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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">6bqxPMkXb77LMR9CJ7PWB8G</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2019001201072</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2019005017101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20190182</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Influences on the Functional Behavior of Great Arteries during Orthostasis</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2947-3066</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Elias</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge</given-names>
            <suffix>Neto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4225-707X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Albano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Futuro</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Carlos dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6139-634X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Heringer</surname>
            <given-names>Nevelton</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mill</surname>
            <given-names>Jose Geraldo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Vit&#243;ria Apart Hospital</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Serra</city>
          <state>ES</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Vit&#243;ria Apart Hospital, Serra, ES - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Katyavala Bwila Benguela</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Luanda</city>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="AO">Angola</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Katyavala Bwila Benguela, Luanda - Angola</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Vit&#243;ria</city>
          <state>ES</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, Vit&#243;ria, ES - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Jorge Elias Neto &#8226;</bold> Vitoria Apart Hospital - Servi&#231;o de Eletrofisiologia - Rodovia BR-101 Norte, Km 2,38, s/n. Postal Code: 29161-900, Boa Vista II, Serra, ES - Brazil E-mail: <email>jeliasneto@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Neto JE, Ferreira A; Acquisition of data: Neto JE, Ferreira A, Futuro G, Santos LC, Gomes F, Heringer Filho N; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Neto JE, Ferreira A; Statistical analysis and Obtaining financing: Neto JE; Writing of the manuscript: Neto JE, Mill JG; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Neto JE, Ferreira A, Mill JG.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>09</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>113</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>1072</fpage>
      <lpage>1081</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Arterial compliance reduction has been associated with aging and hypertension in supine position. However, the dynamic effects of orthostatism on aortic distensibility has not been defined.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>We sought to determine the orthostatic influence and the interference of age, blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) on the great arteries during gravitational stress.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Ninety-three healthy volunteers (age 42 &#177; 16 years). Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (PWV) assumed as aortic stiffness was assessed in supine position (basal phase), during tilt test (TT) (orthostatic phase) and after return to supine position (recovery phase). Simultaneously with PWV acquisition, measures of BP and HR rate were recorded.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>PWV during TT increased significantly compared to the basal and recovery phases (11.7 &#177; 2.5 m/s vs. 10.1 &#177; 2.3 m/s and 9.5 &#177; 2.0 m/s). Systolic BP (r = 0.55, r = 0.46 and r = 0.39) and age (r = 0.59, r = 0.63 and r = 0.39) correlated with PWV in all phases. The significance level for all tests was established as &#945; = 0.05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>We conclude that there is a permanent increase in PWV during orthostatic position that was returned to basal level at the recovery phase. This dynamic pattern of PWV response, during postural changes, can be explained by an increase in hydrostatic pressure at the level of abdominal aorta which with smaller radius and an increased elastic modulus, propagates the pulse in a faster way. Considering that it could increase central pulse reflection during the orthostatic position, we speculate that this mechanism may play a role in the overall adaptation of humans to gravitational stress.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Switch Arterial</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Aging</kwd>
        <kwd>Standing Position</kwd>
        <kwd>Pulse Wave Analysis</kwd>
        <kwd>Gravitation</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Great arteries are not only seen as mere passive conductors of blood, functioning only in its transportation and distribution, but rather playing a fundamental and complex role in the maintenance of circulatory homeostasis and in the genesis of cardiovascular disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> The great arteries may be considered a functional organ with several roles, such as endocrine and paracrine activity, in addition to the capacity for muffling the pulsatile blood flow.</p>
      <p>The functional behavior of the great arteries in the supine position was assessed noninvasively by measuring the pulse wave velocity (PWV) in several arterial segments.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Epidemiological and longitudinal studies using that methodology have shown the clinical relevance of this approach for predicting morbid cardiovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
			</p>
      <p>However, due to methodological limitations, the functional response of the great arteries has not been investigated in the orthostatic position.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The tilt test has long been used for assessing the influence of gravitational stress on the behavior of hemodynamic parameters.<sup>9-10</sup> Although this technique allows adequate reproducibility of the gravitational action upon individuals in active orthostatic position, only from the end of the 1980s that small studies have been carried out with primates, aiming at assessing the influence of postural changes on the behavior of aortic pulse wave and PWV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,11-13</sup> Studying the function of the great arteries in the orthostatic position by noninvasively measuring carotid-femoral PWV may be important for understanding the vascular mechanisms of adaptation to gravity and their implications on cardiocirculatory homeostasis, development or progression of cardiovascular disease and occurrence of unadaptable postural events.</p>
