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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">7Z3RQ7YgjLLwsM7HfYjpZcf</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2020000100120</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2019005022110</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20190111</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Pathophysiology and Treatment of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: State of the Art and Prospects for the Future</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0045-8375</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Sara Lopes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Rita Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4897-0220</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Lu&#237;s Gra&#231;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3175-3673</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>S&#225;</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Montenegro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ruivo</surname>
            <given-names>Catarina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3116-3764</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mendes</surname>
            <given-names>Sofia L&#225;zaro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>H&#233;lia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Morais</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Araujo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Hospitalar de Leiria</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <city>Leiria</city>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Hospitalar de Leiria, Leiria - Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Sara Lopes Fernandes,</bold> Centro Hospitalar de Leiria - Rua das Olhalvas - Pousos, 2410-197, Leiria - Portugal. E-mail: <email>sarafernandes24892@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript: Fernandes SL; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Carvalho RR, Santos LG, S&#225; FM, Ruivo C, Mendes SL, Martins H, Morais JA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>14</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2020</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>114</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>120</fpage>
      <lpage>129</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Heart Failure/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure/diagnosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure/drug therapy</kwd>
        <kwd>Systolic Volume</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure/complications</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Heart failure (HF) is extremely prevalent and has a considerable impact on mortality and quality of life.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> It affects nearly 1-3% of the adult population in developed countries, exponentially increasing with age and affecting more than 10% of the population over 70 years. Given the increase in the average life expectancy, better diagnostic methods and increased comorbidities, a greater prevalence of heart failure is expected.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
			</p>
      <p>It is a clinical syndrome characterized by classic symptoms (such as fatigue, dyspnea) that may be accompanied by clinical signs (elevated jugular pressure, pulmonary crackles and peripheral edema). It is caused by structural and/or functional cardiac abnormalities, resulting in reduced cardiac output and/or elevated intracardiac pressures at rest or during stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The main terminology used to describe HF is based on the measurement of the left ventricular ejection fraction (EF), differentiating patients with reduced &lt;40% (HFrEF), mid-range 40-49% (HFmrEF) and preserved &#8805;50% (HFpEF) ejection fraction. This classification is important due to different underlying etiologies, pathophysiology, available treatment and its respective response.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> HFpEF accounts for about half of the cases of HF in developed countries.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Its pathophysiology is complex, heterogeneous and still poorly understood. The wide variety of phenotypes resulting from the several pathophysiological mechanisms, comorbidities and dominant clinical characteristics, make diagnosis and treatment extremely challenging.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Unlike HFrEF, no treatment has unquestionably shown a reduction of morbidity or mortality in patients with HFpEF or HFmrEF. Several clinical trials evaluating drugs proven to be effective in HFrEF have failed to demonstrate prognostic benefits in these patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Current recommendations are based on symptom relief, screening, and treatment of comorbidities.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
			</p>
      <p>New therapies are presently under research, especially directed at the pathophysiological mechanisms of the disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> This review addresses the pathophysiology of HFpEF and summarizes the studies that have been carried out regarding treatment, including failures, hopes and future prospects.</p>
      <p>For this article, we carried out a systematic search in three databases: Medline - Pubmed, ISI Web of knowledge and Scopus, using the following keywords in English and Portuguese: "Heart failure AND preserved ejection fraction", "Heart failure AND preserved ejection fraction AND physiopathology&#8221; and &#8220;Heart failure AND preserved ejection fraction AND treatment". The study was conducted between January and March of 2019. Prospective and retrospective studies were included. Clinical cases, abstracts presented at conferences (not published as articles) and studies with a sample size of less than 10 patients were excluded. The eligibility of each study was independently assessed by three researchers. The divergent opinions regarding the relevance of the articles were resolved by consensus among the authors.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Pathophysiology</title>
        <p>The pathophysiology of the disease is complex and remains insufficiently understood. It is known that these patients are generally older, females and have multiple cardiovascular comorbidities, such as hypertension, atrial fibrillation (AF), coronary artery disease (CAD), pulmonary hypertension (PH), and non-cardiovascular diseases such as diabetes, chronic kidney disease (CKD), anemia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), among others. They also have a higher percentage of non-cardiovascular pathologies, with a great impact on morbidity and mortality, and a lower incidence of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) as well as sudden cardiac death or death from HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Historically, HFpEF was exclusively associated with diastolic dysfunction, opposed to HFrEF, which was associated with systolic dysfunction. It is currently known that this is not such a clear-cut matter, as both types of HF may also show systolic and/or diastolic dysfunction. Different mechanisms are involved in HFpEF. This is thought to result from a complex variety of cardiac, vascular and systemic dysfunctions, with the contribution of several comorbidities.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>)</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fisiopatologia da IC-FEp - poss&#237;veis mecanismos implicados. DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; DM: diabetes mellitus; DPOC: doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica; DRC: doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; HTA: hipertens&#227;o arterial; HTP: hipertens&#227;o pulmonar; IC-FEp: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada; NO-GMPc- PKG, &#243;xido n&#237;trico, monofosfato c&#237;clico de guanosina e prote&#237;na cinase G; SRAA: sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-01-0120-90111-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Diastolic dysfunction is usually present and results from structural changes (cardiac fibrosis, hypertrophy and remodeling ), microvascular dysfunction and metabolic abnormalities, with increased stiffness and decreased cardiac compliance. This leads not only to an increase in LV filling pressures, but also to structural and functional changes at the atrial, pulmonary and right ventricular levels, due to a rise in upstream pressures. The systolic reserve is also affected, mainly due to changes in the ventricular-vascular coupling ratio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Atrial changes, with dilatation and remodeling, favor the appearance of AF. Pulmonary hypertension, present in 53-83% of the cases and associated with a worse prognosis, also seems to contribute to the disease progression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> The onset of right ventricular dysfunction, with systemic venous congestion, also predicts worse results, associated with edema, malabsorption, congestive hepatopathy, cardiorenal syndrome and cachexia.</p>
        <p>Another mechanism involved is chronotropic incompetence, with inadequate heart rate (HR) variations, probably due to autonomic nervous system dysfunctions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Electrical and/or mechanical, systolic and diastolic asynchronies were also observed in some patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Its magnitude is related to the extent of diastolic dysfunction and exercise capacity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Many of these changes are not apparent, nor do they entail any impairment at rest, with functional reserve limitations being evident only under stress.</p>
        <p>Neurohormonal alterations, such as autonomic dysfunction and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) are also important mechanisms involved.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>At the vascular level, we can observe endothelial dysfunction, systemic inflammation, increased vessel stiffness and impaired vasodilation. A potential mechanism could be the deregulation of the NO-sGC-cGMP-PKG signaling pathway (nitric oxide, soluble guanylate cyclase, reduced cyclic guanosine monophosphate and protein kinase G), which is responsible for smooth muscle relaxation, cardiac protection, gene transcription, endothelial permeability and platelet inhibition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> At the peripheral level, musculoskeletal changes seem to contribute to aerobic capacity reduction, with less exercise tolerance.</p>
        <p>Both the age and the several comorbidities intensify these mechanisms and contribute to disease progression. The interaction between the various pathophysiological factors and comorbidities and the relative dominance of each of them makes this pathology complex and heterogeneous, making its diagnosis and treatment extremely difficult. A subgroup analysis with certain phenotypes can facilitate this process by allowing a more particular and direct approach.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagnosis</title>
        <p>The diagnosis of HFpEF is more challenging than the diagnosis of HFrEF. There have been several proposed classifications and inclusion criteria in the conducted studies, contributing to the enormous heterogeneity of patients assessed in the clinical trials.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The current guidelines proposed by the European Society of Cardiology suggest the existence of 3 diagnostic criteria: symptoms and signs of HF, LVEF &#8805; 50%, elevated levels of natriuretic peptides and relevant structural heart disease and/or diastolic dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Notwithstanding these recommendations, and given the clinical heterogeneity, absence of pathognomonic criteria and the multiplicity of differential diagnoses, there are several challenges and uncertainties to be faced.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Treatment</title>
        <p>Unlike HFrEF, no treatment has yet shown a reduction in morbidity or mortality. Therefore, current recommendations are based on symptom relief with diuretics, screening and treatment of comorbidities.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Diuretics are recommended in case of congestion, for symptom relief, regardless of the LVEF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> They are widely used, especially loop diuretics, even though there are no specific recommendations concerning which diuretic therapy should be followed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Several clinical trials have studied the effect of drugs proven to be effective in HFrEF for the treatment of patients with HFpEF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1-A</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>A) Main studies performed in patients with HFpEF using effective drugs in the treatment of the HFrEF; B) New drugs and new approaches in HFpEF</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>A</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Clinical Trial</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Year</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Intervention</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Patients, n</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Major inclusion criteria</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Mean follow-up</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Main conclusions</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Beta Blockers</td>
                <td align="center">SENIORS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2005</td>
                <td align="center">Nebivolol vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">2128</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805;70 years, mean LVEF of 36%, 35% with LVEF &gt; 35%, 68% CAD</td>
                <td align="center">1,8 years</td>
                <td align="center">Well tolerated and effective in reducing mortality and CV hospitalization (HR 0.86, 95%CI: 0.74-0.99; p = 0.039)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ACEI/ARB</td>
                <td align="center">CHARM Preserved<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2003</td>
                <td align="center">Candesartan vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">3023</td>
                <td align="center">&gt;18 years, LVEF &gt; 40%, NYHA II-IV</td>
                <td align="center">3 years</td>
                <td align="center">Tends towards a reduction in CV mortality and HF hospitalization (<italic>unadjusted</italic> HR 0.89 95%CI: 0.77-1.03, p = 0.118; <italic>adjusted</italic> 0.86 [0.74-1&#183;0], p = 0.051)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">PEP-CHF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2006</td>
