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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">5YNHxMpH9WTSh5T9CDjtxwH</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2019001201139</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2019005002003</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20190224</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Biochemical and Molecular Mechanisms of Glucose Uptake Stimulated by Physical Exercise in Insulin Resistance State: Role of Inflammation</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6929-8392</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferrari</surname>
            <given-names>Filipe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8572-3950</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bock</surname>
            <given-names>Patr&#237;cia Martins</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">5</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Motta</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Trotte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">6</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6900-7185</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Helal</surname>
            <given-names>Lucas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares - Faculdade de Medicina - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA) - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Grupo de Pesquisa em Cardiologia do Exerc&#237;cio</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo de Pesquisa em Cardiologia do Exerc&#237;cio - CardioEx (HCPA/UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Laborat&#243;rio de Fisiopatologia do Exerc&#237;cio</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Fisiopatologia do Exerc&#237;cio (LaFiEx), (HCPA/UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Tecnologias em Sa&#250;de</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Tecnologias em Sa&#250;de (IATS), Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdades Integradas de Taquara</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Taquara</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdades Integradas de Taquara, Taquara, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Ci&#234;ncias Biol&#243;gicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Feira de Santana</city>
          <state>BA</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Ci&#234;ncias Biol&#243;gicas, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana (UEFS), Feira de Santana, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Lucas Helal,</bold> Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre - Brasil. Laborat&#243;rio de Fisiopatologia do Exerc&#237;cio, Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Porto Alegre, Brasil - Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. Postal Code 90035-003, Santa Cec&#237;lia, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil. E-mail: <email>lucas.helal@ufrgs.br</email>, <email>lhelal@hcpa.edu.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript: Ferrari F, Bock PM, Motta MT, Helal L; Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Ferrari F, Bock PM, Helal L.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>21</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>113</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>1139</fpage>
      <lpage>1148</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Obesity associated with systemic inflammation induces insulin resistance (IR), with consequent chronic hyperglycemia. A series of reactions are involved in this process, including increased release of proinflammatory cytokines, and activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-&#954;B) and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) receptors. Among the therapeutic tools available nowadays, physical exercise (PE) has a known hypoglycemic effect explained by complex molecular mechanisms, including an increase in insulin receptor phosphorylation, in AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity, in the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase (CaMKK) pathway, with subsequent activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1&#945;), Rac1, TBC1 domain family member 1 and 4 (TBC1D1 and TBC1D4), in addition to a variety of signaling molecules, such as GTPases, Rab and soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attached protein receptor (SNARE) proteins. These pathways promote greater translocation of GLUT4 and consequent glucose uptake by the skeletal muscle. Phosphoinositide-dependent kinase (PDK), atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) and some of its isoforms, such as PKC-iota/lambda also seem to play a fundamental role in the transport of glucose. In this sense, the association between autophagy and exercise has also demonstrated a relevant role in the uptake of muscle glucose. Insulin, in turn, uses a phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-dependent mechanism, while exercise signal may be triggered by the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The objective of this review is to describe the main molecular mechanisms of IR and the relationship between PE and glucose uptake.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Exercise</kwd>
        <kwd>Insulin Resistance</kwd>
        <kwd>Chronic Inflammation</kwd>
        <kwd>Glucose Metabolism Disorders</kwd>
        <kwd>Anti-Inflammatoty Agents</kwd>
        <kwd>Glucose Transporter Type 4</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Insulin resistance (IR) at target tissues is directly related to chronic subclinical inflammation. When inadequately controlled, IR cause a permanent hyperglycemic status, characterizing the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Cardiovascular diseases are the main cause of morbidity and mortality in DM2 patients,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> leading to annual costs per year of nearly 40 billion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Hyperglycemia, <italic>per se</italic>, is a devastating condition for the cardiovascular system. Among the complications caused by chronic hyperglycemia in patients with DM2, there is a reduction in endothelial vasodilator capacity (by reduced nitric oxide availability), increase in advanced glycation end products, in addition to increased oxidative stress, which leads to endothelial dysfunction and atherogenesis in long term, and increased cardiovascular risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Physical exercise (PE), combined with pharmacologic therapy, is an effective strategy in the approach of DM2 patients, with direct effect on glycemic ontrol,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> due to its capacity in reducing blood glucose concentrations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> and its anti-inflammatory effect in long term,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> with potential positive effect in reducing cardiovascular complications in these patients.</p>
      <p>Muscle contraction acutely increases trigger biochemical reactions that culminate in increased glucose uptake by the muscle. This is caused by two important mechanisms - increase in insulin sensitivity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> and translocation of the type 4 glucose transporter (GLUT4) to the cell surface independent of insulin use.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> In addition, PE chronically increases intramuscular GLUT4 content<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> and reduces the inflammatory state, especially by the release of anti-inflammatory cytokines<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> and reduction in total lipid content.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The objective of this review is to provide an overview of the regulation of glucose uptake in IR and chronic subclinical inflammation, and the role of PE in this situation. First, we present a discussion about biochemical and molecular mechanisms of the hypoglycemic effect of PE, with special attention to the increase in insulin sensitivity and translocation of de GLUT4 independent of insulin; then, we present evidence of the role of PE as an anti-inflammatory strategy and its association with IR.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Signaling of insulin and glucose uptake by skeletal muscle</title>
        <p>Insulin is a peptide hormone released by the pancreas, specifically by beta cells of the pancreatic islets.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Intracellular signaling of insulin in insulin-sensitive tissues requires binding of the hormone to a specific membrane receptor, named insulin receptor, composed by four subunits: two &#945; subunits located in the external part of the membrane, and two transmembrane, &#946; subunits. Insulin binds to the &#945; subunits, and activate the kinase activity of beta subunits, which promotes the self-phosphorylation of tyrosine residues in the intracellular region of insulin receptor.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> This generates the recruitment of adaptor proteins and phosphorylation of several protein substrate, including members of the insulin receptor substrate family - IRS-1, 2, 3 and 4.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Among these members, phosphorylation of IRS-1 and IRS-2 into tyrosine - by addition of a phosphate group - bind to and activate Src homology-2 (SH2) domains, such as the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). The SH2 domain exhibits approximately 100 amino acids and is able to recognize and bind to phosphorylated tyrosine.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> PI3K, in turn, catalyzes the formation of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PI3P),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> an allosteric regulator of phosphoinositide-dependent kinase (PDK).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> PDK activates one of the isoforms of protein kinase B (PKB), also known as Akt, and the atypical protein kinase C (aPKC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> There is evidence that aPKC is essential for insulin-stimulated glucose transport in skeletal muscle; its activation seems to be compromised in IR,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> and potentialized by PE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Among the aPKC isoforms, the aPKC lambda/iota has shown an important role in glucose transport. This enzyme phosphorylates the double C2-like domain-containing protein (DOC2b), which regulates the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attached protein receptor (SNARE), facilitating the interaction with syntaxin-4 and promoting the fusion of GLUT4-containing vesicles with the plasma membrane.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> In addition to aPKC, other PKC isoforms are also involved in GLUT4 translocation, including PKC&#945; and PKC&#952;, which are activated by the increase in intracellular calcium.