20</td>
                <td align="center">163,1 (155,3-177,7)<sup>a</sup></td>
                <td align="center">201,1 (188,3-231,9)<sup>a</sup></td>
                <td align="center">135,2 (127,9-148,6)<sup>a</sup></td>
                <td align="center">205,9 (196,2-248,9)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">1K1C tratado com Atenolol</td>
                <td align="center">215,00 &#177; 34,29<sup>a</sup></td>
                <td align="center">148,9 (136,1-163,4)<sup>a,b</sup></td>
                <td align="center">184,9 (175,3-201,2)<sup>a,b</sup></td>
                <td align="center">132,5 (119,3-142,8)<sup>a,b</sup></td>
                <td align="center">185,7 (176,5-207,7)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" rowspan="3">Fumante</td>
                <td align="center">Normotenso</td>
                <td align="center">302,50 &#177; 19,04</td>
                <td align="center">104,1 (93,6-112,4)</td>
                <td align="center">134,8 (119,2-145,2)</td>
                <td align="center">86,2 (81,6-95,8)</td>
                <td align="center">225,1 (206,2-249,4)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">1K1C hipertenso</td>
                <td align="center">250,58 &#177; 16,21<sup>c</sup></td>
                <td align="center">156,6 (152,7-160,3)<sup>a</sup></td>
                <td align="center">194,35 (188,8-203,3)<sup>a</sup></td>
                <td align="center">129,7 (126,5-145,3)<sup>a</sup></td>
                <td align="center">219,7 (207,6-231,1)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">1K1C tratado com Atenolol</td>
                <td align="center">254,42 &#177; 21,86<sup>c</sup></td>
                <td align="center">126,2 (117,7-138,1)<sup>a,b</sup></td>
                <td align="center">153,5 (148,6-167,5)<sup>a,b</sup></td>
                <td align="center">106,1 (102,8-111,1)<sup>a,b</sup></td>
                <td align="center">212,6 (200,0-218,7)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN7">
              <p>Peso - M&#233;dia &#177; Desvio Padr&#227;o. Press&#227;o Arterial e Frequ&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca - Mediana (percentil 25&#186;-75&#186;). p &lt; 0,05 comparado ao grupo normotenso. b p &lt; 0,05 comparado ao grupo hipertenso. c p &lt; 0,05 comparado com o respectivo grupo de n&#227;o fumantes.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <sec>
          <title>Resposta Hipertensiva M&#225;xima</title>
          <p>As curvas de resposta hipertensiva m&#225;xima para epinefrina e felipressina, em fumantes versus n&#227;o fumantes, s&#227;o mostradas na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 2</xref>. O fumo aumentou significativamente as respostas hipertensivas m&#225;ximas &#224; epinefrina em ratos normotensos e tratados com atenolol. O fumo aumentou de forma significativa a resposta hipertensiva m&#225;xima &#224; felipressina apenas no grupo tratado com atenolol.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f7">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Curvas de resposta hipertensiva m&#225;xima ap&#243;s inje&#231;&#227;o intravenosa em bolus de epinefrina (A) ou felipressina (B) em ratos normotensos n&#227;o-fumantes e normotensos fumantes, 1K1C hipertensos n&#227;o-fumantes e 1K1C hipertensos fumantes, 1K1C n&#227;o-fumantes tratados com atenolol e 1K1C fumantes tratados com atenolol. n = 6 para todos os grupos. Mediana (25&#186; percentil-75&#186; percentil). *p &lt; 0,05 vs. grupos n&#227;o fumantes.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-02-0295-80433-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resposta Hipotensiva M&#237;nima</title>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 3</xref> mostra as curvas de resposta hipotensiva m&#237;nima &#224; epinefrina. O fumo reduziu significativamente a resposta hipotensiva em ratos normotensos (p &lt; 0,05). Houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na resposta ao vasodilatador no grupo 1K1C tratado com atenolol ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o de epinefrina. A felipressina, como esperado, n&#227;o apresentou resposta hipotensiva significativa nos tr&#234;s grupos estudados (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 3B</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f8">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Curvas de resposta hipotensiva m&#237;nima ap&#243;s inje&#231;&#227;o intravenosa em bolus de adrenalina em ratos controle n&#227;o-fumantes e fumantes normotensos, 1K1C hipertensos n&#227;o-fumantes e 1K1C hipertensos fumantes, 1K1C n&#227;o fumantes tratados com atenolol e 1K1C fumantes tratados com atenolol. n = 6 M&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o. *p &lt; 0,05 vs. grupos n&#227;o fumantes.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-02-0295-80433-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Frequ&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A epinefrina causou um aumento significativo da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em ratos normotensos e hipertensos 1K1C quando comparados aos valores basais de cada grupo, mas o fumo n&#227;o alterou esse efeito (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 4A</xref>). Os ratos 1K1C tratados com atenolol n&#227;o apresentaram altera&#231;&#245;es nesse par&#226;metro, provavelmente devido ao efeito antagonista do atenolol nos receptores &#946;1. A felipressina mostrou redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em ratos normotensos n&#227;o fumantes quando comparados com os valores basais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 4B</xref>). O fumo aumentou significativamente a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca apenas em doses de 1 e 2 mUI de felipressina, quando comparado ao controle normotenso n&#227;o fumante.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f9">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca antes e depois da inje&#231;&#227;o via intravenosa em bolus de epinefrina (A) e felipressina (B) em ratos n&#227;o-fumantes normotensos e fumantes normotensos, 1K1C hipertensos n&#227;o-fumantes e 1K1C hipertensos fumantes, 1K1C n&#227;o fumantes tratados com atenolol e 1K1C fumantes tratados com atenolol. n = 6 para todos os grupos. Mediana (25&#186; percentil-75&#186; percentil). *p &lt; 0,05 vs. grupos n&#227;o fumantes. &#8225; p &lt; 0,05 comparado aos valores basais.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-02-0295-80433-gf04-pt.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Dura&#231;&#227;o da Resposta</title>