                <td align="center">Perindopril vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">850</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805;70 years, HF under diuretic therapy, diastolic dysfunction, without systolic or valvular dysfunction</td>
                <td align="center">2,1 years</td>
                <td align="center">No difference in mortality or CV hospitalization (HR 0.92 95%CI: 0.70-1.21, p = 0.545). Some improvements in symptoms, exercise capacity and HF hospitalization in the first year of follow-up (younger patients with AMI or hypertension)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">I-PRESERVE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2008</td>
                <td align="center">Irbesartan vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">4128</td>
                <td align="center">&gt;60 years, LVEF &gt; 45%, NYHA II-IV</td>
                <td align="center">4.1 years</td>
                <td align="center">No difference in mortality or CV hospitalization (HR 95%CI: 0.86-1.05, p = 0.35)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">Enalapril<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2010</td>
                <td align="center">Enalapril vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">71</td>
                <td align="center">70 &#177; 1 years (80% women), LVEF &#8805; 50%, Compensated HF and controlled Hypertension</td>
                <td align="center">1 year</td>
                <td align="center">No impact on exercise capacity (p = 0.99), aortic distensibility (p = 0.93), ventricular volume and mass (p = 1) or quality of life (p = 0.07)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MRA</td>
                <td align="center">Aldo -DHF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2013</td>
                <td align="center">Spironolactone vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">422</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805;50 years, LVEF &#8805; 50%, NYHA II-III, diastolic dysfunction</td>
                <td align="center">1 year</td>
                <td align="center">Improved diastolic function (E/e' p &lt; 0.001, ventricular remodeling p = 0.09 and neurohormonal activation; p = 0.03). Did not improve exercise capacity, symptoms or quality of life (p = 0.03)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">TOPCAT<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2014</td>
                <td align="center">Spironolactone vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">3445</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805;50 years, LVEF &#8805; 45%, Symptomatic HF, hospitalization within last 12 months or elevated natriuretic peptides</td>
                <td align="center">3.3 years</td>
                <td align="center">No reduction in CV mortality, cardiac arrest or HF hospitalization (HR 0.89, 95%CI: 0.77-1.04, p = 0.14). Some benefit in terms of natriuretic peptide levels</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ARNI</td>
                <td align="center">PARAMOUNT<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2012</td>
                <td align="center">Sacubitril/valsartan vs. valsartan</td>
                <td align="center">301</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 45%, NYHA II-III and NT-proBNP &gt; 400 pg/ml</td>
                <td align="center">12 and 36 weeks</td>
                <td align="center">Reduction in NT-proBNP at 12 weeks (HR 0.77, 95%CI: 0.64-0.92, p = 0.005); LA volume reduction (p = 0.003) and NYHA class improvement (p = 0.05) at 36 weeks</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">PARAGON<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2019<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">Sacubitril/valsartan vs. valsartan</td>
                <td align="center">4300</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 45%, NYHA II-IV, elevated natriuretic peptides and evidence of structural heart disease</td>
                <td align="center">&gt;2 years</td>
                <td align="center">Evaluation of CV mortality and HF hospitalizations</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Ivabradine</td>
                <td align="center">If- Channel<break/>Inhibitors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2013</td>
                <td align="center">Ivabradine vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">61</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 50%, diastolic dysfunction, NYHA II-III, sinus rhythm, HR &#8805; 60 bpm, exercise capacity &lt;80% for age and gender</td>
                <td align="center">7 days</td>
                <td align="center">Increased exercise capacity (p = 0.001), with improvement in hemodynamic status during the exercise (p = 0.004); improved LV filling pressure (p = 0.02)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">EDIFY<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2017</td>
                <td align="center">Ivabradine vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">179</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 45%, NYHA II-III, sinus rhythm, HR &#8805;70 bpm, NT-proBNP &#8805; 220 pg/mL<break/>(BNP &#8805; 80 pg/mL</td>
                <td align="center">8 months</td>
                <td align="center">No improvement in diastolic function (HR 1.4 90%CI: 0.3-2.5, p = 0.135), exercise capacity (p = 0.882) or NT-proBNP level (HR 1.01, 90%CI: -0.86-1.19; p = 0.882)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Digoxin</td>
                <td align="center">DIG PEF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2006</td>
                <td align="center">Digoxin vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">988</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &gt; 40% (mean 53%), sinus rhythm</td>
                <td align="center">3.1 years</td>
                <td align="center">No effect on natural history endpoints such as mortality and hospitalizations (HR 0.82; 95%CI: 0.63-1.07; p = 0.136)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Nitrates and Nitrites</td>
                <td align="center">NEAT HFpEF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2015</td>
                <td align="center">Isosorbide mononitrate vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">110</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805;50 years, LVEF &#8805; 50%, evidence of HF</td>
                <td align="center">6 weeks</td>
                <td align="center">No effect on quality of life (p = 0.37) or NT-proBNP levels (p = 0.22); Reduction in daily activity level (-381 95%CI -780-17, p = 0.06) and increased symptoms of HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">Inorganic nitrate on exercise capacity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2015</td>
                <td align="center">NO3-rich beetroot juice vs. placebo (single dose)</td>
                <td align="center">17</td>
                <td align="center">Symptomatic HF, LVEF &gt; 50%</td>
                <td align="center">12 days</td>
                <td align="center">Increased exercise capacity (p = 0.04) (reduction in systemic vascular resistance, increased cardiac output and increased oxygen delivery)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Sildenafil</td>
                <td align="center">RELAX<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2013</td>
                <td align="center">Sildenafil vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">216</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 50%, NYHA II-IV, NT-proBNP &gt; 400 pg/mL, Peak VO<sub>2</sub>&lt; 60%, or elevated LV filling pressures</td>
                <td align="center">24 weeks</td>
                <td align="center">No effect on exercise capacity (p = 0.90), clinical status (p = 0.85) or diastolic function (p = 0.16). Worsening of renal function, NTproBNP, endothelin-1 and uric acid</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">sCG Stimulators</td>
                <td align="center">DILATE-1<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2014</td>
                <td align="center">Riociguat vs. placebo (single dose)</td>
                <td align="center">39</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805;18 years, LVEF &gt; 50% and PH; mPAP &#8805; 25 mmHg and PCWP &gt; 15 mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">30 days</td>
                <td align="center">Well tolerated; improved exploratory hemodynamic and echocardiographic parameters; No impact on mPAP (p = 0.60)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">SOCRATES-Preserved<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2016</td>
                <td align="center">Vericiguat vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">470</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 45%, NYHA II-IV, elevated natriuretic peptides</td>
                <td align="center">12 weeks</td>
                <td align="center">No effect on NT-proBNP (p = 0.20) or LA volume (p = 0.37). Some potential in improving quality of life (p = 0.016), particularly with higher doses</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Ranolazine</td>
                <td align="center">RALI-DHF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2013</td>
                <td align="center">Ranolazine vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">20</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 45%, E/E` &gt; 15 or NT-proBNP &gt; 220pg/mL,<break/>tau &#8805; 50ms, LVEDP &#8805; 18 mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">14 days</td>
                <td align="center">Despite hemodynamic improvements at 24 h, there was no effect on diastolic function parameters</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>B</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Clinical Trial</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Year</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Intervention</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Patients, n</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Major inclusion criteria</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Mean follow-up</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Main conclusions</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Albuterol</td>
                <td align="center">BEAT - HFpEF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Albuterol vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 50%, elevated LV filling pressures, PCWP &gt; 15 mmHg and/or &#8805; 25 mmHg during exercise</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">Symptom evaluation through its effect on pulmonary vascular resistance at rest and during exercise</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Shunt</td>
                <td align="center">REDUCE LAP-HF I<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2017</td>
                <td align="center">Interatrial septal shunt device vs. sham procedure</td>
                <td align="center">94</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF&gt;40% and elevated PCWP</td>
                <td align="center">1 month</td>
                <td align="center">Showed to be safe and effective; Reduction of PCWP (p = 0.028) without significant increase in PAP or pulmonary vascular resistance</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Monitoring</td>
                <td align="center">CHAMPION<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2014</td>
                <td align="center">Hemodynamic monitoring vs. control</td>
                <td align="center">119</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &gt; 40% (mean 50.6%), NYHA III</td>
                <td align="center">17.6 months</td>
                <td align="center">Significant reduction in HF hospitalizations (HR 0.50; 95%CI: 0.35-0.70; P &lt; 0.0001)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Exercise</td>
                <td align="center">EX DHF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2011</td>
                <td align="center">Supervised resistance training vs. usual care</td>
                <td align="center">64</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 45 years, LVEF &#8805; 50%, NYHA II-III, diastolic dysfunction, sinus rhythm and &#8805; 1 CV risk factor</td>
                <td align="center">3 months</td>
                <td align="center">It showed to be achievable, safe and effective; Improved functional capacity, diastolic function and quality of life (&#180;p &lt; 0.001)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Comorbidities</td>
                <td align="center">OPTIMIZE-HFPEF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2016</td>
                <td align="center">Systematic screening and optimal treatment of comorbidities vs. usual care</td>
                <td align="center">360</td>
                <td align="center">&gt;60 years, LVEF &#8805; 50%, NYHA II-IV</td>
                <td align="center">2 years</td>
                <td align="center">Assessment of clinical status</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Pacing</td>
                <td align="center">RAPID-HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> (NCT02145351)</td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Dual chamber pacemaker with pacing on vs. pacing off</td>
                <td align="center">30<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 50%, NYHA II-III, diastolic dysfunction and chronotropic incompetence</td>
                <td align="center">4 weeks</td>
                <td align="center">Assessment of exercise capacity, symptoms and quality of life</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Iron Supplementation</td>
                <td align="center">FAIR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> (NCT03074591)</td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Ferric Carboxymaltose IV vs placebo</td>
                <td align="center">200<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 45%, NYHA II-III, diastolic dysfunction, iron deficiency, Hb 9-14g/dL</td>
                <td align="center">52 weeks</td>
                <td align="center">Evaluation of exercise capacity, quality of life, NYHA functional class, mortality and HF hospitalizations</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SGLT2 Inhibitors</td>
                <td align="center">EMPERIAL Preserved<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
									<break/>(NCT03448406)</td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Empagliflozin vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">300<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &gt; 40%, NYHA II-IV, NT-proBNP &gt; 300pg/mL,<break/>6 min-walking distance &#8804; 350 metros</td>
                <td align="center">12 weeks</td>
                <td align="center">Assessment of exercise capacity measured by the 6 min-walking distance</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">Preserved-HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