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Besides the PKC isoforms, the Akt enzyme promotes the phosphorilation of the Rab GTPase-activating proteins (RabGAPs), that involve the TBC1 domain family member 4 (TBC1D4) and TBC1 domain family member 1 (TBC1D1). This enables the dissociation of the Rab protein, and consequently, increased uptake of glucose by increased GLUT4 translocation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> The TBC1D1 and the TBC1D4 proteins act cooperatively regulating the translocation of GLUT4 in response to a stimulus, since both are co-expressed in skeletal muscle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> In summary, TBC1D4, previously known as Akt substrate of 160 kDa (AS160), is a protein that, when phosphorylated into treonin-642, helps in the translocation of GLUT4-containing vesicles to the membrane, in GLUT4 expression, leading to increased glucose uptake.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Akt also induces the phosphorylation of serine/threonine kinase with an atypical placement of the catalytic lysine, called with-no-lysine kinase (WNK1), with omnipresent expression, including the skeletal muscle. WNK1, in turn, phosphorylates the TBC1D4 enzyme, promoting the translocation of GLUT4 in the skeletal muscle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Therefore, activation of the cascade that involves PI3K/Akt enzymes allows the entry of glucose into cells by facilitated diffusion, by stimulation of translocation of GLUT4 from intracellular vesicles to the plasma membrane.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> In addition to GLUT4 translocation, PI3K simultaneously stimulates the synthesis of hepatic and muscle glycogen.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> In this context, another important mechanism was proposed. Previous studies using cell cultures have shown that inhibition of the endogenous Rac1 (member of the Rho-family of GTPases) blocked the insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Rac1, in turn, was described as essential in the stimulation of insulin-mediated glucose uptake in skeletal muscle and glucose homeostasis in the whole body,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> exerting a preponderant role in the regulation of insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation, as observed in cultured muscle cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Also, when endogenous production of insulin is compromised (or in state of very high insulin resistance), the role of PE is even more important due to its insulin-independent hypoglycemic effect.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Physical exercise in the regulation of glucose uptake in skeletal muscle</title>
        <p>During PE, the utilization of energy substrates (mainly glucose and free fatty acids) considerably increases in relation to rest. These substrates originate from intramuscular stores, hepatic production and fat tissue mobilization by hormone-sensitive lipase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Both acute aerobic exercise and chronic exercise training can potentiate the action of insulin, and evidence from animal models has helped us to understand the mechanisms involved. In rats fed a high-fat diet, acute PE seems to affect the activation of insulin receptor, since a unique session of exercise increases insulin-stimulated IR phosphorylation in skeletal muscles.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> In obese rats, both high-volume exercise (six-hour duration) and low-volume exercise (45 minutes) were effective in increasing insulin sensitivity, by increased phosphorylation of IR, IRS-1 and Akt.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Another experiment with rats showed an improvement in insulin sensitivity in adipocytes after seven weeks of daily aerobic exercise (60-minute duration), mediated by increased tyrosine phosphorylation in IRS-1 and IRS-2 and greater association of IRS-1 with PI3K and, consequently, increased phosphorylation of Akt protein.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In addition, PE can increase glucose uptake in the muscle by other pathways that involve a key enzyme activated by muscle contraction, named AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK is a heterotrimeric molecule composed of a catalytic subunit (alpha) and two regulatory subunits (beta and gamma), with the following isoforms &#946;1, &#946;2, &#947;1, &#947;2 and &#947;3. It is activated by phosphorylation of a threonine-172 residue within the activation loop of the &#945; subunit.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> The activation of AMPK can result from an energy imbalance caused by muscle contraction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> Among the proteins that regulate AMPK, liver kinase B1 (LKB1) is currently considered the main protein involved in AMPK phosphorylation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> The activation of AMPK and LKB1 during exercise has been widely demonstrated in animals and humans.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
				</p>
        <p>It is worth pointing out AMPK-stimulated glucose transport seems to be mediated by multiple factors - by increase of intracellular concentrations of Ca<sup>(++)</sup> and bradykinin (plasma polypeptide that causes vasodilation), increased activity of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (which increases vasodilation and the availability of nitric oxide), by activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), activation of Ca<sup>(2+)</sup> /calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK), activation of protein kinase C (PKC), and even hypoxia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> All these factors are necessary for an effective translocation of GLUT4 and consequent entry of glucose into the cells.</p>
        <p>In addition, there is evidence suggesting that activation of AMPK in skeletal muscle can increase lipid oxidation, and thereby glycogen resynthesis can adapt to PE (by sparing muscle glycogen) by stimulation of muscle contraction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> Some myokines, including interleukin-15 (IL-15) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), increase the expression of GLUT4 in adipose tissue, which can potentiate PE-induced glucose uptake,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> and also activate AMPK and GLUT4 translocation to the cell surface.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> Activation of AMPK is also important since as it promotes the phosphorylation of TBC1D1 and TBC1D4. Studies have shown that both acute and chronic exercise increase the expression of AMPK, TBC1D1, TBC1D4 and GLUT4 in skeletal muscles in humans.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> It was also reported that in contracted epitrochlearis muscles of rats, TBC1D4 phosphorylation was increased, and this effect persisted for 3-4 hours after the animals swam for four 30-min bouts with a 5-min rest between bouts.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> Kj&#248;bsted et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> corroborated this hypothesis in a recent study showing that increased phosphorylation of TBC1D4 stimulated by insulin in exercised muscles improves insulin sensitivity.</p>
        <p>Another important event associated with PE and AMPK activation is the activation of the of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1&#945;),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> mediated p38 MAPK and histone deacetylase-5 (HDAC5).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> In addition, phosphorylation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKK) followed by activation of PGC-1&#945;, can be induced by low-intensity, resisted exercise, suggesting that PE-induced GLUT4 translocation can be achieved by several modalities.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> On the other hand, other important proteins, as the case of Pac1,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> do not require activation of the AMPK pathway to promote PE-induced glucose uptake in skeletal muscle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Studies have indicated that muscle elongation contributes to activation of Rac1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> Silow et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> have shown that Rac1 signaling is impaired in muscles resistant to insulin in rats and humans. The importance of Rac1 in this context is attributed to its effects on actin cytoskeleton. Thus, dysregulation of Rac1 and actin cytoskeleton in the skeletal muscle can be new molecular candidates that contribute to the phenotype of IR and DM2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> More recent data have supported these findings, suggesting that Rac1 essentially contributes to PE-stimulated glucose uptake.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> However, it is important to mention that previous studies have shown that short exercise completely restored insulin sensitivity in Rac1-deficient muscle containing RI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> Therefore, although Rac1 is essential for regulation of glucose transport stimulated by PE, it is dispensable for the insulin sensitizing effect of exercise. This is important since Rac1 is dysfunctional in insulin-resistant muscle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> These findings indicate that other pathways different from the Rac1 pathway, can exhibit more pronounced effects of insulin sensitization during PE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A schematic illustration of GLUT4 translocation mediated by insulin and by muscle contraction is presented in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Schematic representation of the main pathways that promote the translocation of GLUT4-containing vesicles to the membrane in the skeletal muscle induced by insulin (A) and insulin-independent pathways during physical exercise (B) P: Phosphorylation; ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; ADP: Adenosine diphosphate; IRS: insulin receptor substrate; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PI2P: phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate; PI3P: phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate; PDK: phosphoinositidedependent kinase; aPKC: atypical protein kinase C; DOC2b: double C2-like domain-containing protein; SNARE: soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attached protein receptor; TBC1D1: TBC1 domain family member 1; TBC1D4: TBC1 domain family member 4; GLUT4: glucose transporter type;Ca+: Calcium; eNOS: nitric oxide synthase; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; CaMK: Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase; PKC: protein kinase C; AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1139-90224-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Other