      <p>This study is the first to assess the effects of orthostatic position on the function of the great arteries in humans, by measuring the carotid-femoral PWV in healthy individuals and in individuals with untreated mild-to-moderate arterial hypertension. We tested the hypothesis that orthostatism could lead to increased PWV compared to the supine positions and considering the influence of blood pressure, age and heart rate.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Patient characteristics</title>
        <p>To define the sample size, we used studies that evaluated PWV in supine position.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The study included 93 individuals, 74 males and 19 females whose ages ranged from 18 to 75 years (42 &#177; 16 years). Twenty-nine (31.1%) individuals had systolic blood pressure levels &#8805; 140 and/or diastolic blood pressure levels &gt; 90 mm Hg. These individuals either had undiagnosed arterial hypertension or had voluntarily interrupted the antihypertensive treatment for more than 30 days. Their anthropometric and hemodynamic characteristics are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Anthropomorphic and hemodynamic characteristics of the participants</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="16%"/>
              <col width="16%"/>
              <col width="16%"/>
              <col width="16%"/>
              <col width="16%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <th align="left">Characteristics</th>
                <th align="center">
								</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="3">Participants (n = 93)</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <th align="left">Sex</th>
                <th align="center">
								</th>
                <th align="center">Male (n = 74)</th>
                <th align="center">
								</th>
                <th align="center">Female (n = 19)</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">
								</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="3">Mean &#177; Standard deviation</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Age, years</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">42</td>
                <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                <td align="center">16</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Weight, kg</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">71</td>
                <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                <td align="center">12</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Height, cm</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">1,7</td>
                <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                <td align="center">0,1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">BMI, kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">24,7</td>
                <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                <td align="center">3,1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SBP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">130</td>
                <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                <td align="center">18</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DBP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">82</td>
                <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                <td align="center">13</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MBP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">99</td>
                <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                <td align="center">15</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HR, bpm</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">66</td>
                <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                <td align="center">11</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">47</td>
                <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                <td align="center">13</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>BMI: body mass index; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; MBP: medium blood pressure; PP: pulse pressure; HR: heart rate. The continuous values are expressed as mean &#177; SD.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The exclusion criteria were as follows: clinical history or evidence of any type of cardiac structural disease; overweight or obesity; diabetes mellitus; smoking; dyslipidemia; peripheral vascular disease; chronic renal failure; clinical data suggestive of dysautonomia; and orthostatic intolerance or previous vasovagal events. Patients with arterial hypertension on antihypertensive treatment and patients on any medication that could interfere with the results of the parameters assessed or that could account for the occurrence of orthostatic hypotension during the tilt test were also excluded from the study.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Automatic measurement of carotid-femoral PWV</title>
        <p>Carotid-femoral PWV index, a measure of aortic stiffness, was assessed with an automatic device (Complior, Colson, France) that measures the time delay between the rapid upstroke of the feet of simultaneously recorded pulse waves in the carotid and femoral arteries by using 2 pressure transducers (TY-306 type; Fukuda Deshi Co., Tokyo, Japan). PWV was calculated as the ratio between the distance and the foot-to-foot time delay and was expressed in meters per second. (6). All PWV measurements in the supine position were taken and assessed by a single observer. Obtainment of PWV during the tilt test required 2 researchers, who were acquainted with the technique in the supine position and were trained for PWV measurement in the orthostatic position.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Protocol of the tilt test associated with PWV measurement</title>