									<break/>(NCT03030235)</td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Dapagliflozin vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">320<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &#8805; 45%, NYHA II-III, NT-proBNP &#8805; 225pg/mL or BNP &#8805; 75 pg/mL</td>
                <td align="center">12 weeks</td>
                <td align="center">NT-proBNP evaluation</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">EMPEROR-Preserved<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
									<break/>(NCT03057951)</td>
                <td align="center">2021</td>
                <td align="center">Empagliflozin vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">6000<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">LVEF &gt; 40%, NYHA II-IV, NT-proBNP &gt; 300pg/mL</td>
                <td align="center">38 months</td>
                <td align="center">Evaluation of CV death and HF hospitalization</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>AMI: acute myocardial infarction; CAD: coronary artery disease; CO: cardiac output; CV: cardiovascular; HF: heart failure; HR: hazard ratio; LA: left atrium; LVEF: left ventricle ejection fraction; mPAP: mean pulmonary artery pressure; NYHA: New York Heart Association; PAP: pulmonary artery pressure; PCWP: Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure; 95% CI: 95% confidence interval;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Estimated target number.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <sec>
          <title>1. Beta-blockers (BB)</title>
          <p>The <italic>Randomized trial to determine the effect of nebivolol on mortality and cardiovascular hospital admission in elderly patients with heart failure,</italic> the &#8220;SENIORS&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> evaluated the effect of nebivolol in patients over 70 years with a history of HFrFE and HFpEF (LVEF &gt; 35%). Despite the reduction in morbidity and mortality, most patients had reduced LVEF (mean 36%) and a history of coronary artery disease and, thus, it was not possible to extrapolate the results to patients with true HFpEF. In a meta-analysis performed later, the BB were the only drugs able to reduce cardiovascular and all-cause mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> However, patients with different LVEF were included, so the obtained results might possibly have been due to pleiotropic effects in patients with HFmrEF. Recently, our group showed the role of BB in patients with acute coronary syndrome and HFmrEF, demonstrating a reduction of in-hospital mortality, as well as myocardial revascularization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI)/Angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB)</title>
          <p>In spite of the proven efficacy in patients with HFrFE, post-AMI, hypertension and/or high cardiovascular risk, the benefit in patients with HFpEF is limited.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> The <italic>Effects of candesartan in patients with chronic heart failure and preserved left-ventricular ejection fraction,</italic> the <italic>&#8220;</italic>CHARM-Preserved<italic>&#8221;</italic> trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> showed that candesartan, despite reducing hospital admissions, had no impact on cardiovascular mortality when compared to placebo. <italic>The perindopril in elderly people with chronic heart failure,</italic> the &#8220;PEP-CHF&#8221; trial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> evaluated the impact of perindopril in patients with diastolic HF, showing no statistical benefit on long-term mortality or hospitalization. However, it appeared to improve symptoms, exercise capacity and HF hospitalization, particularly in younger patients with a history of AMI or hypertension. In addition, irbesartan showed no benefits in terms of mortality, hospitalizations or quality of life assessed in the <italic>Irbesartan in Patients with Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction,</italic> the &#8220;I-PRESERVE&#8221; trial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Another clinical trial showed that 12 months of enalapril had no effect on exercise capacity, aortic distensibility, ventricular parameters or quality of life.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3. Mineralocorticoid/aldosterone receptor antagonists (MRA)</title>
          <p>Activation of the mineralocorticoid receptors contributes to the pathophysiology of HF through sodium and water retention, potassium loss, endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, fibrosis, and hypertrophy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> These patients would be expected to benefit from MRA use. The <italic>Effect of Spironolactone on Diastolic Function and Exercise Capacity in Patients With Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction,</italic> the &#8220;ALDO-DHF&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> showed advantages in structural reverse cardiac remodeling and improved diastolic function, but did not affect maximal exercise capacity, patient symptoms, or quality of life. The study did not have enough power to evaluate the effect of spironolactone on HF hospitalizations or mortality. The <italic>Spironolactone for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction,</italic> the &#8220;TOPCAT&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> added more information and assessed the clinical impact of spironolactone on HFpEF. Although it did not significantly reduce the primary outcome (cardiovascular death, cardiac arrest or HF hospitalization), a subgroup analysis revealed benefits in patients with elevated natriuretic peptide levels. These results have led current American guidelines to consider spironolactone in selected groups of patients with symptomatic HFpFE, particularly those with high natriuretic peptide levels, aiming to reduce hospitalizations (Class IIb).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4. Angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI)</title>
          <p>Increasing natriuretic peptide levels with ARNI is expected to improve myocardial relaxation, natriuresis, vasodilation and attenuation of sympathetic and fibrotic activity, aiming to improve cardiac function and symptoms. <italic>The angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor LCZ696 in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction</italic>&#8221;, the PARAMOUT&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> trial: a phase II study, randomized 301 patients with HFpEF to receive either ARNI or valsartan. The primary endpoint, which was the change in NT-proBNP levels at 12 weeks, was significantly better in the sacubitril/valsartan group. At 36 weeks, there was also a reduction in left atrial (LA) volume, a marker of LV filling pressures, and an improvement in the NYHA functional class. <italic>Angiotensin Receptor Neprilysin Inhibition in Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction, the</italic> &#8220;PARAGON&#8221;<sup>(20 )</sup>trial: a phase III study, will assess the clinical benefit and safety of this drug in chronic symptomatic patients with HFpEF.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5. Ivabradine</title>
          <p>An elevated heart rate (HR) is a predictive factor of worse outcomes and increased mortality in patients with heart failure, including those with HFpEF. Ivabradine is a specific and selective inhibitor of the sinoatrial node, <italic>if current</italic>, and thereby decreases HR in patients with sinus rhythm.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> In patients with HFpEF, short-term treatment increased exercise capacity by improving LV filling pressures.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> As these patients are mostly symptomatic during exercise, therapies targeting hemodynamic changes during exercise may be useful. The <italic>Effect of ivabradine in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction,</italic> the &#8220;EDIFY&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> evaluated the effect of the drug over 8 months. Unlike the previous study, there was no improvement in the evaluated parameters (diastolic function, exercise capacity and NT-proBNP reduction). Future studies may show benefits in certain subgroups.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6. Digoxin</title>
          <p>Digoxin is also part of the therapeutic algorithm in HFrEF, although it is not the first-line therapy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> A potential benefit in patients with diastolic dysfunction and HFpEF could arise from its neurohormonal action. The <italic>Effects of Digoxin on Morbidity and Mortality in Diastolic Heart Failure,</italic> the &#8220;DIG PEP&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> showed no effect on the natural history endpoints, such as mortality and hospitalizations. Although it was associated with a trend toward reduction in HF hospitalizations, it did not affect the overall results, partly because of a non-significant increase in the risk of hospitalization for unstable angina.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7. Nitrates and Nitrites</title>
          <p>Another pathophysiological mechanism involved in HFpEF is the deregulation of the NO-sGC-cGMP-PKG pathway. A possible therapeutic approach would consist in the use of drugs that act at this level, such as nitrates, phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors, riociguat and vericiguat.</p>
          <p>The <italic>Isosorbide Mononitrate in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction,</italic> the &#8220;NEAT- HFpEF&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> evaluated an isosorbide mononitrate regimen, using increasing doses, for 6 weeks. In addition to the lack of improvement in quality of life or NT-proBNP levels, there was a reduction in daily activity level and increased HF symptoms. Other mechanisms eventually limit the hemodynamic benefits of organic nitrates and predispose patients to excessive hypotension and other adverse effects.</p>
          <p>The hypothesis that the results would be better with inorganic nitrates (NO3) was tested in a pilot study that assessed exercise capacity and the impact on vasculature and skeletal muscle, using NO3-rich beetroot juice. Although the primary endpoint was not reached, the results seemed to be positive.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> It will be important to confirm the results in larger, long-term trials.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8. Sildenafil</title>
          <p>Inhibition of phosphodiesterase-5 seems to reverse cardiac remodeling and improve vascular, neuroendocrine and renal function, with clinical improvement in patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) and HFrEF. The <italic>Effect of Phosphodiesterase-5 Inhibition on Exercise Capacity and Clinical Status in Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction,</italic> the &#8220;RELAX&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> evaluated these parameters in patients with HFpEF, comparing sildenafil with placebo for 24 weeks. Not only was there no improvement in exercise capacity, clinical status, cardiac remodeling or diastolic function, but also the renal function and NTproBNP, endothelin-1 and uric acid levels were adversely affected. In the subgroup of patients with HFpEF and severe pulmonary vascular disease, the results might perhaps be different and more encouraging.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9. sCG Stimulators (Riociguat and Vericiguat)</title>
          <p>Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is frequently seen in patients with HF and has been shown to be a major determinant of worse outcomes, thereby representing a potential novel therapeutic target in HFpEP. Riociguat is a novel soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) stimulator. Its vasodilatory, antifibrotic, antiproliferative and antiinflammatory effect has shown to be efficient in pulmonary arterial hypertension and chronic thromboembolic PH with LV systolic dysfunction. The <italic>Acute Hemodynamic Effects of Riociguat in Patients With Pulmonary Hypertension Associated With Diastolic Heart Failure,</italic> the &#8220;DILATE-1&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> evaluated its effect in patients with PH and diastolic dysfunction. It was an initial study, which assessed a small number of patients and used single doses of riociguat. Despite being well tolerated and improving exploratory hemodynamic and echocardiographic parameters, further studies with larger sample sizes and longer duration are needed to assess its long-term clinical effect.</p>
          <p>In the <italic>Vericiguat in patients with worsening chronic heart failure and preserved ejection fraction,</italic> the &#8220;SOCRATES-Preserved&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> 12 weeks of treatment with vericiguat also did not change the primary endpoints, NT-proBNP levels and LA volume. Some potential to improve quality of life has been suggested, particularly at higher doses, which may be tested in further studies, possibly with higher doses, longer follow-up and additional endpoints.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10. Ranolazine</title>
          <p>It is known that both HF and ischemic heart disease show increased late sodium current on intracellular calcium cycling, compromising cardiac relaxation. By inhibiting the late sodium channels with ranolazine, an improvement in the diastolic function would theoretically be expected.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> The <italic>RAnoLazIne for the Treatment of Diastolic Heart Failure in Patients With Preserved Ejection Fraction, the &#8220;</italic>RALI-DHF&#8221; trial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> was an exploratory study that evaluated the drug in patients with HFpEF. Despite hemodynamic improvements after 24 hours, there were no significant changes in diastolic function after 14 days of treatment.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Another Direction</title>
          <p>The failure of clinical trials in testing proven effective drugs in HFrEF, has led to a new direction in the treatment of patients with HFpEF. Attempts were made to better understand the pathophysiological mechanism of the disease and act on those different pathways (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). New drugs have been tested and new approaches are under research. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1-B</xref>)</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f2">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Potenciais alvos terap&#234;uticos e f&#225;rmacos avaliados na IC-FEp. ARM: antagonistas dos receptores dos mineralocorticoides; BB: Beta-bloqueadores; HTA: hipertens&#227;o arterial; IECAs/ARAs: inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina/antagonistas dos receptores da angiotensina II; INRA: inibidores da neprilisina e dos receptores de angiotensina.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-01-0120-90111-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>11. Albuterol</title>