          <p>A dura&#231;&#227;o da resposta est&#225; descrita na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>. A felipressina apresentou uma dura&#231;&#227;o significativamente maior das respostas de press&#227;o arterial do que a epinefrina em todos os grupos estudados.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Dura&#231;&#227;o da resposta</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
                <col width="7%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3">N&#250;mero de cartuchos</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="4">Normotenso</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="4">Hipertenso</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="4">Ratos tratados com atenolol</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                  <th align="center" colspan="2">N&#227;o fumante</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2">Fumante</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2">N&#227;o fumante</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2">Fumante</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2">N&#227;o fumante</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2">Fumante</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="center">Epinefrina</th>
                  <th align="center">Felipressina</th>
                  <th align="center">Epinefrina</th>
                  <th align="center">Felipressina</th>
                  <th align="center">Epinefrina</th>
                  <th align="center">Felipressina</th>
                  <th align="center">Epinefrina</th>
                  <th align="center">Felipressina</th>
                  <th align="center">Epinefrina</th>
                  <th align="center">Felipressina</th>
                  <th align="center">Epinefrina</th>
                  <th align="center">Felipressina</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">1</td>
                  <td align="center">453,5<break/>(412-517)</td>
                  <td align="center">905,2<break/>(748,6-945)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">276,5<break/>(214-298)</td>
                  <td align="center">908<break/>(880-948)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">297<break/>(278-333)</td>
                  <td align="center">911,5<break/>(880-949)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">325,5 (277-492)</td>
                  <td align="center">818,5<break/>(610-876)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">291,5 (260-352)</td>
                  <td align="center">811<break/>(754-914)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">426<break/>(382-470)</td>
                  <td align="center">692,5<break/>(552-738)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">2</td>
                  <td align="center">427<break/>(399-471)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.042<break/>(928,2-1.118,9)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">268,5<break/>(256-302)</td>
                  <td align="center">888,5<break/>(796-947)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">421<break/>(376-436)</td>
                  <td align="center">979,5<break/>(934-1012)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">344<break/>(329-497)</td>
                  <td align="center">875,5<break/>(771-972)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">398<break/>(345-444)</td>
                  <td align="center">545<break/>(496-708)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">498<break/>(413-616)</td>
                  <td align="center">960<break/>(920-976)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">4</td>
                  <td align="center">445<break/>(378-466)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.117<break/>(1,050-1.184,4)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">287<break/>(294-323)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.004,5<break/>(876-1.086)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">422,5 (351-464)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.021<break/>(920-1.080)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">475<break/>(357-513)</td>
                  <td align="center">954,5<break/>(882-1,042)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">415,5 (380-453)</td>
                  <td align="center">712<break/>(552-858)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">421<break/>(405-464)</td>
                  <td align="center">938<break/>(783-1.111)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">8</td>
                  <td align="center">455<break/>(423-506)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.077,1<break/>(983-1.193)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">353<break/>(332-365)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.066,5<break/>(1.000-1.170)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">455<break/>(425-538)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.032,5<break/>(1.011-1.229)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">472,5 (400-507)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.087<break/>(998-1.154)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">454<break/>(393-489)</td>