        <p>All individuals were assessed in the morning. They were instructed to fast for 12 hours. Prior to the examination, anthropometric measurements of weight, height, and waist and hip perimeters were taken. Then, the individuals were placed in the supine position on a mechanical table of tilt test.</p>
        <p>After a 20-minute rest, during which the individuals were instructed about the dynamic sequence of the protocol, the following baseline measurements were taken: PWV, heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), mean blood pressure (MBP) and pulse pressure (PP). After that, the patients were tilted at an angle of 70&#186;. The tilt test lasted 20 minutes. The measurements of parameters monitored during tilt testing were performed at 2-minute intervals and 2 minutes after returning to the supine position. Electrocardiographic monitoring was continuously performed. Blood pressure was noninvasively measured at 2-minute intervals using the Omega 1400 monitor (Invivo Research Laboratories, USA) while PWV measurements were being taken or when the patient reported any symptom or had clinical signs or electrocardiographic abnormalities suggestive of that diagnosis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>Anthropometric, biological and hemodynamic characteristics were expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare hemodynamic parameters obtained at baseline condition, during the tilt test at 70&#186; (0-2 min, 10 min and 20 min), and in the recovery phase (0-2 min). The correlation between PWV obtained during the protocol and all parameters was determined using Pearson&#8217;s correlation coefficient in the entire sample. Then, multiple linear regression was used to assess the influence of the different hemodynamic parameters on the PWV during the tree phase. All assumptions required for regression analysis were verified.</p>
        <p>The partial linear correlation coefficients between PWV and age controlled for the blood pressure effect were calculated for each phase of the protocol. Similarly, the influence of age on the correlation of PWV and blood pressure was determined. Then, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were performed to assess the independent effects of age and SBP on PWV in the different phases of the protocol. Considering that the 2 major modulating factors of PWV level are age and SBP, the clinical results were assessed after adjustment for these 2 variables. Aiming at assessing the variables that interfere with heart rate behavior in orthostatic position, multiple linear regression was performed. A normality assessment of the data was performed for all variables.</p>
        <p>The significance level for all tests was established as &#945; = 0.05. The statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS for Windows software (version 18.0, SPSS Inc., 2010).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Effects of the tilt test at 70 on the hemodynamic characteristics of the participants</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref> shows the dynamic behavior of the hemodynamic variables during the protocol.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Chart showing the dynamic behavior of hemodynamic parameters monitored during the protocol. 151x155 mm (96 x 96 DPI)</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1072-90182-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> shows the mean values of the variables studied at baseline, during the tilt test, and in the recovery phase.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Effects of the tilt test at 70&#186;/20 min. (mean in standing position) on the participants&#8217; hemodynamic parameters and PWV</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <th align="left" rowspan="2">Variable</th>
                <th align="center">Basal</th>
                <th align="center">Tilt test (mean in standing position)</th>
                <th align="center">Recovery</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <th align="center">Mean &#177; SD</th>
                <th align="center">Mean &#177; SD</th>
                <th align="center">Mean &#177; SD</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SBP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">130 &#177; 1811</td>
                <td align="center">128 &#177; 15</td>
                <td align="center">121 &#177; 16<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DBP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">082 &#177; 13<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">***</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">087 &#177; 11</td>
                <td align="center">077 &#177; 13<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MBP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">099 &#177; 15<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">***</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">103 &#177; 11</td>
                <td align="center">093 &#177; 14<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">047 &#177; 13<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">***</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">042 &#177; 8</td>
                <td align="center">044 &#177; 11<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HR, bpm</td>
                <td align="center">066 &#177; 11<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">***</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">079 &#177; 14</td>
                <td align="center">068 &#177; 13<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PWV, m/s</td>
                <td align="center">010 &#177; 2.3<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">***</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">011 &#177; 2.5</td>
                <td align="center">009 &#177; 2,0<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <label>***</label>
              <p>
                <italic>p &lt; 0.001 vs. tilt test;</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <label>&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</label>
              <p>
                <italic>p &lt; 0.001 vs. tilt test.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>