          <p>Given the frequent lung involvement in these patients, drugs acting at this level are being tested. This is the case of albuterol, an inhaled bronchodilator. The <italic>Inhaled Beta-adrenergic Agonists to Treat Pulmonary Vascular Disease in Heart Failure With Preserved EF,</italic> the <italic>&#8220;</italic>BEAT - HFpEF&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> aims to assess the impact of this drug on symptoms, through its effect on pulmonary vascular resistance at rest and during exercise.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>12. Interatrial septal shunt</title>
          <p>It is known that the atrial volume and pressure overload not only contributes to the development of symptoms and exercise intolerance, but it is also a major determinant of morbimortality. Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) is an invasive hemodynamic parameter with prognostic value, which reflects the pressure in the LA and pulmonary veins. Based on these hemodynamic changes and in view of the limited success of pharmacological management of patients with HFpEF, an interatrial communication device was developed, which is used to reduce LA pressure. The prospective, non-randomized, open-label study, called &#8220;<italic>A Transcatheter Intracardiac Shunt Device for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</italic> &#8220;REDUCE LAP-HF&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> evaluated the performance and safety of this device in 64 patients with HFpEF and elevated PCWP. Preliminary analyses demonstrated clinical and hemodynamic benefits at 6 months. Pressure reductions in LA resulted in improved functional capacity, at the expense of a slight increase in the right cardiac pressure and output. These benefits persisted in a long-term evaluation with sustained improvement of the hemodynamic profile, NYHA functional class, quality of life and exercise capacity at the end of one year, with no evidence of complications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Subsequently, a randomized controlled phase II trial was performed with PCWP evaluation during exercise, one month after the implantation of the interatrial septal shunt device <italic>vs</italic>. sham procedure. It showed to be safe and effective, with a reduction of PCWP and without a significant increase in pulmonary artery pressure (PAP) or pulmonary vascular resistance, which are possible consequences of right cardiac overload.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> It remains unclear whether this hemodynamic effect will lead to sustained clinical improvements.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>13. Monitoring</title>
          <p>Congestive symptoms are present in the majority of patients hospitalized for decompensated HF regardless of LVEF. Changes in body volume and cardiac filling pressures are predictive of adverse events. A strategy of hemodynamic monitoring, with consequent targeted and early therapeutic intervention, may reduce the risk of hospitalization for HF. The<italic>Wireless pulmonary artery haemodynamic monitoring in chronic heart failure</italic>, the &#8220;CHAMPION&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> tested this hypothesis by using a microelectromechanical system pressure sensor permanently implanted during right cardiac catheterization. Through daily assessment of PAP and active reduction of filling pressures with diuretics and vasodilators, significant reductions were demonstrated in hospital admissions. The benefits persisted in the subgroup of patients with HFpEF, with reductions of 50% in HF hospitalizations after 17 months.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>14. Exercise</title>
          <p>Physical exercise is beneficial in certain conditions strictly related to HFpEF, such as hypertension and metabolic syndrome. The effect of structured and supervised training on exercise capacity, diastolic function and quality of life was evaluated. The <italic>Exercise Training Improves Exercise Capacity and Diastolic Function in Patients With Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction, the &#8220;</italic>EX DHF&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> showed that a short-term supervised endurance/resistance training is achievable, safe, and effective in patients with HFpEF. The program maintenance in the long term and the involvement of elderly patients, at advanced stages of the disease and with multiple comorbidities, are possible limitations. Nevertheless, it seems a promising strategy with potential synergism with other pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches. It is important to define the regimen approach, improve long-term adherence and expand availability.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>15. Comorbidities</title>
          <p>Another of the proposed pathophysiological mechanisms involves the existence of a systemic proinflammatory state induced by multiple comorbidities, resulting in endothelial dysfunction, cardiac remodeling and dysfunction. It was hypothesized that by screening and treating comorbidities in a targeted manner, the overall prognosis of these patients could be improved. The <italic>Optimizing the Management of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction in the Elderly by Targeting Comorbidities,</italic> the &#8220;OPTIMIZE-HFpEF&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> proposes a systematic screening and optimized treatment of comorbidities as a pathophysiological mechanism of HF, rather than the simple treatment of previously diagnosed concomitant pathologies. Although it lacks sufficient power to assess cost-effectiveness, it is a good starting point to test a new promising approach.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>16. Pacing</title>
          <p>Patients with HFpEF and chronotropic incompetence may benefit from pacemaker devices, which may help to restore the normal HR during daily activity and exercise. The <italic>Rate-Adaptive Atrial Pacing In Diastolic Heart Failure</italic> (RAPID-HF) trial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> aims to evaluate the impact of this intervention on short-term exercise capacity, symptoms and quality of life.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>17. Iron Supplementation</title>
          <p>Iron kinetics is part of the initial evaluation of patients with HF. Intravenous iron supplementation is part of the therapeutic approach in patients with HFrEF and reduced iron stores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> The <italic>Effect of IV Iron Ferric Carboxymaltose (Ferinject) on Exercise Tolerance, Symptoms and Quality of Life in Patients With Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction and Iron Deficiency With and Without Anaemia, the</italic> &#8220;FAIR&#8221; trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> aims to evaluate the effect of intravenous iron on exercise capacity, quality of life, NYHA functional class, mortality and hospitalizations for HF in patients with HFpEF and iron deficiency, with or without anemia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>18. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i)</title>
          <p>HF and diabetes frequently coexist, associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular mortality and HF hospitalization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Several studies with SGLT2 inhibitors have demonstrated a significant reduction in HF hospitalizations in diabetic patients at high cardiovascular risk or with established cardiovascular disease (<italic>Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes &#8220;EMPA-REG&#8221;,</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref><italic>Canagliflozin and Cardiovascular and Renal Events in Type 2 Diabetes &#8220;CANVAS&#8221;,</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><italic>Dapagliflozin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes &#8220;DECLARE&#8221;</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> trials<italic>).</italic> Given the potential benefits of this pharmacological group in improving diastolic function in patients with HF,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> studies are underway to determine the impact of these drugs in patients with HFpEF, with and without diabetes (<italic>A Phase III Randomised, Double-blind Trial to Evaluate the Effect of 12 Weeks Treatment of Once Daily EMPagliflozin 10 mg Compared With Placebo on ExeRcise Ability and Heart Failure Symptoms, In Patients With Chronic HeArt FaiLure With Preserved Ejection Fraction (HFpEF) &#8220;EMPERIAL - Preserved&#8221;,(</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><italic>) Dapagliflozin in PRESERVED Ejection Fraction Heart Failure &#8220;PRESERVED-HF&#8221;,(</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref><italic>) EMPagliflozin outcomE tRial in Patients With chrOnic heaRt Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction &#8220;EMPEROR-Preserved&#8221;(</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref><italic>).</italic></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusions</title>
      <p>HFpEF is a common pathology, still poorly understood and without any treatment proven to be effective in reducing morbidity or mortality.</p>
      <p>There seems to be no single cause to justify the failure of the obtained results; however, potential contributions can be identified: incomplete understanding of the pathophysiology, heterogeneity of the studied population, lack of universal diagnostic criteria with recruitment of patients without true HFpEF or at the very early stages, treatment not targeting the predominant pathophysiological mechanism, suboptimal designs or weak statistical power of the trials.</p>
      <p>The pathophysiology of HFpEF is multifactorial, with several mechanisms and comorbidities involved, and probably different from those of HFrEF. It results from a complex interaction of factors that culminate in the reduction of cardiac and vascular functional reserve - systolic and diastolic dysfunction, atrial reserve, heart rate and rhythm, autonomic control, vasculature and microcirculation. The interaction and relative dominance of these factors make this pathology extremely heterogeneous. The definition and division into subgroups with certain phenotypes may allow a more targeted treatment, with possible improvement of the clinical results.</p>
      <p>Several clinical trials are being carried out, using different therapeutic approaches. It is important to remember that these patients tend to be older and have multiple pathologies. Thus, the benefit of the treatments may be better evaluated by their effect on hospitalizations, functional status, symptoms and quality of life.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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              <surname>Ponikowski</surname>
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              <surname>Brueckmann</surname>
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              <given-names>C</given-names>
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              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Peil</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
            <collab>EMPERIAL Investigators and National Coordinators</collab>
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          <source>Eur Heart Fail</source>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fisiopatologia e Tratamento da Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca com Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o Preservada: Estado da Arte e Perspectivas para o Futuro</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0045-8375</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Sara Lopes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Rita Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4897-0220</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Lu&#237;s Gra&#231;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3175-3673</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>S&#225;</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Montenegro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ruivo</surname>
            <given-names>Catarina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3116-3764</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mendes</surname>
            <given-names>Sofia L&#225;zaro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>H&#233;lia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Morais</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Araujo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Hospitalar de Leiria, Leiria - Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Sara Lopes Fernandes,</bold> Centro Hospitalar de Leiria - Rua das Olhalvas - Pousos, 2410-197, Leiria - Portugal. E-mail: <email>sarafernandes24892@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Fernandes SL; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Carvalho RR, Santos LG, S&#225; FM, Ruivo C, Mendes SL, Martins H, Morais JA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca/diagn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca/ terapia medicamentosa</kwd>
        <kwd>Volume Sist&#243;lico</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</p>
      <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) &#233; extremamente prevalente e apresenta impacto consider&#225;vel na mortalidade e qualidade de vida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Afeta cerca de 1-3% da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, aumentando exponencialmente com a idade e atingindo mais de 10% acima dos 70 anos. Atendendo ao aumento da esperan&#231;a m&#233;dia de vida, melhores m&#233;todos de diagn&#243;stico e aumento de comorbidades &#233; uma prov&#225;vel preval&#234;ncia crescente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
			</p>
      <p>&#201; uma s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica caracterizada por sintomas cl&#225;ssicos (como fadiga e dispneia) que podem ser acompanhados por sinais cl&#237;nicos (ingurgitamento jugular, fervores pulmonares e edemas perif&#233;ricos), causados por uma altera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca estrutural e/ou funcional, resultando na diminui&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco (DC) e/ou eleva&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es intracard&#237;acas em repouso ou no esfor&#231;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
			</p>