                  <td align="center">946<break/>(800-1,103)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">511,5<break/>(479-586)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.063,5<break/>(987-1.240)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN8">
                <p>Dura&#231;&#227;o da resposta (em segundos) ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o intravascular de epinefrina ou felipressina (dose contida no n&#250;mero correspondente de cartuchos de anest&#233;sico local) nos grupos fumantes e n&#227;o fumantes normotensos, 1K1C hipertensos e 1K1C atenolol (n = 6 para todos os grupos). Mediana (25&#186; percentil-75&#186; percentil).</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN9">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>p &lt; 0,05 em compara&#231;&#227;o com epinefrina.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Compara&#231;&#227;o entre Epinefrina e Felipressina</title>
          <p>Ao comparar as respostas da felipressina &#224; epinefrina em cada grupo, a felipressina apresentou efeito hipertensivo reduzido nos ratos fumantes normotensos, ratos fumantes 1K1C tratados com atenolol e em n&#227;o-fumantes 1K1C tratados com atenolol (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 5</xref>). Nos ratos hipertensos fumantes e n&#227;o fumantes, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa entre os dois vasoconstritores. Em ratos normotensos n&#227;o fumantes, a felipressina resultou em maior efeito hipertensivo em compara&#231;&#227;o com a epinefrina.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f10">
              <label>Figura 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Compara&#231;&#227;o das curvas m&#225;ximas de resposta hipertensiva ap&#243;s inje&#231;&#227;o intravenosa em bolus de epinefrina e felipressina em ratos n&#227;o fumantes normotensos controles, ratos fumantes normotensos, 1K1C hipertensos n&#227;o fumantes, 1K1C hipertensos fumantes, 1K1C n&#227;o-fumantes tratados com atenolol e 1K1C fumantes tratados com atenolol. n = 6 para todos os grupos. Mediana (25&#186; percentil-75&#186; percentil). *p &lt; 0,05 na compara&#231;&#227;o entre os medicamentos.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-02-0295-80433-gf05-pt.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Associamos o fumo &#224; hipertens&#227;o e ao tratamento com atenolol na tentativa de reproduzir uma doen&#231;a multifatorial. Com o objetivo de fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es de seguran&#231;a sobre o uso isolado de vasoconstritores administrados por via intravascular, os quais n&#227;o podem ser testados em seres humanos, nosso estudo teve como finalidade testar se a epinefrina &#233; contraindicada na popula&#231;&#227;o de fumantes e hipertensos e fornecer uma alternativa segura atrav&#233;s da an&#225;lise de efeitos sist&#234;micos. A epinefrina foi utilizada como vasoconstritor de escolha em pacientes hipertensos, segundo a <italic>American Heart Association</italic> (AHA),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; felipressina, menos estudada e n&#227;o relacionada ao sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo simp&#225;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></p>
        <p>Nossos dados mostram que a epinefrina manteve as mesmas respostas &#224; press&#227;o arterial, em ratos fumantes hipertensos ou n&#227;o-fumantes hipertensos sem tratamento com atenolol (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figuras 2A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">3</xref>), mas aumentou significativamente a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 4A</xref>). Contudo, em ratos n&#227;o-fumantes tratados com atenolol, a resposta da press&#227;o arterial foi mais elevada em compara&#231;&#227;o com os fumantes. Considerando todos os dados sobre seguran&#231;a da epinefrina em combina&#231;&#227;o com anest&#233;sico local na popula&#231;&#227;o hipertensa,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> nossos resultados sugerem que a resposta hipertensiva &#224; epinefrina em ratos fumantes e n&#227;o-fumantes hipertensos sem tratamento com atenolol permanece inalterada. Por outro lado, os ratos hipertensos, fumantes e tratados com atenolol, apresentaram medidas da press&#227;o arterial significativamente maiores em compara&#231;&#227;o aos animais n&#227;o tratados.</p>
        <p>Ainda n&#227;o est&#225; claro se o tabagismo aumenta os valores da press&#227;o arterial, pois alguns estudos indicaram que o fumo pode potencializar um hist&#243;rico familiar e aumentar os valores da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, diast&#243;lica e m&#233;dia arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Em nosso estudo, os grupos de fumantes n&#227;o apresentaram valores basais da press&#227;o arterial aumentados em compara&#231;&#227;o com os n&#227;o-fumantes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>). A exposi&#231;&#227;o ao fumo foi realizada durante 4 semanas, conforme o esperado, e esse tempo foi suficiente para alterar a resposta vasoconstritora. Os ratos foram submetidos &#224; inje&#231;&#227;o intravascular de epinefrina ou felipressina sob anestesia com ketamina/xilazina; em um estudo anterior do nosso grupo discutiu-se que essa mistura reduzia a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca basal, mas n&#227;o alterava as respostas da press&#227;o arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></p>