important and complex mechanisms related to the AMPK pathway need to be mentioned. For example, its relationship with autophagy, a process involved with glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity. Autophagy is a self-degradative process that occurs via lysossomal pathway that plays a role in the removal of malformed or aggregated proteins, eliminating damaged organelles, similarly to mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum. Autophagy is generally considered a survival mechanism, although its dysregulation has been associated with non-apoptotic cell death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The relationship between autophagy, PE and metabolic regulation is still a little explored area. However, there is increasing evidence that the autophagic process is strongly induced during physical training,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> and seems to play an important role in the metabolism of skeletal muscle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> In this regard, autophagy can regulate the homeostasis of muscle glucose and contribute to the reduction of RI in response to PE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> These data are corroborated by He et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> in an experiment conducted with mice, showing that mice with induced allelic loss of <italic>Beclin 1</italic>, an autophagy-related gene that promotes a decrease in autophagy in the skeletal muscle, had impaired exercise-induced GLUT4 plasma membrane localization. These data suggest an important role of autophagy and <italic>Beclin 1</italic> in improving glucose uptake in response to PE. For example, a single bout of running for 90 minutes on a treadmill was sufficient to induce autophagy in the skeletal muscle and in the brain of mice.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> One of the hypotheses that may explain the mechanisms involved in this scenario is that PE can increase the concentrations of proteins of the sestrins (SESNs) induced by stress, such as SESN1 and SESN3, which not only increase the autophagic activity, but also interact with AMPK, and stimulate its activation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref> The induction of SESNs inhibits the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) activity by stimulation of AMPK.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref> Thus, the interaction between sestrin and AMPK induced by PE may be involved in the beneficial metabolic effect of training, activating autophagy. This interaction provides a molecular mechanism that is a potential target in metabolic syndromes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Obesity, inflammation and insulin resistance</title>
        <p>IR develops silently and may lead to pancreatic failure, starting with a resistance to insulin activity in the target-tissues, followed by an increase in pancreatic insulin production in response to such IR, and ultimately with incapacity of the pancreas to continue insulin production. This fact opens the door to DM2, characterized by an acquired chronic hyperglycemia associated with other diseases including hypertension and dyslipidemia. The main factors that cause this syndrome are obesity, sedentary lifestyle and genetic factors.<sup>(74 )</sup> IR is characterized by pathological changes in several steps of insulin metabolic pathway,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref> with simultaneous increase in endogenous production of hepatic glucose, leading to chronic hyperglycemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref> Today, obesity, especially visceral obesity, is recognized as one of the main risk factors of IR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Several mechanisms are involved in the etiopathogenesis of obesity-related IR, characterized by changes in several steps of insulin signaling, with reduction in IR concentration and kinase activity, in IRS-1 and IRS-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref> phosphorylation into tyrosine, and in PI3K activity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> In addition, a significant increase in abdominal adipose tissue induces the delivery of free fatty to the liver through the portal vein, aggravating hepatic insulin resistance,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> thereby increasing the release of proinflammatory cytokines through the portal vein, which acts as a feedback to the process.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The role of chronic inflammation in this scenario cannot be excluded. IR is related to obesity-induced inflammation, process already described in the 90&#8217;s. In this decade, several studies evaluated the association of IR with traditional inflammatory markers, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-&#945;) and showed that adipocytes treated with TNF-&#945; had impaired insulin signaling. This response was associated with reduced IRS-1 and GLUT-482 transcription.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as the TNF-&#945;, can lead to activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), a critical enzyme in inflammation associated with obesity and IR,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref> by activating serine or threonine kinase, thereby reducing insulin signaling by phosphorylation of proteins into serine or threonine residues.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref> Besides, activation of this enzyme is related with signaling pathways that activate nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-B) which, in turn, stimulates the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref> The activation of JNK also promotes NF-B activation in pancreatic islets, and therefore, perpetuating a vicious cycle of &#946;-cells dysfunction induced by inflammation, which in turn aggravates the chronic inflammatory process.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref> This feedback causes more macrophage recruitment, which together with hypertrophic adipocytes, release more pro-inflammatory cytokines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Additionally, circulating free fatty acids, as well as other ligands such as bacterial lipopolysaccharides, are able to activate transmembrane proteins known as toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4), that trigger inflammatory pathways, reducing glucose uptake by insulin signaling<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> in a process called metabolic inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> TLR-4 is ubiquitously expressed throughout the cells, including the adipose tissue. In the development of obesity, there is greater infiltration of immune cells in this tissue, particularly macrophages, which show increased expression of TLR4.<sup>(90 )</sup> Free fatty acids bind to TLR-4, activating JNK and I&#954;B kinase (IKK).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref> Because IRS-1 are target of both enzymes, this process affects tyrosine phosphorylation, resulting in reduced GLUT4 translocation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Activation of IKK causes phosphorylation and subsequent proteasomal degradation of IKK&#946;, inducing activation of NF-&#954;B. Degradation of IKK&#946; triggers the gene transcription of inflammatory mediators, such as TNF-&#945; and interleukin-6 (IL-6).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref> Also, IKK&#946; promotes serine phosphorylation of insulin receptor and IRS-1 and IRS-2 substrates, which reduces insulin signaling in different tissues.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref> These processes are schematically illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Schematic representation of activation of TLR 2, TLR4 or cytokine receptor by extracellular ligands and induction of inflammation and insulin resistance in an adipocyte. TLR2: toll-like receptor 2; TLR4: toll-like receptor 4; NF-&#954;B: nuclear factor-kappa &#946;; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; IKK: IkB kinase; GLUT4: glucose transporter type 4; IR: insulin resistance.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1139-90224-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>In summary, the increase in circulating free fatty acids is a metabolic characteristic of insulin-resistant state, which may cause IR by several mechanisms. Evidence has suggested that excess adipose tissue reduces insulin receptor phosphorylation and promotes chronic activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and circulating fatty acids, which may lead to deterioration of the tissue response to insulin. Adipose tissue, previously believed to be a mere place of energy storage, has shown to be an important endocrine and pro-inflammatory organ. It is more evident with visceral white adipose tissue that exhibits macrophage infiltration with local production of interleukins, which can help in the development of local and systemic IR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> Therefore, strategies targeting anti-inflammatory responses in the adipose tissue, such as PE, may have beneficial effects on individual&#8217;s health status, alleviating the burden of obesity in endocrine dysregulation.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Physical exercise in obesity and insulin resistance</title>
        <p>The beneficial role of PE has been increasingly recognized in increasing insulin sensitivity, independent of body fat reduction by the training.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref> The protective effect of PE may be attributed to the anti-inflammatory effect of physical training mediated by a reduction in visceral fat and/or induction of an inflammatory environment, with elevation in IL-10 and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) concentrations, and reduction in IL-6 and TNF-&#945;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>
				</p>
        <p>As previously mentioned, visceral obesity is an important factor for the development of DM, which may be related to the increase in IL-6 and TNF-&#945;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref> Regular exercise can reduce baseline production of IL-6, by decreasing its plasma concentration at rest.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref> After acute moderate-intensity exercise, plasma IL-6 can increase in up to 100 times after a marathon (even though this is not adequate for obese individuals), but rapidly decreases compared with pre-exercise values.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref> This cytokines also stimulates proliferation of &#946;-cells, and increased IL-6 concentrations in response to PE can stimulate the release of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), an important hormone that stimulates insulin secretion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref> These evidences support a beneficial effect of IL-6 in the regulation of insulin secretion, which undoubtedly contributes to DM prevention.</p>