      <p>A principal terminologia usada na descri&#231;&#227;o baseia-se no valor de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (FE) do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE), distinguindo doentes com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida &lt;40% (IC-FEr), interm&#233;dia entre 40-49% (IC-FEi) e preservada &#8805;50% (IC-FEp). Esta classifica&#231;&#227;o &#233; importante atendendo &#224;s diferen&#231;as de etiologia, fisiopatologia, tratamentos dispon&#237;veis e resposta aos mesmos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> A IC-FEp representa cerca de metade dos casos de IC nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>A fisiopatologia &#233; complexa, heterog&#234;nea e ainda pouco compreendida. A elevada variedade de fen&#243;tipos, resultado dos v&#225;rios mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos, comorbidades e caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas dominantes, tornam o diagn&#243;stico e tratamento extremamente desafiantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Ao contr&#225;rio da IC-FEr, nenhum tratamento mostrou ainda, de forma convincente, redu&#231;&#227;o da morbidade ou mortalidade na IC-FEp ou IC-FEi. V&#225;rios ensaios cl&#237;nicos, avaliando f&#225;rmacos comprovadamente eficazes na IC-FEr, falharam na demonstra&#231;&#227;o de benef&#237;cio progn&#243;stico nestes doentes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Atualmente as recomenda&#231;&#245;es existentes baseiam-se no al&#237;vio dos sintomas, rastreio e tratamento de comorbidades.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Novas terap&#234;uticas est&#227;o sob investiga&#231;&#227;o, especialmente direcionadas aos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Com esta revis&#227;o prende-se abordar a fisiopatologia da IC-FEp e sumarizar a investiga&#231;&#227;o que tem sido realizada em termos de tratamento, incluindo fracassos, esperan&#231;as e perspectivas futuras.</p>
      <p>Para a estrutura&#231;&#227;o deste artigo de revis&#227;o foram pesquisadas nas tr&#234;s bases de dados: <italic>Medline - Pubmed, ISI Web of knowledge</italic> e <italic>Scopus,</italic> as seguintes palavras-chave na l&#237;ngua inglesa e portuguesa &#8220;Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca E fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada&#8221;, &#8220;Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca E fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada E fisiopatologia&#8221; e &#8220;Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca E fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada E tratamento&#8221;. A pesquisa decorreu entre Janeiro e Mar&#231;o de 2019. Foram inclu&#237;dos estudos prospectivos e retrospectivos e exclu&#237;dos casos cl&#237;nicos, resumos apresentados em congressos (n&#227;o publicados sob a forma de artigo) e estudos com menos de 10 doentes. A elegibilidade de cada estudo foi avaliada por tr&#234;s investigadores de forma independente. As opini&#245;es divergentes relativamente &#224; relev&#226;ncia dos artigos foram abordadas por consenso entre os autores.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Fisiopatologia</title>
        <p>A fisiopatologia &#233; complexa e ainda pouco compreendida. Sabe-se que, comparando com a IC-FEr, estes doentes s&#227;o geralmente mais idosos, do g&#234;nero feminino e apresentam m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades cardiovasculares, como a hipertens&#227;o arterial (HTA), fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA), doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC), hipertens&#227;o pulmonar (HTP), e n&#227;o cardiovasculares como a diabetes mellitus (DM), a doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (DRC), anemia, doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica (DPOC), entre outras. Tem tamb&#233;m maior percentagem de patologias n&#227;o cardiovasculares, com grande impacto na morbimortalidade, e menor incid&#234;ncia de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) bem como casos de morte s&#250;bita ou morte por IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Historicamente a IC-FEp foi associada exclusivamente a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, em oposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; IC-FEr, associada a disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica. Atualmente sabe-se que n&#227;o &#233; assim t&#227;o linear, podendo ambos os tipos de IC ter compromisso sist&#243;lico e/ou diast&#243;lico, e sendo v&#225;rios os mecanismos implicados na IC-FEp. Esta pensa-se resultar de uma complexa variedade de disfun&#231;&#245;es a n&#237;vel card&#237;aco, vascular e sist&#234;mico, com contribui&#231;&#227;o de diversas comorbidades.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>)</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fisiopatologia da IC-FEp - poss&#237;veis mecanismos implicados. DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; DM: diabetes mellitus; DPOC: doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica; DRC: doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; HTA: hipertens&#227;o arterial; HTP: hipertens&#227;o pulmonar; IC-FEp: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada; NO-GMPc- PKG, &#243;xido n&#237;trico, monofosfato c&#237;clico de guanosina e prote&#237;na cinase G; SRAA: sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-01-0120-90111-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica est&#225; geralmente presente e resulta de altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais (fibrose, hipertrofia e remodelagem card&#237;aca), disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular e anomalias metab&#243;licas, com aumento da rigidez e diminui&#231;&#227;o da <italic>compliance</italic> card&#237;aca. Isto origina n&#227;o s&#243; um aumento das press&#245;es de enchimento do VE, como pode levar a altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais e funcionais a n&#237;vel auricular, pulmonar e do ventr&#237;culo direito, por aumento das press&#245;es a montante. Verifica-se tamb&#233;m compromisso da reserva sist&#243;lica, principalmente &#224; custa de altera&#231;&#245;es na rela&#231;&#227;o ventr&#237;culo-vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es auriculares, com dilata&#231;&#227;o e remodelagem, propiciam o aparecimento de FA. A HTP, presente em 53-83% dos casos e associada a pior progn&#243;stico, parece contribuir tamb&#233;m para a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> O aparecimento de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita, com congest&#227;o venosa sist&#233;mica, faz prever tamb&#233;m piores resultados, associados a edema, mal absor&#231;&#227;o, hepatopatia, s&#237;ndrome cardiorenal e caquexia.</p>
        <p>Outro mecanismo envolvido &#233; a incompet&#234;ncia cronotr&#243;pica, com varia&#231;&#245;es da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) inadequadas &#224;s necessidades, prov&#225;vel consequ&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#245;es no sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> A assincronia el&#233;trica e/ou mec&#226;nica, sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica, foi tamb&#233;m observada em alguns doentes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> A sua magnitude relaciona-se com a extens&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e com a capacidade de esfor&#231;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Muitas destas altera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o s&#227;o aparentes nem acarretam qualquer compromisso em repouso, tratando-se de limita&#231;&#245;es da reserva funcional, s&#243; evidentes no esfor&#231;o.</p>
        <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es neurohormonais como disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica e ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA) s&#227;o tamb&#233;m importantes mecanismos implicados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A n&#237;vel vascular verifica-se disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, aumento da rigidez dos vasos e compromisso da vasodilata&#231;&#227;o. Um potencial mecanismo ser&#225; a desregula&#231;&#227;o da via NO-sGC-GMPc-PKG (oxido n&#237;trico, guanilato ciclase sol&#250;vel, monofosfato c&#237;clico de guanosina e prote&#237;na cinase G), respons&#225;vel pelo relaxamento do m&#250;sculo liso, prote&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, transcri&#231;&#227;o g&#234;nica, permeabilidade endotelial e inibi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> A n&#237;vel perif&#233;rico, altera&#231;&#245;es m&#250;sculo-esquel&#233;ticas, parecem contribuir para a redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade aer&#243;bica, com menor toler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o.</p>
        <p>Tanto a idade como as v&#225;rias comorbidades presentes intensificam estes mecanismos e contribuem para a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a. A intera&#231;&#227;o entre os v&#225;rios fatores fisiopatol&#243;gicos e comorbidades e a domin&#226;ncia relativa de cada um deles tornam esta patologia complexa e heterog&#234;nica, dificultando o diagn&#243;stico e a terap&#234;utica. A divis&#227;o em subgrupos, com determinados fen&#243;tipos, pode agilizar esse processo ao permitir uma abordagem mais particular e dirigida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico da IC-FEp &#233; mais desafiante que o da IC-FEr. Foram v&#225;rias as classifica&#231;&#245;es propostas e diversos os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o dos estudos realizados, contribuindo para a enorme heterogeneidade de doentes envolvidos em ensaios cl&#237;nicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
				</p>
        <p>As orienta&#231;&#245;es atuais, propostas pela <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic>, implicam a exist&#234;ncia de 3 crit&#233;rios de diagn&#243;stico: sintomas e sinais de IC, FEVE &#8805; 50%, n&#237;veis elevados de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos e doen&#231;a card&#237;aca estrutural relevante e/ou disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Apesar destas recomenda&#231;&#245;es, atendendo &#224; heterogeneidade cl&#237;nica, aus&#234;ncia de crit&#233;rios patognom&#244;nicos e a multiplicidade de diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais, s&#227;o v&#225;rios os desafios e as incertezas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento</title>
        <p>Ao contr&#225;rio da IC-FEr, nenhum tratamento mostrou ainda redu&#231;&#227;o da morbidade ou mortalidade. Perante isso as recomenda&#231;&#245;es atuais baseiam-se no al&#237;vio dos sintomas com diur&#233;ticos, rastreio e tratamento de comorbidades.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Os diur&#233;ticos est&#227;o recomendados em caso de congest&#227;o perif&#233;rica ou pulmonar, independentemente da FEVE, para al&#237;vio de sintomas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> S&#227;o largamente utilizados, particularmente os diur&#233;ticos de ansa, ainda que n&#227;o existam recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas quanto &#224; escolha.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>V&#225;rios ensaios cl&#237;nicos testaram o efeito de f&#225;rmacos comprovadamente eficazes na IC-FEr, no tratamento da IC-FEp. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1-A</xref>)</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>A) Principais estudos realizados na IC-FEp com f&#225;rmacos eficazes no tratamento da IC-FEr; B) Novos f&#225;rmacos e novas abordagens na IC-FEp</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="12%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>A</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Ensaio Cl&#237;nico</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Ano</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Interven&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>N&#186; sujeitos</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Principais caracter&#237;sticas</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Dura&#231;&#227;o estudo</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Principais conclus&#245;es</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Beta-bloqueadores</td>
                <td align="center">SENIORS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2005</td>
                <td align="center">Nebivolol vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">2.128</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 70 anos, FEVE m&#233;dia de 36%, 35% com FEVE &gt; 35%, 68% DAC</td>
                <td align="center">1,8 anos</td>
                <td align="center">Bem tolerado e efetivo na redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o CV (HR 0,86, IC95% 0,74-0,99; p = 0,039)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IECAs/ARAs</td>
                <td align="center">CHARM Preserved<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2003</td>
                <td align="center">Candesartan vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">3.023</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 18 anos, FEVE &gt; 40%, NYHA II-IV</td>
                <td align="center">3 anos</td>
                <td align="center">Tend&#234;ncia para redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade CV e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC (<italic>unadjusted</italic> HR 0,89 [95%CI 0.77-1.03], p = 0.118; covariate adjusted 0.86 [0.74-1.0], p = 0.051)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">PEP-CHF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2006</td>
                <td align="center">Perindopril vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">850</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 70 anos, IC sob diur&#233;ticos, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, sem disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ou valvular</td>
                <td align="center">2,1 anos</td>
                <td align="center">Sem diferen&#231;a na mortalidade ou hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o (HR 0,92 IC95% 0,70-1,21, p = 0,545). Alguma melhoria dos sintomas, capacidade de exerc&#237;cio e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC no 1&#186; ano de seguimento (doentes mais jovens e com IAM ou HTA)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">I-PRESERVE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2008</td>
                <td align="center">Irbesartan vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">4.128</td>
                <td align="center">&gt;60 anos, FEVE &gt; 45%, NYHA II-IV</td>
                <td align="center">4,1 anos</td>
                <td align="center">Sem melhoria da mortalidade ou hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es CV (HR IC95% 0,86-1,05, p = 0,35)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">Enalapril <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2010</td>
                <td align="center">Enalapril vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">71</td>
                <td align="center">70 &#177; 1 anos (80% mulheres), FEVE &#8805; 50%, IC compensada e HTA controlada</td>
                <td align="center">1 ano</td>