                <italic>SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; MBP: medium blood pressure; PP: pulse pressure; HR: heart rate; PWV: pulse wave velocity.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Based on the analysis of these data, the response of the individuals to postural changes was associated with a 6% increase in DBP, which was maintained during the entire phase of orthostatic position. The same was observed for the MBP value in orthostatic position. On the other hand, PP in orthostatic position decreased by 10.6%. An 11.5%-increase in PWV in orthostatic position (PWVp) was observed as compared with the baseline PWV value.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Association between PWV in the supine position and anthropometric and hemodynamic characteristics of the participants</title>
        <p>The results of the linear correlation analysis between carotid-femoral PWV in the supine position and the anthropometric and hemodynamic parameters are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Table 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Correlation between carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity in the supine position and anthropomorphic and hemodynamic parameters</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="46%"/>
              <col width="31%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <th align="left">Parameters</th>
                <th align="center">Correlation coefficient</th>
                <th align="center">p value</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Age, years</td>
                <td align="center">0.593</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Weight, kg</td>
                <td align="center">0.063</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Height, cm</td>
                <td align="center">&#8211;0.125</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">BMI, Kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center">0.194</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SBP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0.547</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DBP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0.528</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MBP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0.560</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HR, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0.063</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PP, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0.216</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.05</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <p>
                <italic>BMI: body mass index; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; MBP: medium blood pressure; HR: heart rate; PP: pulse pressure; NS: no significance.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Multiple linear regression showed that age (p &lt; 0.001) and SBP (p &lt; 0.001) were the only independent predictive variables of baseline PWV. These 2 factors accounted for approximately 50% of the variability observed in baseline PWV (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.505, p &lt; 0.001).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Association between mean PWV during the tilt test at 70&#186; and the anthropometric and hemodynamic characteristics of the participants</title>
        <p>Analysis of the correlation between PWV measurements taken in the supine position (baseline PWV) and PWV during the tilt test (PWVp) showed a significant influence of baseline PWV on the response obtained in orthostatic position (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2A</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Chart of dispersion between carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity in the standing position (PWVp) and: A &#8211; basal carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (basal PWV), p &lt; 0.01; B &#8211; systolic blood pressure (SBP), p &lt; 0.001; C &#8211; age, in 93 participants, p &lt; 0.001; D &#8211; heart rate (HR) in 93 participants, p &lt; 0.001.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1072-90182-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Results of the linear correlation analysis between carotid-femoral PWVp obtained during the tilt test and the anthropometric and hemodynamic parameters of the study participants are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Table 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Correlation between mean carotid-femoral PWV during the tilt test at 70&#186;/20 min with anthropomorphic and hemodynamic parameters</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="46%"/>
              <col width="31%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <th align="left">Parameters</th>
                <th align="center">Correlation coefficient</th>
                <th align="center">p value</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Age, years</td>
                <td align="center">0.638</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Weight, kg</td>
                <td align="center">0.220</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.05</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Height, cm</td>
                <td align="center">&#8211;0.020</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">BMI, kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center">0.323</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SBPp, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0.464</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DBPp, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0.363</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MBPp, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0.358</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HRp, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">&#8211;0.366</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PPp, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0.307</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN6">
              <p>
                <italic>BMI: body mass index; SBPp: mean systolic blood pressure during the tilt test; DBPp: mean diastolic blood pressure during the tilt test; MBPp: mean medium blood pressure during the tilt test; HRp: mean heart rate during the tilt test; PPp: mean pulse pressure during the tilt test; NS: no significance.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Once again, multiple linear regression defined age and SBP as the major independent predictive factors of PWV obtained during the tilt test, accounting together for 49% of the variations in PWV during that test (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.490).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Association between PWV during the recovery phase and the anthropometric and hemodynamic characteristics of the participants</title>