        <p>Regarding AMPK in DM2 and IR scenario, many studies have suggested that muscle contraction plays a central role, regardless of insulinemic status, where the activity of AMPK-&#945;2 in skeletal muscle in response to PE was similar to that in individuals without DM2, indicating a normal functioning of muscle AMPK in diabetics, which is particularly important in IR conditions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref> In another study, an acute bout of aerobic exercise (one hour duration) at 75% of VO<sub>2</sub>max did not increase insulin sensitivity in obese diabetic subjects. Nevertheless, after seven sessions, there was an increment in glucose uptake rate, possibly stimulated by increased AMPK activity. It is of note that no difference was observed in the expression of proteins of insulin signaling pathways post-exercise compared with baseline.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The action of Akt protein, previously mentioned as an important mediator of GLUT4 mobilization from GLUT4-containing vesicles to the membrane, may be impaired by the mammalian homolog of Ddosophila tribbles TRB3, whose expression is increased in obesity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref> However, PE seems to be able to reduce the expression of this protein TRB3. A study showed that acute exercise reduced TRB3 expression and reversed Akt phosphorylation in the skeletal muscle of obese animals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref> On the other hand, one session of swimming reduced TRB3 levels in the hypothalamus of obese rats.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref> In a recent study by Wang et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref> the authors showed that aerobic training contributed to reduce inflammatory factors in mice with induced DM2. In addition to reducing body weight, there was a inhibition of TLR4 in hepatic cells of these animals, which, in turn, increased AMPK expression, ultimately contributing to the improvement of inflammation and IR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref> Therefore, this pathway would also explain the importance of aerobic exercise in improving insulin sensitivity and glycemic control in DM2. These findings may lead to further studies, especially in humans, and open new horizons for the treatment of obesity and IR.</p>
        <p>PE can also exert beneficial effects on cardiovascular system by mechanisms including the increase in adiponectin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref> Among its several functions, adiponectin can greatly suppress hepatic glucogenesis, stimulating the oxidation of fatty acids in the skeletal muscle and inhibiting the transcription of genes involved in glucose production. In insulin-responsive tissues, adiponectin improves the sensitivity to this hormone.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref> Hypoadiponectinemia, defined by plasma adiponectin levels lower than 4.0 &#181;g/mL, was associated with decreased levels of circulating high-density lipoprotein, triglycerides and glucose, and increased risk of metabolic syndrome. Also, the risk for atherosclerosis was twice as high in individuals with low adiponectin levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The improvement in adiponectin levels has been associated with loss of subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue induced by PE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref> Studies have shown that aerobic PE alone<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref> or combined with diet<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref> significantly increase adiponectin levels in adipose tissue in obese subjects, regardless of changes in body composition. In addition, PE, particularly aerobic exercise, was able to change the body fat distribution, by reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and improvement of insulin sensitivity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Finally, plasma levels of resistin (protein related to IR and glucose intolerance), decreased after PE programs.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref> Resistin is commonly found in obese individuals, and seems to be involved in IR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref> It was recently demonstrated that accumulation of this protein is associated with lower survival of DM2 patients, and concentrations above 11 ng/mL indicate increased risk in these patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> Reduction in resistin concentrations by interventions, such as PE, may be related to reduction in inflammation via release of anti-inflammatory cytokines rather than changes in glucose metabolism and reductions of body mass.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Therefore, obesity, in consonance with inflammatory process, can contribute to the increase in important inflammatory markers, such as pro-inflammatory cytokines. Available evidence has indicated that PE reduces these markers, regardless of a reduction in body weight.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Final considerations</title>
      <p>PE stimulates many complex molecular and biochemical mechanisms, which promote a substantial improvement in insulin signaling and glucose uptake in IR states. It is important to highlight that evidences for the role of PE in reduction of the inflammatory process in IR associated with obesity were also presented.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Mecanismos Bioqu&#237;micos e Moleculares da Capta&#231;&#227;o da Glicose Estimulada pelo Exerc&#237;cio F&#237;sico no Estado de Resist&#234;ncia &#224; Insulina: Papel da Inflama&#231;&#227;o</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6929-8392</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferrari</surname>
            <given-names>Filipe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8572-3950</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bock</surname>
            <given-names>Patr&#237;cia Martins</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">4</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">5</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Motta</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Trotte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">6</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6900-7185</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Helal</surname>
            <given-names>Lucas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares - Faculdade de Medicina - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA) - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo de Pesquisa em Cardiologia do Exerc&#237;cio - CardioEx (HCPA/UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Fisiopatologia do Exerc&#237;cio (LaFiEx), (HCPA/UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Tecnologias em Sa&#250;de (IATS), Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdades Integradas de Taquara, Taquara, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Ci&#234;ncias Biol&#243;gicas, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana (UEFS), Feira de Santana, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Lucas Helal,</bold> Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre - Brasil. Laborat&#243;rio de Fisiopatologia do Exerc&#237;cio, Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Porto Alegre, Brasil - Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. CEP 90035-003, Santa Cec&#237;lia, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil. E-mail: <email>lucas.helal@ufrgs.br</email>, <email>lhelal@hcpa.edu.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Ferrari F, Bock PM, Motta MT, Helal L; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Ferrari F, Bock PM, Helal L.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A obesidade associada &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica induz resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina (RI), com consequente hiperglicemia cr&#244;nica. Este processo envolve o aumento na libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, ativa&#231;&#227;o da enzima c-Jun N-terminal cinase (JNK), do fator nuclear kappa-B (NF-&#954;B) e dos receptores do tipo Toll 4 (TLR4). Dentre as ferramentas terap&#234;uticas dispon&#237;veis, o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico (EF) tem efeito hipoglicemiante conhecido, explicado por mecanismos moleculares complexos. Dentre eles, ocorre aumento na fosforila&#231;&#227;o do receptor da insulina, na atividade da prote&#237;na quinase ativada por AMP (AMPK), na via da prote&#237;na cinase cinase dependente de Ca+2/calmodulina (CaMKK), com posterior ativa&#231;&#227;o do coativador-1&#945; do receptor ativado por proliferador do peroxissoma (PGC-1&#945;), prote&#237;nas Rac1, TBC1 membro das fam&#237;lias de dom&#237;nio 1 e 4 (TBC1D1 e TBC1D4), al&#233;m de uma variedade de mol&#233;culas de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o, como as prote&#237;nas GTPases, Rab e prote&#237;na sol&#250;vel de fus&#227;o sens&#237;vel a N-etil-maleimida (SNARE); estas vias promovem maior transloca&#231;&#227;o de transportador de glicose do tipo 4 (GLUT4) e consequente capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose pelo m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico. A cinase fosfatidilinositol-dependente (PDK), prote&#237;na quinase C at&#237;pica (aPKC) e algumas das suas isoformas, como a PKC-iota/lambda tamb&#233;m parecem desempenhar papel fundamental no transporte de glicose. Nesse sentido, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre autofagia e EF tamb&#233;m tem demonstrado papel relevante na capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose muscular. A insulina, por sua vez, utiliza um mecanismo dependente da fosfatidilinositol-3-quinase (PI3K), enquanto que o sinal do EF pode ter in&#237;cio mediante libera&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio pelo ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico e concomitante ativa&#231;&#227;o da AMPK. O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; descrever os principais mecanismos moleculares da RI e da rela&#231;&#227;o entre o EF e a capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Exerc&#237;cio</kwd>
        <kwd>Resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflama&#231;&#227;o Cr&#244;nica</kwd>
        <kwd>Transtornos do Metabolismo de Glicose</kwd>
        <kwd>Anti-Inflamat&#243;rios</kwd>