                <td align="center">Sem impacto na capacidade de exerc&#237;cio (p = 0,99), distensibilidade a&#243;rtica (p = 0,93), volume e massa ventricular (p = 1) ou qualidade de vida (p = 0,07)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ARM</td>
                <td align="center">Aldo -DHF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2013</td>
                <td align="center">Espironolactona vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">422</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 50 anos, FEVE &#8805; 50%, NYHA II-III, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica</td>
                <td align="center">1 ano</td>
                <td align="center">Melhoria da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica (E/e' p &lt; 0,001, remodelagem ventricular p = 0,09 e ativa&#231;&#227;o neurohormonal p = 0,03). Sem melhoria da capacidade de exerc&#237;cio, sintomas ou qualidade de vida (p = 0,03)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">TOPCAT<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2014</td>
                <td align="center">Espironolactona vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">3.445</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 50 anos, FEVE &#8805; 45%, IC sintom&#225;tica, internamento h&#225; &lt;1 ano ou eleva&#231;&#227;o dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos</td>
                <td align="center">3,3 anos</td>
                <td align="center">Sem redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade CV, paragem card&#237;aca ou hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC (HR 0,89; IC95% 0,77 to 1,04; p = 0,14). Algum benef&#237;cio em caso de eleva&#231;&#227;o dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">INRA</td>
                <td align="center">PARAMOUNT<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2012</td>
                <td align="center">Sacubitril/valsartan vs. valsartan</td>
                <td align="center">301</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE&#8805;45%, NYHA II-III e NT-proBNP &gt; 400 pg/ml</td>
                <td align="center">12 e 36 semanas</td>
                <td align="center">Redu&#231;&#227;o do NT-proBNP &#224;s 12s (HR 0,77, IC95% 0,64-0,92, p = 0,005); redu&#231;&#227;o do volume da AE (p = 0,003) e melhoria da classe NYHA (p = 0,05) &#224;s 36s</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">PARAGON<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2019<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">Sacubitril/valsartan vs. valsartan</td>
                <td align="center">4.300</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &#8805; 45%, NYHA II-IV, eleva&#231;&#227;o dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos e doen&#231;a card&#237;aca estrutural</td>
                <td align="center">&gt;2 anos</td>
                <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade cardiovascular e hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por IC</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Ivabradina</td>
                <td align="center">Inibidores correntes If<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2013</td>
                <td align="center">Ivabradina vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">61</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &#8805; 50%, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, NYHA II-III, ritmo sinusal, FC &#8805; 60 bpm, capacidade exerc&#237;cio &lt; 80% para idade e g&#233;nero</td>
                <td align="center">7 dias</td>
                <td align="center">Aumento da capacidade de exerc&#237;cio (p = 0,001), com melhoria do status hemodin&#226;mico durante o mesmo (p = 0,004); melhoria da press&#227;o de enchimento do VE (p = 0,02)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">EDIFY<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2017</td>
                <td align="center">Ivabradina vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">179</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &#8805;45%, NYHA II-III, ritmo sinusal, FC &#8805; 70 bpm, NT-proBNP &#8805; 220 pg/mL (BNP &#8805; 80 pg/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">8 meses</td>
                <td align="center">Sem melhoria da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica (HR 1,4 IC90% 0,3-2,5, p = 0,135), capacidade exerc&#237;cio (p = 0,882) ou redu&#231;&#227;o NT-proBNP (FC 1,01, IC95% -0,86-1,19; p = 0,882)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Digoxina</td>
                <td align="center">DIG PEF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2006</td>
                <td align="center">Digoxina vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">988</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &gt; 40% (m&#233;dia 53%), ritmo sinusal</td>
                <td align="center">3,1 anos</td>
                <td align="center">Sem benef&#237;cio na hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a, mortalidade e hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es CV (HR 0,82; IC95% 0,63-1,07; p = 0,136)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Nitratos e Nitritos</td>
                <td align="center">NEAT HFpEF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2015</td>
                <td align="center">Mononitrato de isossorbido vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">110</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 50 anos, FEVE &#8805; 50%, evid&#234;ncia objetiva de IC</td>
                <td align="center">6 semanas</td>
                <td align="center">Sem melhoria da qualidade de vida (p = 0,37) ou dos n&#237;veis de NT-proBNP (p = 0,22); Redu&#231;&#245;es do n&#237;vel de atividade di&#225;ria (-381 IC95%-780-17, p = 0,06) e aumento dos sintomas de IC</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">Inorganic nitrate on exercise capacity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2015</td>
                <td align="center">Sumo de beterraba rico em NO3 vs. placebo (toma &#250;nica)</td>
                <td align="center">17</td>
                <td align="center">IC sintom&#225;tica, FEVE &gt; 50%</td>
                <td align="center">12 dias</td>
                <td align="center">Melhoria da capacidade de exerc&#237;cio (p = 0,04) (redu&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia vascular, aumento do DC e aumento da entrega de oxig&#234;nio aos tecidos)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Sildenafil</td>
                <td align="center">RELAX<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2013</td>
                <td align="center">Sildenafil vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">216</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &#8805; 50%, NYHA II-IV, NT-proBNP &gt; 400 pg/ml,<break/>Peak VO<sub>2</sub>&lt; 60%, ou eleva&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es de enchimento do VE</td>
                <td align="center">24 semanas</td>
                <td align="center">Sem efeito na capacidade de exerc&#237;cio (p = 0,90), estado cl&#237;nico (p = 0,85) ou fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica (p = 0,16). Agravamento da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, NT-proBNP, endotelina-1 e &#225;cido &#250;rico</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Estimuladores sCG</td>
                <td align="center">DILATE-1<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2014</td>
                <td align="center">Riociguat vs. placebo (toma &#250;nica)</td>
                <td align="center">39</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 18 anos, FEVE&gt;50% e HTP; mPAP &#8805; 25 mm Hg e PCWP&gt; 15 mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">30 dias</td>
                <td align="center">Bem tolerado; melhoraria dos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos e ecocardiogr&#225;ficos explorat&#243;rios; sem impacto na mPAP (p = 0,60)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">SOCRATES-Preserved<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2016</td>
                <td align="center">Vericiguat vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">470</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &#8805; 45%, NYHA II-IV,<break/>eleva&#231;&#227;o dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos</td>
                <td align="center">12 semanas</td>
                <td align="center">Sem altera&#231;&#227;o do NT-proBNP (p = 0,20) ou volume AE (p = 0,37). Algum potencial na melhoria da qualidade de vida (p = 0,016), particularmente com doses mais elevadas</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Ranolazina</td>
                <td align="center">RALI-DHF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2013</td>
                <td align="center">Ranolazina vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">20</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &#8805; 45%, E/E`&gt;15 ou NT-proBNP&gt;220 pg/ml, tau &#8805; 50 ms, LVEDP&#8805;18 mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">14 dias</td>
                <td align="center">Apesar de melhorias hemodin&#226;micas &#224;s 24h, n&#227;o houve altera&#231;&#227;o nos par&#226;metros de fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>B</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Ensaio Cl&#237;nico</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Ano</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Interven&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>N&#186; sujeitos</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Principais caracter&#237;sticas</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Dura&#231;&#227;o estudo</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Principais conclus&#245;es</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Albuterol</td>
                <td align="center">BEAT - HFpEF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Albuterol vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &#8805; 50%, eleva&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es de enchimento do VE, PCWP &gt; 15 mmHg e/ou &#8805; 25 no exerc&#237;cio</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas na IC-FEp, atrav&#233;s do seu efeito na resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar em repouso e no exerc&#237;cio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left"><italic>Shunt</italic> esquerdo-direito</td>
                <td align="center">REDUCE LAP-HF I<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2017</td>
                <td align="center">Dispositivo de comunica&#231;&#227;o inter-auricular vs. procedimento simulado</td>
                <td align="center">94</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &gt; 40% e PCWP elevada</td>
                <td align="center">1 m&#234;s</td>
                <td align="center">Revelou ser seguro e eficaz; Redu&#231;&#227;o da PCWP (p=0,028) sem aumento significativo da PAP ou resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">CHAMPION<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2014</td>
                <td align="center">Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica vs. controlo</td>
                <td align="center">119</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &gt; 40% (m&#233;dia de 50,6%), NYHA III</td>
                <td align="center">17,6 meses</td>
                <td align="center">Redu&#231;&#227;o significativa das admiss&#245;es hospitalares por IC (HR 0,50; IC95% 0,35-0.70; p &lt; 0,0001)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Exerc&#237;cio</td>
                <td align="center">EX DHF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2011</td>
                <td align="center">Treino de resist&#234;ncia supervisionado vs. tratamento usual</td>
                <td align="center">64</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 45 anos, FEVE &#8805; 50%, NYHA II-III, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, ritmo sinusal e &#8805; 1 fator risco CV</td>
                <td align="center">3 meses</td>
                <td align="center">Revelou ser realiz&#225;vel, seguro e efetivo; Melhoria da capacidade funcional, a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e a qualidade de vida (p &lt; 0,001)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Comorbidades</td>
                <td align="center">OPTIMIZE-HFPEF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">2016</td>
                <td align="center">Rastreio sistem&#225;tico e tratamento ativo de comorbidades vs. tratamento usual</td>
                <td align="center">360</td>
                <td align="center">&gt;60 anos, FEVE &#8805; 50%, NYHA II-IV</td>
                <td align="center">2 anos</td>
                <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o do estado cl&#237;nico em melhorado ou deteriorado</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Pacing</td>
                <td align="center">RAPID-HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
									<break/>(NCT02145351)</td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Marcapasso de dupla c&#226;mara com <italic>pacing on</italic> vs. <italic>pancing off</italic></td>
                <td align="center">30<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE&#8805; 50%, NYHA II-III, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e incompet&#234;ncia cronotr&#243;pica</td>
                <td align="center">4 semanas</td>
                <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o da capacidade de exerc&#237;cio, sintomas e qualidade de vida</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Suplementa&#231;&#227;o com ferro</td>
                <td align="center">FAIR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
									<break/>(NCT03074591)</td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Carboximaltose f&#233;rrica IV vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">200<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &#8805; 45%, NYHA II-III, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, defici&#234;ncia de ferro, Hb 9-14 g/dl</td>
                <td align="center">52 semanas</td>
                <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o da toler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o, qualidade de vida, classe funcional de NYHA, mortalidade e hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por IC</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Inibidores SGLT2</td>
                <td align="center">EMPERIAL Preserved<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
									<break/>(NCT03448406)</td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Empagliflozina vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">300<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE&gt;40%, NYHA II-IV,<break/>NT-proBNP &gt; 300 pg/ml,<break/>prova de marcha 6 minutos &#8804; 350 metros.</td>
                <td align="center">12 semanas</td>