        <p>A fuma&#231;a e a nicotina podem agir de maneira diversa; a nicotina parece reduzir a press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea quando administrada agudamente, enquanto os produtos do fumo est&#227;o associados a valores aumentados da press&#227;o arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> O fumo passivo reduz o relaxamento do endot&#233;lio dependente da acetilcolina quando comparado ao n&#227;o fumante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Nossos dados mostram que as respostas hipertensivas &#224; epinefrina aumentaram em ratos fumantes normotensos e hipertensos tratados com e atenolol quando comparados aos grupos n&#227;o-fumantes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 2</xref>) e quando comparados &#224; felipressina (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 5</xref>). A press&#227;o arterial &#233; definida pelo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco multiplicado pela resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica vascular. A felipressina injetada por via intravenosa apresenta apenas efeito vasoconstritor, aumentando a resist&#234;ncia vascular e levando ao aumento dos valores press&#243;ricos. A epinefrina, por outro lado, apresenta efeitos vasoconstritores e vasodilatadores, efeitos inotr&#243;picos e cronotr&#243;picos card&#237;acos, levando a respostas complexas da press&#227;o arterial ap&#243;s inje&#231;&#227;o intravenosa. A vasodilata&#231;&#227;o reduz as respostas hipertensivas quando a press&#227;o arterial global &#233; medida, e ratos n&#227;o-fumantes normotensos mostraram os maiores valores de resposta hipotensiva para as doses mais baixas de epinefrina (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 3</xref>), reduzindo a resposta hipertensiva quando comparada &#224; felipressina (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 5</xref>). A felipressina apresenta menos efeitos card&#237;acos, mas reduziu significativamente a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em ratos n&#227;o-fumantes normotensos; tais resultados s&#227;o consistentes com estudos anteriores em que essa resposta vasoconstritora estava associada &#224; priloca&#237;na,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> relacionada &#224; constri&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria e barorreflexo.</p>
        <p>H&#225; uma resposta cardiovascular complexa &#224; nicotina, devido aos receptores ganglionares de nicotina que influenciam o sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico aut&#244;nomo. Essa resposta inclui aumento da libera&#231;&#227;o de catecolaminas e metabolismo lip&#237;dico alterado, o que explica o aumento do desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares em fumantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> De acordo com o Terceiro Relat&#243;rio do Programa Nacional de Educa&#231;&#227;o em Colesterol (PNEC), o tabagismo tem impacto direto na forma&#231;&#227;o de aterosclerose e aumenta o risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> A associa&#231;&#227;o entre hipertens&#227;o e tabagismo representa um caso delicado para o uso de vasoconstritores. A dura&#231;&#227;o da resposta da felipressina foi significativamente maior que a da epinefrina em todos os grupos, o que era esperado, pois a meia-vida da vasopressina &#233; de aproximadamente 17-35min,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> enquanto a epinefrina apresenta meia-vida curta devido ao metabolismo e &#224; recapta&#231;&#227;o sin&#225;ptica.</p>
        <p>O tabagismo aumenta a rigidez dos vasos sangu&#237;neos por diferentes vias, incluindo estresse oxidativo, aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de endotelina-1 e forma&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> O extrato de fuma&#231;a de cigarro sem nicotina, administrado por inje&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea, induziu disfun&#231;&#227;o do endot&#233;lio, aumentu os valores da press&#227;o arterial e reduziu a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o induzida por acetilcolina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Embora o componente qu&#237;mico respons&#225;vel pela disfun&#231;&#227;o epitelial n&#227;o esteja claro, o extrato de fuma&#231;a de cigarros reduz o relaxamento vascular, aumentando o estresse oxidativo e reduzindo a biodisponibilidade de NO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Os fumantes tamb&#233;m apresentaram metabolismo lipoproteico alterado e n&#237;veis aumentados de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL) oxidada, os quais podem contribuir para a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>O tabagismo cr&#244;nico prejudica a s&#237;ntese de NO e aumenta a produ&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio, enquanto a administra&#231;&#227;o de nicotina leva &#224; hipertens&#227;o devido ao aumento do t&#244;nus &#8203;&#8203;do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Nosso estudo mostrou uma resposta hipotensiva m&#237;nima reduzida significativa no grupo normotenso e fumante (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 3</xref>). Essa redu&#231;&#227;o da vasodilata&#231;&#227;o provocada pela epinefrina pode estar relacionada ao aumento da camada muscular lisa promovida pela fuma&#231;a. O efeito da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca foi semelhante nos grupos de fumantes e n&#227;o-fumantes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>As dosagens de epinefrina e felipressina corresponderam ao conte&#250;do de 0,5 a 16 cartuchos de anest&#233;sico local administrados em bolus por via intravascular em ratos hipertensos, mas n&#227;o houve &#243;bito. Nossos resultados apoiam a seguran&#231;a vasoconstritora com problemas vasculares associados, e principalmente a felipressina parece ser um vasoconstritor promissor para pacientes fumantes, uma vez que n&#227;o h&#225; intera&#231;&#227;o com o sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Elizandra P. M. Almeida pela Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica do Faculdade de Odontologia de Bauru - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 10/2010. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