        <kwd>Transportador de Glucose Tipo 4</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A resist&#234;ncia &#224; a&#231;&#227;o da insulina (RI) em tecidos-alvo &#233; diretamente relacionada com a inflama&#231;&#227;o subcl&#237;nica cr&#244;nica e, se inadequadamente controlada, resulta em estado hiperglic&#234;mico permanente, caracterizando o quadro fisiopatol&#243;gico do diabetes <italic>mellitus</italic> tipo 2 (DM2).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Por sua vez, a doen&#231;a cardiovascular se constitui como a principal causa de morbidade e mortalidade em pacientes com DM2,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> gerando custos atuais que se aproximam dos 40 bilh&#245;es de d&#243;lares por ano.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A hiperglicemia, por si s&#243;, &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o devastadora para o sistema cardiovascular. Dentre as complica&#231;&#245;es que a hiperglicemia cr&#244;nica causa nos pacientes com DM2, podemos destacar a redu&#231;&#227;o na capacidade vasodilatadora do endot&#233;lio (via redu&#231;&#227;o da disponibilidade de &#243;xido n&#237;trico), o aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o de produtos finais de glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada, al&#233;m do aumento do estresse oxidativo, o que leva em longo prazo &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e aterog&#234;nese, com consequente aumento no risco cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico (EF), em conjunto com o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico, &#233; eficaz para o manejo do DM2, com a&#231;&#227;o direta sobre o controle glic&#234;mico,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> por sua capacidade de reduzir as concentra&#231;&#245;es de glicose sangu&#237;nea<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> e por seu efeito anti-inflamat&#243;rio no longo prazo,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> podendo ter impacto positivo na redu&#231;&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares desses pacientes.</p>
        <p>De forma aguda, a atividade contr&#225;til inicia uma sequ&#234;ncia de rea&#231;&#245;es bioqu&#237;micas que culminam no aumento da capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose pelo m&#250;sculo. Isto ocorre em fun&#231;&#227;o de dois importantes eventos: o aumento da sensibilidade &#224; insulina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> e a transloca&#231;&#227;o de transportadores de glicose do tipo 4 (GLUT4; do ingl&#234;s <italic>type 4 glucose transporter</italic>) para a membrana sarcoplasm&#225;tica de forma independente &#224; insulina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Existem tamb&#233;m efeitos cr&#244;nicos, por meio dos quais o EF aumenta o conte&#250;do de GLUT4 intramuscular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> e diminui o estado inflamat&#243;rio, especialmente por meio da libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas anti-inflamat&#243;rias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> - e pela redu&#231;&#227;o do conte&#250;do lip&#237;dico total.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; abordar a regula&#231;&#227;o da capta&#231;&#227;o da glicose em estados de RI e inflama&#231;&#227;o subcl&#237;nica cr&#244;nica, e o papel do EF nesta situa&#231;&#227;o. Em um primeiro momento ser&#227;o discutidos os mecanismos bioqu&#237;micos e moleculares que explicam o efeito hipoglicemiante do exerc&#237;cio, com especial aten&#231;&#227;o para o aumento da sensibilidade &#224; insulina e &#224; transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4 independente &#224; insulina; e, posteriormente, evid&#234;ncias do EF como ferramenta anti-inflamat&#243;ria e sua liga&#231;&#227;o com estados de RI.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da insulina e capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose pelo m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico</title>
          <p>A insulina &#233; um horm&#244;nio pept&#237;dico secretado pelo p&#226;ncreas, mais especificamente pelas c&#233;lulas &#946; das ilhotas pancre&#225;ticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Para que ocorra a sinaliza&#231;&#227;o intracelular de insulina em tecidos sens&#237;veis &#224; sua a&#231;&#227;o, &#233; necess&#225;ria a liga&#231;&#227;o do horm&#244;nio a um receptor espec&#237;fico da membrana, denominado receptor de insulina (IR; do ingl&#234;s <italic>insulin receptor</italic>), que &#233; constitu&#237;do por quatro subunidades: duas subunidades &#945;, localizadas na parte externa da membrana; e duas subunidades &#946;, transmembranares. A insulina se liga &#224;s subunidades &#945; e permite que as subunidades &#946; adquiram atividade cinase, o que promove a auto fosforila&#231;&#227;o de res&#237;duos de tirosina localizados na regi&#227;o intracelular do IR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Ocorre sequencialmente o recrutamento de prote&#237;nas adaptadoras e a fosforila&#231;&#227;o de diversos substratos proteicos, dentre os quais est&#227;o os membros da fam&#237;lia do substrato do IR (IRS-1, 2, 3 e 4).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Entre os substratos do IR, destacam-se o IRS-1 e o IRS-2. Estes, quando fosforilados em tirosina - rea&#231;&#227;o que se d&#225; pela adi&#231;&#227;o de um grupo fosfato - ligam-se e ativam prote&#237;nas com dom&#237;nios com homologia de Src 2 (SH2), como a prote&#237;na citos&#243;lica <italic>fosfatidilinositol-3-cinase</italic> (PI3K). O dom&#237;nio SH2 exibe aproximadamente 100 amino&#225;cidos, e tem como caracter&#237;stica o reconhecimento e liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; tirosina fosforilada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> A PI3K, por sua vez, catalisa a forma&#231;&#227;o de fosfatidilinositol-3,4,5-trifosfato (PI3P),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> um regulador alost&#233;rico da cinase fosfatidilinositol-dependente (PDK).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> A PDK ativa uma das isoformas da prote&#237;na cinase B (PKB), tamb&#233;m conhecida como Akt, bem como a prote&#237;na cinase C at&#237;pica (aPKC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Evid&#234;ncias sugerem a aPKC como necess&#225;ria para o transporte de glicose estimulado por insulina no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, e a ativa&#231;&#227;o da mesma est&#225; comprometida no estado de RI;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> al&#233;m disso, a sua a&#231;&#227;o parece ser potencializada por meio do EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Dentre as isoformas de aPKC, a PKC-iota/lambda tem demonstrado um importante papel no transporte de glicose. Esta enzima fosforila a prote&#237;na b de duplo dom&#237;nio C2 (DOC2b), que regula o receptor de liga&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na sol&#250;vel de fus&#227;o sens&#237;vel a N-etil-maleimida (SNARE), promovendo a intera&#231;&#227;o com a sintaxina-4 e iniciando o processo de fus&#227;o &#224; membrana de ves&#237;culas contendo GLUT4.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Al&#233;m da aPKC, outras isoformas da PKC tamb&#233;m est&#227;o envolvidas na transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT 4, como a PKC&#945; e a PKC&#952;, que s&#227;o ativadas pelo aumento de c&#225;lcio intracelular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Por sua vez, juntamente com as diferentes isoformas de PKC, a enzima Akt promove a fosforila&#231;&#227;o do complexo de prote&#237;nas ativadoras da GTPase Rab (RabGAPs), que envolve as enzimas TBC1 membro da fam&#237;lia de dom&#237;nio 4 (TBC1D4) e TBC1 membro da fam&#237;lia de dom&#237;nio 1 (TBC1D1), proporcionando a dissocia&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na Rab, o que levar&#225; a maior capta&#231;&#227;o da glicose via aumento da transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> As prote&#237;nas TBC1D1 e TBC1D4 atuam cooperativamente na regula&#231;&#227;o da transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4 em resposta a um est&#237;mulo, uma vez que as mesmas s&#227;o co-expressas em m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Em s&#237;ntese, o TBC1D4 - anteriormente chamado de substrato de Akt de 160 kDa (AS160) - &#233; uma prote&#237;na que, quando fosforilada em treonina-642, auxiliando na transloca&#231;&#227;o das ves&#237;culas que cont&#234;m os GLUT4 para a membrana, no aumento da express&#227;o de GLUT4 e, consequentemente, leva ao aumento da capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> A Akt tamb&#233;m induz a fosforila&#231;&#227;o de uma serina/treonina cinase com uma localiza&#231;&#227;o catal&#237;tica at&#237;pica de lisina, denominada cinase sem lisina 1 (WNK1), que &#233; expressa de forma onipresente, incluindo o m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico. A WNK1, por sua vez, fosforila a enzima TBC1D4, promovendo a transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4 no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Desta forma, a ativa&#231;&#227;o da cascata que envolve as enzimas PI3K/Akt, permite a entrada de glicose nas c&#233;lulas por difus&#227;o facilitada, por meio do est&#237;mulo da transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4 de ves&#237;culas intracelulares para a membrana sarcoplasm&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Simultaneamente ao est&#237;mulo da transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4, a PI3K &#233; capaz de estimular a s&#237;ntese de glicog&#234;nio hep&#225;tico e muscular.<sup>(31 )</sup> Al&#233;m disso, um outro mecanismo importante neste cen&#225;rio foi proposto. Estudos pr&#233;vios utilizando cultura de c&#233;lulas demonstraram que a inibi&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na Rac1 (pertecente &#224; famil&#237;a das <italic>Rho GTPases)</italic> end&#243;gena bloqueou a transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4 induzida por insulina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Por sua vez, a Rac1 foi descrita como fundamental na estimula&#231;&#227;o da capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose pela insulina no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico e na homeostase da glicose em todo o corpo,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> exercendo papel preponderante na regula&#231;&#227;o da transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4 em resposta &#224; insulina, por exemplo, em c&#233;lulas musculares cultivadas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>) ()</sup></p>
          <p>Ainda, quando a produ&#231;&#227;o de insulina end&#243;gena fica comprometida (ou em estados muito resistentes a ela), o EF ganha ainda mais destaque, por seu efeito hipoglicemiante independente da insulina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico na regula&#231;&#227;o da capta&#231;&#227;o da glicose pelo m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico</title>