                <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o da mudan&#231;a na capacidade de exerc&#237;cio medida pela prova de marcha de 6 minutos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">Preserved-HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
									<break/>(NCT03030235)</td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Dapagliflozina vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">320<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &#8805; 45%, NYHA II-III, NT-proBNP &#8805; 225 pg/ml ou BNP&#8805;75 pg/ml</td>
                <td align="center">12 semanas</td>
                <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o do NT-proBNP</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">EMPEROR-Preserved<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
									<break/>(NCT03057951)</td>
                <td align="center">2021</td>
                <td align="center">Empagliflozina vs. placebo</td>
                <td align="center">6000<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">FEVE &gt; 40%, NYHA II-IV, NT-proBNP &gt; 300 pg/ml</td>
                <td align="center">38 meses</td>
                <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o da morte CV e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; CV: cardiovascular, DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; DC: d&#233;bito card&#237;aco; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; HR: hazard ratio; HTA: hipertens&#227;o arterial; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; IC95%: intervalo de confian&#231;a 95%; mPAP: m&#233;dia press&#227;o art&#233;ria pulmonar; NYHA: New York Heart Association; PAP: press&#227;o art&#233;ria pulmonar; PCWP: press&#227;o de encravamento pulmonar; s: semanas;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>N&#250;mero alvo estimado.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <sec>
          <title>1. Beta-bloqueadores (BB)</title>
          <p>O estudo <italic>Randomized trial to determine the effect of nebivolol on mortality and cardiovascular hospital admission in elderly patients with heart failure</italic> &#8220;SENIORS&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> avaliou o efeito do nebivolol em doentes acima dos 70 anos com IC-FEr e ICFEp (FEVE &gt; 35%). Apesar da redu&#231;&#227;o na morbidade e mortalidade, a maioria dos doentes apresentava FEVE reduzida (m&#233;dia de 36%) e antecedentes de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria, n&#227;o sendo poss&#237;vel extrapolar os resultados para doentes com verdadeira IC-FEp. Numa metan&#225;lise realizada posteriormente, os BB foram os &#250;nicos f&#225;rmacos a reduzir a mortalidade cardiovascular e por todas as causas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> No entanto foram inclu&#237;dos doentes com diferentes FEVE, podendo os resultados dever-se aos efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos em doentes com IC-FEi. Recentemente o nosso grupo mostrou o papel dos BB nos doentes com s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda e IC-FEi, reduzindo a mortalidade hospitalar, a par da revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2. Inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina (IECAs)/ Antagonistas dos receptores da angiotensina II (ARAs)</title>
          <p>Apesar do efeito comprovado na IC-FEr e em doentes p&#243;s IAM, com HTA e/ou elevado risco cardiovascular, o beneficio em pacientes com IC-FEp &#233; limitado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> O estudo <italic>Effects of candesartan in patients with chronic heart failure and preserved left-ventricular ejection fraction &#8220;</italic>CHARM- Preserved<italic>&#8221;,</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> mostrou que o candesartan, apesar de reduzir as admiss&#245;es hospitalares, n&#227;o teve impacto na mortalidade cardiovascular em rela&#231;&#227;o ao placebo. O <italic>The perindopril in elderly people with chronic heart failure</italic> &#8220;PEP-CHF&#8221;,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> avaliou o impacto do perindopril em doentes com IC diast&#243;lica, n&#227;o mostrando diferen&#231;a significativa na mortalidade ou hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Pareceu no entanto melhorar os sintomas, capacidade de exerc&#237;cio e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC, particularmente em doentes mais jovens e com hist&#243;ria de IAM ou HTA. Tamb&#233;m o irbesartan n&#227;o mostrou vantagens em termos de mortalidade, hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es ou qualidade de vida, avaliados no <italic>Irbesartan in Patients with Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction</italic> &#8220;I-PRESERVE&#8221;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Outro ensaio clinico mostrou que doze meses de enalapril n&#227;o tiveram qualquer impacto na melhoria da capacidade de exerc&#237;cio, distensibilidade a&#243;rtica, par&#226;metros ventriculares ou qualidade de vida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3. Antagonistas dos receptores mineralocorticoides (ARM)</title>
          <p>A ativa&#231;&#227;o dos receptores mineralocorticoides contribui para a fisiopatologia da IC atrav&#233;s da reten&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio e &#225;gua, perda de pot&#225;ssio, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, inflama&#231;&#227;o, fibrose e hipertrofia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Seria de esperar algum benef&#237;cio dos ARM nestes doentes. O estudo <italic>Effect of Spironolactone on Diastolic Function and Exercise Capacity in Patients With Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction</italic> &#8220;ALDO-DHF&#8221;,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> mostrou vantagens na revers&#227;o das altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais e fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, contudo sem melhoria da capacidade de exerc&#237;cio, sintomas ou qualidade de vida e sem poder suficiente para avaliar mortalidade e hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es. O estudo <italic>Spironolactone for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</italic> &#8220;TOPCAT&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> veio complementar a informa&#231;&#227;o e avaliar o impacto cl&#237;nico da espironolactona na IC-FEp. Apesar de n&#227;o reduzir significativamente o <italic>outcome</italic> prim&#225;rio (morte cardiovascular, paragem card&#237;aca ou hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC), uma an&#225;lise de subgrupos revelou benef&#237;cios em caso de eleva&#231;&#227;o dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos. Estes resultados levaram as orienta&#231;&#245;es americanas atuais considerarem a espironolactona em grupos selecionados de doentes com IC-FEp sintom&#225;tica, particularmente aqueles com n&#237;veis elevados de BPN, para redu&#231;&#227;o das hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es (Classe IIb).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4. Inibidores da neprilisina e angiotensina (INRA)</title>
          <p>Aumentando os pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos com INRA, espera-se uma melhoria do relaxamento mioc&#225;rdico, da natriurese, vasodilata&#231;&#227;o e atenua&#231;&#227;o da atividade simp&#225;tica e fibr&#243;tica, com vista a melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o e sintomas card&#237;acos. <italic>The angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor LCZ696 in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction</italic>&#8221;PARAMOUT&#8221;,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> estudo fase II, randomizou 301 doentes com IC-FEp para receber INRA vs. valsartan. O <italic>endpoint</italic> prim&#225;rio, diminui&#231;&#227;o do NT-proBNP em 12 semanas, foi significativamente superior no grupo sacubitril/valsartan. &#192;s 36 semanas verificou-se ainda redu&#231;&#227;o do volume do &#225;trio esquerdo (AE), reflexo das press&#245;es de enchimento do VE, e aparente melhoria da classe Funcional de NYHA. <italic>Angiotensin Receptor Neprilysin Inhibition in Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction</italic> &#8220;PARAGON&#8221;,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> de fase III ir&#225; avaliar a efic&#225;cia cl&#237;nica e seguran&#231;a do f&#225;rmaco na IC-FEp cr&#244;nica sintom&#225;tica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5. Ivabradina</title>
          <p>A FC elevada &#233; um fator preditor de piores resultados na IC. A ivabradina, ao inibir as correntes <italic>If</italic> no n&#243;dulo sino-auricular, diminui a FC em doentes em ritmo sinusal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Na IC-FEp, o tratamento a curto prazo aumentou a capacidade de exerc&#237;cio, por melhoria das press&#245;es de enchimento do VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Sendo estes doentes maioritariamente sintom&#225;ticos durante o esfor&#231;o, terap&#234;uticas cujo alvo sejam as altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas durante o mesmo podem ser &#250;teis. O estudo <italic>Effect of ivabradine in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction</italic> &#8220;EDIFY&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> avaliou o efeito do f&#225;rmaco ao longo de 8 meses. Ao contr&#225;rio do estudo anterior que n&#227;o se verificou qualquer melhoria nos par&#226;metros avaliados (fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, capacidade de exerc&#237;cio e redu&#231;&#227;o NT-proBNP). Estudos futuros poder&#227;o mostrar benef&#237;cios em determinados subgrupos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6. Digoxina</title>
          <p>A digoxina faz tamb&#233;m parte do algoritmo terap&#234;utico na IC-FEr, ainda que n&#227;o seja de primeira linha.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Um potencial benef&#237;cio em doentes com disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e IC-FEp poderia advir da sua a&#231;&#227;o neuro-hormonal. O estudo <italic>Effects of Digoxin on Morbidity and Mortality in Diastolic Heart Failure</italic> &#8220;DIG PEP&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> n&#227;o mostrou qualquer benef&#237;cio na hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a, mortalidade e hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es. Ainda que tenha sugerido alguma redu&#231;&#227;o nas hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por IC, isso n&#227;o se repercutiu nos resultados gerais, em parte por um aumento n&#227;o significativo do risco de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por angina inst&#225;vel.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7. Nitratos e Nitritos</title>
          <p>Outro mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico implicado &#233; a desregula&#231;&#227;o da via NO-sGC-GMPc-PKG. Uma abordagem terap&#234;utica poss&#237;vel seria com f&#225;rmacos que atuam a esse n&#237;vel, como os nitratos, inibidores fosfodiesterase 5, riociguat e vericiguat.</p>
          <p>O estudo <italic>Isosorbide Mononitrate in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</italic> &#8220;NEAT- HFpEF&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> avaliou um esquema de mononitrato de isossorbido, em doses crescentes durante 6 semanas. Al&#233;m de n&#227;o haver melhoria da qualidade de vida ou do NT-proBNP, verificou-se redu&#231;&#227;o do n&#237;vel de atividade di&#225;ria e aumento dos sintomas de IC. Eventualmente outros mecanismos limitam os benef&#237;cios hemodin&#226;micos dos nitratos org&#226;nicos e predisp&#245;em os pacientes a hipotens&#227;o excessiva e outros efeitos adversos.</p>
          <p>A hip&#243;tese de que os resultados poderiam ser melhores com nitratos inorg&#226;nicos (NO3) foi testada num estudo piloto que avaliou a capacidade de exerc&#237;cio e o impacto na vasculatura e m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, usando sumo de beterraba rico em NO3. Apesar de n&#227;o ter sido atingido o <italic>endpoint</italic> prim&#225;rio, os resultados foram tendencialmente positivos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Ser&#225; importante confirmar os resultados em ensaios maiores e a longo prazo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8. Sildenafil</title>
          <p>A inibi&#231;&#227;o da fosfodiesterase 5 parece reverter a remodelagem card&#237;aca e melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o vascular, neuroend&#243;crina e renal, com melhoria cl&#237;nica em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar (HAP) idiop&#225;tica e IC-FEr. O estudo <italic>Effect of Phosphodiesterase-5 Inhibition on Exercise Capacity and Clinical Status in Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction</italic> &#8220;RELAX&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> avaliou esses par&#226;metros em doentes com IC-FEp, comparando o sildenafil com o placebo durante 24 semanas. N&#227;o s&#243; n&#227;o houve melhoria da capacidade de exerc&#237;cio, estado cl&#237;nico, remodelagem card&#237;aca ou fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, como ocorreu agravamento da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e dos n&#237;veis de NT-proBNP, endotelina-1 e &#225;cido &#250;rico. Talvez no subgrupo de doentes com IC-FEp e doen&#231;a vascular pulmonar grave os resultados sejam diferentes e mais animadores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9. Estimuladores sCG (Riociguat e Vericiguat)</title>
          <p>A HTP &#233; frequente e confere pior progn&#243;stico, podendo constituir um bom alvo terap&#234;utico. O riociguat &#233; um estimulador da guanilato ciclase sol&#250;vel (sGC). Atrav&#233;s do seu efeito vasodilatador, anti-fibr&#243;tico, anti-proliferativo e anti-inflamat&#243;rio, mostrou efic&#225;cia na HAP e na HTP tromboemb&#243;lica cr&#243;nica e com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE. O estudo <italic>Acute Hemodynamic Effects of Riociguat in Patients With Pulmonary Hypertension Associated With Diastolic Heart Failure</italic> &#8220;DILATE-1&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> avaliou o seu efeito em doentes com HTP e IC diast&#243;lica. Tratou-se de um estudo inicial, com um pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes e doses &#250;nicas de riociguat. Apesar de ter sido bem tolerado e de melhorar os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos e ecocardiogr&#225;ficos explorat&#243;rios, estudos maiores e mais prolongados s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para avaliar o seu efeito cl&#237;nico a longo prazo.</p>
          <p>No estudo <italic>Vericiguat in patients with worsening chronic heart failure and preserved ejection fraction</italic> &#8220;SOCRATES-Preserved&#8221;,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> 12 semanas de tratamento com vericiguat tamb&#233;m n&#227;o alteraram os par&#226;metros prim&#225;rios avaliados, NT-proBNP e volume do AE. Foi sugerido algum potencial na melhoria da qualidade de vida, particularmente com doses mais elevadas, o que poder&#225; ser testado em estudos futuros, a longo prazo e usando diferentes doses.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10. Ranolazina</title>
          <p>Sabe-se que tanto na IC como na cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica existe um aumento da corrente de s&#243;dio, com aumento do c&#225;lcio intracelular e compromisso do relaxamento card&#237;aco. Ao inibir os canais tardios de s&#243;dio com ranolazina seria teoricamente prov&#225;vel uma melhoria da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> O <italic>RAnoLazIne for the Treatment of Diastolic Heart Failure in Patients With Preserved Ejection Fraction &#8220;</italic>RALI-DHF&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> foi um estudo explorat&#243;rio que avaliou o f&#225;rmaco na IC-FEp. Apesar das melhorias hemodin&#226;micas &#224;s 24h, n&#227;o se verificaram altera&#231;&#245;es da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica ap&#243;s 14 dias de tratamento.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Outros caminhos</title>
          <p>O fracasso dos ensaios cl&#237;nicos com f&#225;rmacos comprovadamente eficazes na IC-FEr levou &#224; tomada de um novo rumo no tratamento destes doentes. Tentou-se perceber melhor o mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico da doen&#231;a e atuar nas diferentes vias (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2</xref>). Novos f&#225;rmacos foram testados e novas abordagens est&#227;o sob investiga&#231;&#227;o. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1-B</xref>)</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Potenciais alvos terap&#234;uticos e f&#225;rmacos avaliados na IC-FEp. ARM: antagonistas dos receptores dos mineralocorticoides; BB: Beta-bloqueadores; HTA: hipertens&#227;o arterial; IECAs/ARAs: inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina/antagonistas dos receptores da angiotensina II; INRA: inibidores da neprilisina e dos receptores de angiotensina.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-114-01-0120-90111-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>11. Albuterol</title>
          <p>Atendendo ao frequente envolvimento pulmonar nestes doentes, outros f&#225;rmacos com a&#231;&#227;o neste n&#237;vel est&#227;o sendo testados. &#201; o caso do albuterol, um broncodilatador inalat&#243;rio. O estudo <italic>Inhaled Beta-adrenergic Agonists to Treat Pulmonary Vascular Disease in Heart Failure With Preserved EF &#8220;</italic>BEAT - HFpEF&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> procura avaliar o impacto deste f&#225;rmaco nos sintomas, atrav&#233;s do seu efeito na resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar em repouso e durante o exerc&#237;cio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>12. <italic>Shunt</italic> esquerdo-direito provocado</title>
          <p>Sabe-se que a sobrecarga de volume e press&#227;o a n&#237;vel auricular, n&#227;o s&#243; contribuiu para o desenvolvimento de sintomas e intoler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o, como &#233; fator de morbi-mortalidade. A press&#227;o de encravamento capilar pulmonar (PCWP) &#233; um par&#226;metro hemodin&#226;mico invasivo com valor progn&#243;stico, que reflete a press&#227;o no AE e veias pulmonares. Com base nestas altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas e face ao sucesso limitado do manejo farmacol&#243;gico da IC-FEp, um dispositivo de comunica&#231;&#227;o inter-auricular foi desenvolvido com vista a reduzir a press&#227;o do AE. O estudo prospectivo, n&#227;o randomizado e aberto, <italic>A Transcatheter Intracardiac Shunt Device for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</italic> &#8220;REDUCE LAP-HF&#8221;,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> avaliou o desempenho e seguran&#231;a deste dispositivo em 64 doentes com IC-FEp e PCWP elevada. An&#225;lises preliminares demonstraram benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico e hemodin&#226;mico aos 6 meses. Redu&#231;&#245;es da press&#227;o no AE resultaram numa melhoria da capacidade funcional, &#224; custa de um ligeiro aumento da press&#227;o e do DC direito. Estes benef&#237;cios persistiram numa avalia&#231;&#227;o a longo prazo, com melhoria sustentada do perfil hemodin&#226;mico, da classe funcional de NYHA, qualidade de vida e toler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o ao fim de um ano, sem evid&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Posteriormente foi realizado um estudo fase 2 randomizado e controlado, com avalia&#231;&#227;o da PCWP durante o exerc&#237;cio, um m&#234;s ap&#243;s a implanta&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo de comunica&#231;&#227;o inter-auricular vs. procedimento simulado. Os resultados foram positivos em termos de seguran&#231;a e verificou-se redu&#231;&#227;o da PCWP, sem aumento significativo da press&#227;o ou resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar, poss&#237;veis consequ&#234;ncias da sobrecarga direita.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Permanece por esclarecer se este efeito hemodin&#226;mico se traduzir&#225; em melhorias cl&#237;nicas sustentadas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>13. Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>Sintomas congestivos est&#227;o presentes na maioria dos doentes internados por IC descompensada independentemente da FE. Varia&#231;&#245;es do volume corporal e das press&#245;es de enchimento card&#237;aco s&#227;o preditivas de eventos adversos. Uma estrat&#233;gia de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, com consequente interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica dirigida e precoce, poder&#225; reduzir o risco de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC. O ensaio cl&#237;nico <italic>Wireless pulmonary artery haemodynamic monitoring in chronic heart failure</italic> &#8220;CHAMPION&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> testou esta hip&#243;tese, usando um sensor de press&#227;o microeletromec&#226;nico permanentemente implantado durante o cateterismo card&#237;aco direito. Atrav&#233;s da avalia&#231;&#227;o di&#225;ria da press&#227;o da art&#233;ria pulmonar (PAP) e da redu&#231;&#227;o ativa e protocolada das press&#245;es de enchimento com diur&#233;ticos e vasodilatadores, demonstrou redu&#231;&#245;es significativas das admiss&#245;es hospitalares. Os benef&#237;cios persistiram no subgrupo com IC-FEp, com redu&#231;&#245;es de 50% nas hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por IC ao fim de 17meses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>14. Exerc&#237;cio</title>
          <p>O exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico &#233; ben&#233;fico em determinadas condi&#231;&#245;es estritamente relacionadas com a IC-FEp, como a HTA e a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica. Foi avaliado o efeito do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico estruturado e supervisionado na capacidade de esfor&#231;o, fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e qualidade de vida. O estudo <italic>Exercise Training Improves Exercise Capacity and Diastolic Function in Patients With Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction &#8220;</italic>EX DHF&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> mostrou que um programa de exerc&#237;cio de resist&#234;ncia/endurance, supervisionado e realizado a curto prazo, &#233; realiz&#225;vel, seguro e efetivo em doentes com IC-FEp. A manuten&#231;&#227;o do programa a longo prazo e o envolvimento de doentes idosos, em fases avan&#231;adas da doen&#231;a e com m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades podem ser limita&#231;&#245;es. Apesar disso &#233; uma estrat&#233;gia promissora, com potencial sinergismo com outras abordagens farmacol&#243;gicas e n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas. &#201; importante definir o regime de abordagem, melhorar a ades&#227;o a longo prazo e expandir a disponibilidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>15. Comorbidades</title>
          <p>Outro dos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos propostos envolve a exist&#234;ncia de um estado pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio sist&#234;mico induzido por m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades, resultando em disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, remodelagem e disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Levantou-se a hip&#243;tese de que, rastreando e tratando as comorbidades de forma direcionada, se possa melhorar o progn&#243;stico geral destes doentes. O estudo <italic>Optimizing the Management of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction in the Elderly by Targeting Comorbidities</italic> &#8220;OPTIMIZE-HFpEF&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> prop&#245;e o rastreio sistem&#225;tico e tratamento ativo de comorbidades enquanto mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico da IC, ao inv&#233;s do simples tratamento de patologias concomitantes, j&#225; diagnosticadas. Apesar de n&#227;o possuir poder suficiente para avaliar a rela&#231;&#227;o custo-efic&#225;cia, &#233; um bom ponto de partida para testar uma nova abordagem promissora.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>16. Pacing</title>
          <p>Doentes com IC-FEp e incompet&#234;ncia cronotr&#243;pica poder&#227;o se beneficiar de dispositivos de marcapasso, com restaura&#231;&#227;o da normal FC durante a atividade di&#225;ria e o esfor&#231;o. O estudo <italic>Rate-Adaptive Atrial Pacing In Diastolic Heart Failure</italic> (RAPID-HF)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> pretende avaliar o impacto dessa interven&#231;&#227;o na capacidade de exerc&#237;cio, sintomas e qualidade de vida a curto prazo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>17. Suplementa&#231;&#227;o com ferro</title>
          <p>O estudo da cin&#233;tica do ferro faz parte da avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial de doentes com IC. A suplementa&#231;&#227;o com ferro endovenoso faz parte da abordagem terap&#234;utica em doentes com IC-FEr e diminui&#231;&#227;o das reservas de ferro.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> O estudo <italic>Effect of IV Iron Ferric Carboxymaltose, Ferinject on Exercise Tolerance, Symptoms and Quality of Life in Patients With Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction and Iron Deficiency With and Without Anaemia</italic> &#8220;FAIR&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> pretende avaliar o efeito do ferro endovenoso na toler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o, qualidade de vida, classe funcional de NYHA, mortalidade e hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por IC, em doentes com IC-FEp e defici&#234;ncia de ferro, com ou sem anemia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>18. Inibidores do co-transportador de s&#243;dio e glucose 2 (SGLT2)</title>
          <p>&#201; frequente a coexist&#234;ncia de IC e DM, associada a maior risco de mortalidade cardiovascular e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> V&#225;rios estudos com Inibidores SGLT2 demostraram redu&#231;&#227;o significativa das hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por IC em doentes diab&#233;ticos de elevado risco cardiovascular ou com doen&#231;a estabelecida (<italic>Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes &#8220;EMPA-REG&#8221;,(</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref><italic>) Canagliflozin and Cardiovascular and Renal Events in Type 2 Diabetes &#8220;CANVAS&#8221;,(</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><italic>) Dapagliflozin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes &#8220;DECLARE&#8221;).(</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref><italic>)</italic> Atendendo aos potenciais benef&#237;cios deste grupo farmacol&#243;gico na melhoria da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica na IC,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> est&#227;o a decorrer estudos que visam determinar o impacto destes medicamentos em doentes com IC-FEp, com e sem diabetes (<italic>A Phase III Randomised, Double-blind Trial to Evaluate the Effect of 12 Weeks Treatment of Once Daily EMPagliflozin 10 mg Compared With Placebo on ExeRcise Ability and Heart Failure Symptoms, In Patients With Chronic HeArt FaiLure With Preserved Ejection Fraction (HFpEF) &#8220;EMPERIAL - Preserved&#8221;,(</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><italic>) Dapagliflozin in PRESERVED Ejection Fraction Heart Failure &#8220;PRESERVED-HF&#8221;,(</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref><italic>) EMPagliflozin outcomE tRial in Patients With chrOnic heaRt Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction &#8220;EMPEROR-Preserved&#8221;(</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref><italic>).</italic></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
        <p>A IC-FEp &#233; uma patologia frequente, ainda pouco compreendida e at&#233; a data sem tratamento comprovadamente eficaz na redu&#231;&#227;o da morbidade ou mortalidade.</p>
        <p>N&#227;o parece existir uma causa &#250;nica que justifique o fracasso dos resultados obtidos, podem no entanto identificar-se potenciais contribui&#231;&#245;es: compreens&#227;o incompleta da fisiopatologia, heterogeneidade da popula&#231;&#227;o estudada, aus&#234;ncia de crit&#233;rios de diagn&#243;stico universais com recrutamento de doentes sem uma verdadeira IC-FEp ou em est&#225;gios muito precoces, tratamentos pouco dirigidos ao mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico predominante, desenhos sub&#243;timos dos estudos ou fraco poder estat&#237;stico dos mesmos.</p>
        <p>A fisiopatologia da IC-FEp &#233; multifatorial, com v&#225;rios mecanismos e comorbidades implicadas, e provavelmente diferente da IC-FEr. Resulta de uma complexa intera&#231;&#227;o de fatores que culminam na redu&#231;&#227;o da reserva funcional card&#237;aca e vascular - afe&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica, reserva auricular, ritmo e FC, controlo auton&#244;mico, vasculatura e microcircula&#231;&#227;o. A intera&#231;&#227;o e domin&#226;ncia relativa destes fatores tornam esta patologia extremamente heterog&#234;nea. A defini&#231;&#227;o e divis&#227;o em subgrupos com determinados fen&#243;tipos pode permitir um tratamento mais dirigido, com eventual melhoria dos resultados cl&#237;nicos.</p>
        <p>V&#225;rios ensaios cl&#237;nicos est&#227;o sendo realizados, visando diferentes abordagens terap&#234;uticas. &#201; importante relembrar que estes doentes tendem a ser mais velhos e a apresentar m&#250;ltiplas patologias. Assim sendo, a efic&#225;cia dos tratamentos poder&#225; ser melhor avaliada pelo seu efeito nas hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es, estado funcional, sintomas e qualidade de vida.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