          <p>Durante a realiza&#231;&#227;o de EF, o consumo de substratos energ&#233;ticos (principalmente glicose e &#225;cidos graxos livres) aumenta de maneira consider&#225;vel em rela&#231;&#227;o ao repouso. Esses substratos s&#227;o provenientes de dep&#243;sitos intramusculares, da produ&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica ou da mobiliza&#231;&#227;o no tecido adiposo por a&#231;&#227;o da enzima lipase horm&#244;nio sens&#237;vel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Tanto o EF aer&#243;bico agudo quanto o treinamento cr&#244;nico podem potencializar a a&#231;&#227;o da insulina, e evid&#234;ncias provenientes de modelos animais nos ajudam a entender os mecanismos envolvidos. Em ratos sob dieta hiperlip&#237;dica, o EF agudo parece influenciar a ativa&#231;&#227;o do IR, uma vez que uma &#250;nica sess&#227;o de EF aumenta a fosforila&#231;&#227;o do IR estimulada por insulina no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Em ratos obesos, tanto o EF com alto volume (seis horas de dura&#231;&#227;o) quanto com baixo volume (45 minutos de dura&#231;&#227;o) mostrou-se eficaz no aumento da sensibilidade &#224; insulina, pelo aumento fosforila&#231;&#227;o do IR, IRS-1 e Akt.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Em outro experimento com ratos, foi observado aumento da sensibilidade a insulina em adip&#243;citos ap&#243;s sete semanas de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico aer&#243;bico di&#225;rio (60 minutos de dura&#231;&#227;o), mediado pelo aumento da fosforila&#231;&#227;o em tirosina dos IRS-1 e IRS-2 e maior associa&#231;&#227;o do IRS-1 com a PI3K e, por conseguinte, o aumento da fosforila&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na Akt.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m da melhora na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da insulina, o EF aumenta a capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose pelo m&#250;sculo por vias independentes &#224; sua a&#231;&#227;o, com a participa&#231;&#227;o de uma enzima chave de resposta &#224; contra&#231;&#227;o muscular, denominada prote&#237;na cinase ativada por AMP (AMPK). A AMPK &#233; uma mol&#233;cula heterotrim&#233;rica que cont&#233;m uma subunidade &#945; (catal&#237;tica), com duas isoformas (&#945;1 e &#945;2), e duas subunidades regulat&#243;rias (&#946; e &#947;), com as seguintes isoformas: &#946;1, &#946;2, &#947;1, &#947;2 e &#947;3. Ela &#233; ativada pela fosforila&#231;&#227;o do res&#237;duo de treonina-172 da al&#231;a de ativa&#231;&#227;o da subunidade &#945;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> A ativa&#231;&#227;o da AMPK &#233; resultado do desequil&#237;brio energ&#233;tico causado pela contra&#231;&#227;o muscular,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> dentre outros fatores. Dentre as prote&#237;nas reguladoras da AMPK, a cinase hep&#225;tica B1 (LKB1) atualmente &#233; considerada como principal envolvida na sua fosforila&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> A ativa&#231;&#227;o de AMPK e LKB1 a durante o exerc&#237;cio foi amplamente confirmada em animais experimentais e em humanos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
					</p>
          <p>&#201; importante ressaltar que o transporte de glicose estimulado pela AMPK parece ser multiplamente mediado, a saber: pelo aumento das concentra&#231;&#245;es intracelulares de Ca<sup>(++)</sup> e bradicinina (polipept&#237;dio plasm&#225;tico de fun&#231;&#227;o vasodilatadora); pelo aumento da atividade da enzima &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase endotelial (o que promove, por consequ&#234;ncia, maior disponibilidade de &#243;xido n&#237;trico e vasodilata&#231;&#227;o); pela ativa&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na cinase ativada por mit&#243;genos (MAPK; do ingl&#234;s <italic>Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase</italic>); <italic>pela ativa&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na cinase dependente</italic> de c&#225;lcio/<italic>calmodulina</italic> (CaMK; do ingl&#234;s <italic>Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase</italic>); pela ativa&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na cinase C (PKC) ou at&#233; mesmo pela hip&#243;xia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> Todos estes fatores s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para a eficiente transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4 e consequente entrada de glicose na c&#233;lula.</p>
          <p>Evid&#234;ncias tamb&#233;m sugerem que a ativa&#231;&#227;o da AMPK no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico &#233; capaz de aumentar a oxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica, fazendo com que a ress&#237;ntese de glicog&#234;nio se adapte ao EF (protegendo os estoques de glicog&#234;nio muscular) por meio do est&#237;mulo da contra&#231;&#227;o muscular <italic>per se</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> Algumas miocinas secretadas, como a interleucina-15 (IL-15) e interleucina-6 (IL-6), al&#233;m de promoverem o aumento da express&#227;o de GLUT4 no tecido adiposo, o que pode potencializar a capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose induzida pelo EF,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> promovem a ativa&#231;&#227;o da AMPK e consequente transloca&#231;&#227;o do GLUT4 para a superf&#237;cie celular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> A ativa&#231;&#227;o da AMPK tamb&#233;m &#233; importante pelo fato de que a mesma fosforila TBC1D1 e TBC1D4. Foi demonstrado que o EF agudo ou cr&#244;nico aumentou a express&#227;o de AMPK, TBC1D1, TBC1D4 e GLUT4 no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico de humanos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> Tamb&#233;m foi observado que o m&#250;sculo epitroclear contra&#237;do de ratos apresentava fosforila&#231;&#227;o aumentada da TBC1D4, um efeito que persistiu durante 3 a 4 horas, ap&#243;s nata&#231;&#227;o em quatro sess&#245;es de 30 min, com um descanso de 5 min entre elas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> Kj&#248;bsted e colaboradores<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> fortalecem estas hip&#243;teses, relatando recentemente que a eleva&#231;&#227;o da fosforila&#231;&#227;o da TBC1D4 estimulada por insulina em m&#250;sculos exercitados melhora a sensibilidade &#224; insulina.</p>
          <p>Outro importante evento ligado ao EF e &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na AMPK &#233; a ativa&#231;&#227;o do co<italic>ativador</italic>-<italic>1</italic> &#945; do <italic>receptor ativado por proliferador</italic>do<italic>peroxissoma</italic> (PGC-1&#945;; do ingl&#234;s <italic>peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha</italic>),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> sendo este &#250;ltimo mediado pela p38 MAPK, histona deacetilase-5 (HDAC5). A AMPK tamb&#233;m regula a transcri&#231;&#227;o do GLUT4 por meio da fosforila&#231;&#227;o da HDAC5.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> Ademais, a fosforila&#231;&#227;o da via da prote&#237;na cinase-cinase dependente de c&#225;lcio/calmodulina (CaMKK; do ingl&#234;s <italic>Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase</italic>) com posterior ativa&#231;&#227;o de PGC-1&#945; pode ser induzida por exerc&#237;cios resistidos de baixa intensidade, sugerindo que a transloca&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4 induzida pelo EF pode ser alcan&#231;ada por diversas modalidades.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> Por outro lado, h&#225; tamb&#233;m importantes prote&#237;nas que n&#227;o necessitam ativa&#231;&#227;o da via da AMPK para promoverem maior capta&#231;&#227;o da glicose pelo m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico atrav&#233;s do EF, como &#233; o caso da Rac1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Estudos t&#234;m indicado que o alongamento muscular contribuiu para ativa&#231;&#227;o da Rac1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> Silow et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> por sua<sup>()</sup> vez, demonstraram que a sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de Rac1 est&#225; prejudicada em m&#250;sculos resistentes &#224; insulina em ratos e humanos. Acredita-se que a import&#226;ncia da Rac1 neste contexto seja devido aos seus efeitos sobre o citoesqueleto de actina. Assim, a desregula&#231;&#227;o da Rac1 e o citoesqueleto de actina no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico podem ser novos candidatos moleculares que contribuem para o fen&#243;tipo de RI e DM2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> Dados mais recentes suportaram estes achados, sugerindo que a Rac1 &#233; um contribuinte essencial para a capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose estimulada pelo EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> Todavia, &#233; importante mencionar que pesquisas posteriores mostraram que o treinamento f&#237;sico de curta dura&#231;&#227;o restaurou completamente a sensibilidade &#224; insulina em m&#250;sculos deficientes de Rac1, mas com RI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> Assim, embora a Rac1 seja necess&#225;ria para a regula&#231;&#227;o normal do transporte de glicose estimulada pela contra&#231;&#227;o muscular, n&#227;o foi necess&#225;rio aument&#225;-la para promover melhora na sensibilidade &#224; insulina durante o EF. Isso &#233; importante porque a musculatura resistente &#224; insulina exibe uma sinaliza&#231;&#227;o prejudicada de Rac1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> Estes achados implicam que outras vias, mais do que a da Rac1, t&#234;m efeitos de sensibiliza&#231;&#227;o &#224; insulina mais pronunciados durante o EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Um esquema resumido da transloca&#231;&#227;o do GLUT4 mediada pela insulina e pela contra&#231;&#227;o muscular encontra-se dispon&#237;vel na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f3">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Representa&#231;&#227;o esquem&#225;tica das principais vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o que aumentam a transloca&#231;&#227;o de ves&#237;culas de GLUT4 para a membrana do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico por est&#237;mulo de insulina (A) e por vias independentes &#224; a&#231;&#227;o da insulina durante o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico (B). P: Fosforila&#231;&#227;o; ATP: Adenosina trifosfato; ADP: Adenosina difosfato; IRS: Substrato do receptor da insulina; PI3K: Prote&#237;na citos&#243;lica fosfatidilinositol-3-cinase; PI2P: Fosfatidilinositol bifosfato; PI3P: Fosfatidilinositol 3-fosfato; PDK: Cinase fosfatidilinositol-dependente; aPKC: Prote&#237;na cinase C at&#237;pica; DOC2b: Prote&#237;na b de duplo dom&#237;nio C2; SNARE: Prote&#237;na sol&#250;vel de fus&#227;o sens&#237;vel a N-etil&#8209;maleimida; TBC1D1: TBC1 membro da fam&#237;lia de dom&#237;nio 1; TBC1D4: TBC1 membro da fam&#237;lia de dom&#237;nio 4; GLUT4: Transportadores de glicose do tipo 4; Ca+: C&#225;lcio; eNOS: Enzima &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase; MAPK: Prote&#237;na cinase ativada por mit&#243;genos; CaMK: Prote&#237;na cinase dependente de c&#225;lcio/calmodulina; PKC: Prote&#237;na cinase C; AMPK: Prote&#237;na cinase ativada por AMP; TBC1D1: TBC1 membro da fam&#237;lia de dom&#237;nio 1.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1139-90224-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Outros mecanismos importantes e complexos relacionados &#224; via da AMPK tamb&#233;m precisam ser citados, como &#233; o caso da sua rela&#231;&#227;o com aautofagia, processo envolvido com o metabolismo da glicose e com a sensibilidade &#224; insulina. A autofagia &#233; um processo auto-degradativo que se d&#225; por via lisoss&#244;mica, desempenhando um papel de manuten&#231;&#227;o na remo&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas deformadas ou agregadas, eliminando organelas danificadas, a exemplo das mitoc&#244;ndrias e ret&#237;culo endoplasm&#225;tico. Ela &#233; geralmente considerada um mecanismo de sobreviv&#234;ncia, embora sua desregula&#231;&#227;o tenha sido associada &#224; morte celular n&#227;o apopt&#243;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre autofagia, EF e regula&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica ainda &#233; um campo pouco explorado na literatura. Entretanto, evid&#234;ncias crescentes v&#234;m demonstrando que o processo autof&#225;gico &#233; fortemente induzido durante o treinamento f&#237;sico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> e parece desempenhar um papel relevante no metabolismo do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> Nesse sentido, a autofagia pode regular a homeostase da glicose muscular e contribuir com a redu&#231;&#227;o da RI em resposta ao EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> O estudo conduzido<sup>()</sup> por He et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> em experimento com camundongos, corroborou com os dados anteriores, mostrarando que camundongos induzidos &#224; perda al&#233;lica do gene da autofagia (denominado <italic>Beclin 1</italic>) - que promove diminui&#231;&#227;o na autofagia no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico - apresentavam comprometimento na concentra&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4 induzida pelo EF. Estes dados chamam aten&#231;&#227;o para a poss&#237;vel import&#226;ncia da autofagia e da <italic>Beclin 1</italic> em gerar uma melhor capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose como resposta ao EF, e uma &#250;nica sess&#227;o de 90 min de EF em esteira foi suficiente para induzir a autofagia no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico e no c&#233;rebro de camundongos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> Algumas das hip&#243;teses que podem explicar os mecanismos que medeiam esse cen&#225;rio &#233; que o EF pode aumentar as concentra&#231;&#245;es de prote&#237;nas da fam&#237;lia de prote&#237;nas sestrinas responsivas ao estresse (SESNs), como a sestrina 2 e sestrina 3, que al&#233;m de aumentarem a atividade da autofagia, tamb&#233;m interagem com a AMPK, estimulando a sua ativa&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref> A indu&#231;&#227;o das SESNs resulta na inibi&#231;&#227;o da atividade da <italic>Alvo Mecan&#237;stico</italic>do<italic>Complexo 1</italic>&#160;<italic>de</italic>&#160;<italic>Rapamicina</italic> (mTORC1) atrav&#233;s da estimula&#231;&#227;o da AMPK.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref> Portanto, a intera&#231;&#227;o entre sestrina-AMPK induzida pelo EF pode estar envolvida nos efeitos metab&#243;licos ben&#233;ficos do treinamento, ativando a autofagia. Essa intera&#231;&#227;o fornece um mecanismo molecular que &#233; um alvo potencial em s&#237;ndromes metab&#243;licas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Obesidade, inflama&#231;&#227;o e resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina</title>
          <p>A RI &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o que se desenvolve de forma silenciosa com poss&#237;vel progress&#227;o &#224; fal&#234;ncia pancre&#225;tica, com curso natural usual iniciando na resist&#234;ncia dos tecidos-alvo &#224; a&#231;&#227;o da insulina, com posterior aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o insulin&#234;mica pancre&#225;tica em resposta ao evento resistente e por fim a inabilidade do p&#226;ncreas de continuar a produzir insulina. Tal fato abre portas para o desenvolvimento do DM2, que se caracteriza pelo estado hiperglic&#234;mico cr&#244;nico adquirido, e que est&#225; associado a doen&#231;as como a hipertens&#227;o e dislipidemia. Os principais fatores que levam a esta s&#237;ndrome s&#227;o a obesidade, o sedentarismo e fatores gen&#233;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref> A RI &#233; caracterizada por altera&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas em v&#225;rios n&#237;veis da via metab&#243;lica de a&#231;&#227;o da insulina,<sup>(75 )</sup> com aumento simult&#226;neo na produ&#231;&#227;o end&#243;gena de glicose hep&#225;tica, resultando em estado hiperglic&#234;mico cr&#244;nico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref> Atualmente, sabe-se que a obesidade, especialmente o ac&#250;mulo de gordura abdominal, destaca-se como um dos principais fatores de risco e de causalidade para a RI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Diversos mecanismos abrangem a etiopatogenia da RI relacionada &#224; obesidade, caracterizados por altera&#231;&#245;es em certas etapas na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da insulina, com redu&#231;&#227;o na concentra&#231;&#227;o e atividade cinase do IR, da fosforila&#231;&#227;o em tirosina do IRS-1 e IRS-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref> e redu&#231;&#227;o na atividade da PI3K.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> Ademais, um grande aumento do tecido adiposo abdominal induz a uma eleva&#231;&#227;o dos &#225;cidos graxos livres para o f&#237;gado atrav&#233;s da veia porta; consequentemente, agrava a resist&#234;ncia hep&#225;tica &#224; insulina,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> bem como aumenta a libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias atrav&#233;s da veia porta para o f&#237;gado, retroalimentando o fen&#244;meno.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O papel do processo inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico neste cen&#225;rio n&#227;o pode ser descartado. A RI &#233; relacionada com este, geralmente induzido pela obesidade, cuja elucida&#231;&#227;o remonta &#224; d&#233;cada de 1990. Nesta &#233;poca, estudos avaliaram a associa&#231;&#227;o da RI a marcadores inflamat&#243;rios cl&#225;ssicos como o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;), e foi mostrado que adip&#243;citos tratados com TNF-&#945; apresentavam preju&#237;zo na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica. Essa resposta foi associada, principalmente, com redu&#231;&#227;o na transcri&#231;&#227;o de IRS-1 e GLUT4.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, como o TNF-&#945;, podem levar &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o da enzima c-Jun N-terminal cinase (JNK), que atua como um determinante cr&#237;tico da inflama&#231;&#227;o associada &#224; obesidade e RI,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref> ativando serina ou treonina cinases e desta forma reduzindo a sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da insulina por fosforila&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas em res&#237;duos de serina ou treonina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a ativa&#231;&#227;o desta enzima est&#225; relacionada com vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o que ativam o <italic>fator nuclear kappa</italic> &#946; <italic>(</italic>NF-&#954;B) que, por sua vez, estimula a produ&#231;&#227;o de diversas citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref> N&#227;o obstante, a ativa&#231;&#227;o de JNK tamb&#233;m promove a ativa&#231;&#227;o do NF-&#954;B em ilhotas pancre&#225;ticas, levando &#224; sua disfun&#231;&#227;o. Desta forma, &#233; iniciado um ciclo vicioso de disfun&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas &#946; induzida por inflama&#231;&#227;o, que retroalimenta o processo inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref><sup>) ( )</sup> Esta retroalimenta&#231;&#227;o promove maior atra&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos que, acompanhados de adip&#243;citos hipertrofiados, liberam mais citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Adicionalmente, os &#225;cidos graxos livres circulantes, bem como outros ligandos como lipopolissacar&#237;deos bacterianos, s&#227;o capazes de ativar prote&#237;nas transmembranares, denominadas <italic>receptores</italic> do tipo <italic>Toll</italic> 4 (TLR4), que desencadeiam uma s&#233;rie de vias inflamat&#243;rias, reduzindo a capta&#231;&#227;o da glicose pela sinaliza&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> em um processo denominado inflama&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> O TLR4 &#233; altamente expresso nas c&#233;lulas, incluindo o tecido adiposo. No desenvolvimento da obesidade ocorre infiltra&#231;&#227;o de maior n&#250;mero de c&#233;lulas imunes neste tecido, particularmente macr&#243;fagos, e estes apresentam aumento de express&#227;o de TLR4.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref> Ao se ligarem aos receptores TLR4, os &#225;cidos graxos livres ativam a JNK e a cinase do inibidor do fator de transcri&#231;&#227;o NF-&#954;B, <italic>IkB cinase</italic> (IKK),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref> enzimas das quais os IRS-1 s&#227;o alvos, levando &#224; interfer&#234;ncia na fosforila&#231;&#227;o em res&#237;duos de tirosina e subsequente redu&#231;&#227;o na transloca&#231;&#227;o do GLUT4.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A ativa&#231;&#227;o da IKK promove a fosforila&#231;&#227;o da IKK&#946;, induzindo a degrada&#231;&#227;o proteassomal de IKK&#946; e ativando o NF-&#954;B. Essa degrada&#231;&#227;o da IKK&#946; promove, por conseguinte, a transcri&#231;&#227;o g&#234;nica de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios, como o TNF-&#945; e interleucina-6 (IL-6).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref> Ademais, a IKK&#946; promove a fosforila&#231;&#227;o em res&#237;duos de serina do IR e dos substratos dos IRS-1e IRS-2, o que reduz o sinal da insulina em diferentes tecidos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">figura 2</xref> representa esquematicamente os processos descritos acima.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Representa&#231;&#227;o esquem&#225;tica de um adip&#243;cito, mostrando a ativa&#231;&#227;o de receptores TLR 2, TLR4 ou receptores de citocinas por ligandos extracelulares e indu&#231;&#227;o de inflama&#231;&#227;o e resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina. TLR2: Receptores do tipo Toll 2; TLR4: Receptores do tipo Toll 4; NF-&#954;B: Fator nuclear kappa &#946;; JNK: C-Jun N-terminal cinase; IKK: IkB cinase; GLUT4: Transportadores de glicose do tipo 4; RI: Resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1139-90224-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Em s&#237;ntese, a eleva&#231;&#227;o na circula&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos livres &#233; uma caracter&#237;stica metab&#243;lica do estado insulino-resistente, o que pode promover a RI por meio de v&#225;rios mecanismos. Evid&#234;ncias t&#234;m sugerido que o tecido adiposo em excesso reduz a fosforila&#231;&#227;o do IR e promove a ativa&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, bem como de &#225;cidos graxos circulantes, podendo levar &#224; deteriora&#231;&#227;o da resposta natural dos tecidos &#224; a&#231;&#227;o da insulina. O tecido adiposo, tido no passado como um simples local de armazenamento energ&#233;tico, revelou-se um importante &#243;rg&#227;o end&#243;crino e pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio, especialmente o tecido adiposo branco visceral, que apresenta infiltra&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos com produ&#231;&#227;o local de interleucinas, o que pode auxiliar no desenvolvimento da RI local e sist&#234;mica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> Com isto, estrat&#233;gias que visem respostas anti-inflamat&#243;rias no tecido adiposo, como o EF, podem ter efeitos ben&#233;ficos na sa&#250;de global do indiv&#237;duo, reduzindo o peso da obesidade na desregula&#231;&#227;o end&#243;crina.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico na obesidade e resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina</title>
          <p>Atualmente, reconhece-se cada vez mais o papel do EF no aumento da sensibilidade &#224; insulina, resulte o treinamento em redu&#231;&#227;o da adiposidade corporal ou n&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref> O efeito protetor do EF pode ser, assim, atribu&#237;do ao efeito anti-inflamat&#243;rio do treinamento f&#237;sico mediado por redu&#231;&#227;o da massa de gordura visceral e/ou por indu&#231;&#227;o de um ambiente anti-inflamat&#243;rio, com o aumento de interleucina-10 (IL-10) e do antagonista do receptor de interleucina-1 (IL-1Ra), e redu&#231;&#227;o da IL-6 e do TNF-&#945;<sup>()</sup> cronicamente atrav&#233;s do EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Como j&#225; mencionado, a obesidade visceral &#233; um importante fator para o desenvolvimento do DM, o que pode estar relacionado com o aumento de IL-6 e TNF-&#945;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref> O EF de forma regular &#233; capaz de reduzir a produ&#231;&#227;o basal de IL-6, reduzindo a sua concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica em repouso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref> Ap&#243;s EF aer&#243;bico agudo de intensidade moderada, a concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de IL-6 pode aumentar at&#233; 100 vezes ap&#243;s uma maratona (embora esta n&#227;o seja pr&#225;tica adequada para indiv&#237;duos obesos). Todavia, ap&#243;s o EF h&#225; um r&#225;pido decr&#233;scimo em rela&#231;&#227;o aos n&#237;veis pr&#233;-exerc&#237;cio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref> Esta citocina tamb&#233;m estimula a prolifera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas &#946;, e as concentra&#231;&#245;es elevadas de IL-6 em resposta ao EF podem estimular a secre&#231;&#227;o do pept&#237;deo-1 semelhante ao glucagon (GLP-1), importante horm&#244;nio que estimula a secre&#231;&#227;o da insulina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref> Estas evid&#234;ncias sugerem que a IL-6 est&#225; envolvida em uma regula&#231;&#227;o ben&#233;fica da secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina, o que indubitavelmente contribui para redu&#231;&#227;o no aparecimento e progress&#227;o do DM.</p>
          <p>No que diz respeito &#224; AMPK no cen&#225;rio do DM2 e RI, diversos experimentos apontam que a contra&#231;&#227;o muscular exerce papel central independente do status insulin&#234;mico, onde a atividade da AMPK-&#945;2 no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico em resposta ao EF foi similar aos indiv&#237;duos sem DM2, um indicativo de que indiv&#237;duos com a doen&#231;a tem um funcionamento normal da AMPK no m&#250;sculo, o que &#233; particularmente importante nos estados de RI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref> Em outro exemplo, uma sess&#227;o aguda de uma hora de EF aer&#243;bico a 75% do VO<sub>2</sub>max n&#227;o foi capaz de aumentar a sensibilidade &#224; insulina em obesos com DM2. No entanto, ap&#243;s sete sess&#245;es, houve um incremento na taxa de capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose, possivelmente estimulada pelo aumento da atividade da AMPK. &#201; importante salientar que em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; express&#227;o das prote&#237;nas da via de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da insulina n&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as entre o estado basal e p&#243;s-EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A prote&#237;na Akt, por sua vez, mencionada anteriormente por ser uma importante mediadora da mobiliza&#231;&#227;o de GLUT4 de suas ves&#237;culas para a membrana, pode ter sua fun&#231;&#227;o prejudicada pela prote&#237;na mammalian homolog of Ddosophila tribbles (TRB3), que possui express&#227;o aumentada na obesidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref> No entanto, o EF parece ser capaz de reduzir a express&#227;o de TRB3. Um estudo demonstrou que o EF agudo reduziu a express&#227;o da TRB3 e restaurou a fosforila&#231;&#227;o da Akt no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico de animais obesos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref> Em outro estudo, uma &#250;nica sess&#227;o de nata&#231;&#227;o reduziu as concentra&#231;&#245;es de prote&#237;na TRB3 no hipot&#225;lamo de ratos obesos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref> Em um estudo recente, Wang et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref> estudaram ratos induzidos &#224; DM2, e mostraram que o treinamento f&#237;sico aer&#243;bico pode contribuir na redu&#231;&#227;o de fatores inflamat&#243;rios. Al&#233;m da redu&#231;&#227;o no peso corporal, foi verificada uma inibi&#231;&#227;o do TLR4 em c&#233;lulas hep&#225;ticas destes animais, o que, por sua vez, fortaleceu a express&#227;o da AMPK; isso contribuiu para melhora da inflama&#231;&#227;o e RI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref> Portanto, esta &#233; mais uma das vias que podem explicar a import&#226;ncia do EF aer&#243;bico para melhora da sensibilidade &#224; insulina e do controle glic&#234;mico no DM2. Estas descobertas podem conduzir a novas pesquisas, especialmente em seres humanos, e revelarem novos horizontes para o tratamento da obesidade e RI.</p>
          <p>O EF por meio de mecanismos como o aumento de adiponectina,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref> pode tamb&#233;m melhorar o sistema cardiovascular. Dentre as suas in&#250;meras fun&#231;&#245;es, a adiponectina pode suprimir de forma importante a gliconeog&#234;nese hep&#225;tica, estimulando a oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico e inibindo a transcri&#231;&#227;o dos genes envolvidos na produ&#231;&#227;o de glicose. Atuando em tecidos responsivos &#224; insulina, a adiponectina melhora a sensibilidade a este horm&#244;nio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref><sup>) ()</sup> A hipoadiponectinemia, representada por concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas abaixo de 4.0 &#181;g/ml, foi associada com diminui&#231;&#227;o da lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-c), bem como eleva&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides e glicose circulantes, hipertens&#227;o e aumento do risco de s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica; ademais, o risco de aterosclerose foi dobrado em indiv&#237;duos com baixas concentra&#231;&#245;es de adiponectina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A melhoria nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de adiponectina tem sido associada &#224; perda de tecido adiposo subcut&#226;neo e visceral induzido pelo EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref> Estudos mostram que o EF aer&#243;bico isolado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref> ou combinado com dieta<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref> resulta em um aumento significativo na circula&#231;&#227;o de adiponectina no tecido adiposo em obesos, independente de mudan&#231;as na composi&#231;&#227;o corporal. Ademais, a pr&#225;tica do EF, especialmente aer&#243;bico, mostrou-se capaz de alterar a distribui&#231;&#227;o da adiposidade corporal, reduzindo a produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias e melhorando a sensibilidade &#224; insulina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Por fim, a concentra&#231;&#227;o de resistina no plasma (prote&#237;na relacionada &#224; RI e intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose) diminuiu ap&#243;s programas de EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref> A resistina &#233; comumente encontrada no soro de indiv&#237;duos com obesidade e parece estar envolvida no processo de RI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref> Foi demonstrado recentemente que o ac&#250;mulo desta prote&#237;na associa-se &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da sobrevida em pacientes com DM2, e que concentra&#231;&#245;es acima de 11 ng/mL indicam risco aumento nesses pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> A redu&#231;&#227;o das concentra&#231;&#245;es de resistina atrav&#233;s de interven&#231;&#245;es como o EF pode estar mais relacionada com a redu&#231;&#227;o na inflama&#231;&#227;o via libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas antiinflamat&#243;rias, ao inv&#233;s de altera&#231;&#245;es no metabolismo da glicose e redu&#231;&#245;es na massa corporal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Como demonstrado, a obesidade em conson&#226;ncia com o processo inflamat&#243;rio, pode contribuir com o aumento de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios importantes, como as citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias. As evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis apontam que o EF reduz estes marcadores independentemente da redu&#231;&#227;o do peso corporal.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Considera&#231;&#245;es Finais</title>
        <p>O EF estimula uma s&#233;rie de mecanismos moleculares e bioqu&#237;micos complexos, os quais promovem uma melhora substancial na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da insulina e na capta&#231;&#227;o da glicose em estados de RI. &#201; importante enfatizar que algumas evid&#234;ncias sobre o papel do EF na redu&#231;&#227;o do processo inflamat&#243;rio sobreposto &#224; RI quando associado &#224; obesidade tamb&#233;m foram apresentadas.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