        <p>The correlation of variables obtained when the individuals returned to the supine position 20 minutes after the tilt test (recovery phase) was assessed. This final phase of the study represents an immediate response (0-2 min) of the hemodynamic parameters and their correlation with PWV during the recovery phase (PWVrec). A significant correlation was observed between PWVrec and most variables assessed in this phase of the protocol. Once again, the variable age had the greatest positive correlation (r = 0.533, p &lt; 0.001) with PWVrec. A positive correlation was also observed between PWVrec and the following parameters: BMI (r = 0.26, p &lt; 0.05); SBP (r = 0.39, p &lt; 0.001); DBP (r = 0.49, p &lt; 0.001); and MBP (r = 0.457, p &lt; 0.001). In the recovery phase, a negative correlation between HR (r = 0.055, NS) and PWVrec was no longer observed. As occurred in the 2 preceding phases, multiple linear regression in the recovery phase showed that SBP (p &lt; 0.001) and age (p &lt; 0.001) were independent predictors of variations in PWVrec. Together, these variables accounted for approximately 40% of the variations in PWVrec.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Analysis of the effects of distensibility pressure on aortic stiffness in the baseline supine position, orthostatic position and after the tilt test</title>
        <p>Variation in the carotid-femoral PWV, as an index of aortic stiffness, was assessed with regard to the SBP values, aiming at comparing the effects of distensibility pressure on the mechanical properties of the great arteries in the population (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2B</xref>).</p>
        <p>The analysis of SBP in the passive orthostatic position showed that SBP accounted for approximately 21% (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.214, p &lt; 0001) of the variations observed in PWV. After adjusting SBP for age, SBP proved to play an even more significant role in the PWVp behavior pattern (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.38, p &lt; 0.001).</p>
        <p>Finally, in the statistical analysis performed in the recovery phase, SBP continued to play a significant role in the PWVrec variations (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.15, p &lt; 0.001). The same was observed for SBP adjusted for age (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.23, p &lt; 0.001).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Analysis of the effect of aging on aortic stiffness in the baseline supine position, orthostatic position and after the tilt test</title>
        <p>To assess the effects of aging on arterial stiffness, the correlation curve (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2C</xref>) was performed with regard to age. In all phases of the protocol, PWV significantly increased with age (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.351, p &lt; 0.001; r<sup>2</sup> = 0.4066, p &lt; 0.001; r<sup>2</sup> = 0.283, p &lt; 0.001).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Assessment of the effect of heart rate on PWV measured in the different phases of the protocol</title>
        <p>The influence of heart rate behavior on arterial distensibility was assessed. As previously reported, no correlation was observed between HR and PWV assessed in the baseline and recovery phases.</p>
        <p>On the other hand, during the tilt test, a negative correlation was observed between PWVp and HR (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2D</xref>).</p>
        <p>Heart rate accounted for approximately 13% of the variation in PWV during the tilt test (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.136, p &lt; 0.001), and this influence continued to be observed even after PWV was adjusted for age (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.154, p &lt; 0.001). The heart rate decrease in orthostatic position was significantly conditioned to age increase in the participants (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.27, p &lt; 0.001).</p>
        <p>Finally, the correlation between the HR behavior in orthostatic position and the hemodynamic parameters at baseline was assessed. A negative correlation with baseline PWV measurement was observed (r = -0.30, p &lt; 0.01).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>The main new finding of this study was the instant and significant increase in PWV in orthostatic position (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>). This pattern of vascular functional behavior was present in all individuals studied regardless of age, resulting in PWV levels in young individuals during the tilt test similar to those of elderly individuals in the supine position.</p>
      <p>As observed in this study, although SBP is one of the most important variables accounting for a direct increase in PWV, both at baseline and in orthostatic position (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref>), no additional increase in SBP was detected during the tilt test compared with its baseline levels (baseline SBP: 130 &#177; 18 mmHg, SBPp: 128 &#177; 15 mmHg, NS). Indeed, a decreasing trend was observed in orthostatic position. This finding is in accordance with literature data, which also evidenced lack of a statistically significant increase or even a decreasing trend in SBP in orthostatic position.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Another important aspect is that although this study did not directly assess vasomotor activity, the fact that it found an increase in MAP (baseline MBP: 99 &#177; 15, MBPp: 103 &#177; 11, p &lt; 0.05) means that there was probably an increase in peripheral vascular resistance due to reflex sympathetic activation induced by the fall in pulse pressure while standing. Thus, although a variable PWV may be strongly influenced by the MBP, the increased PWV can be attributed to both secondary circulatory disorders due to gravitational stress and increased peripheral vascular resistance, rather than to the effect of high MBP.</p>
      <p>Transmission of pulse wave is known to be primarily dependent on arterial elasticity or stiffness coefficient. However, several other factors should be considered. Some of these factors are related to cardiovascular physiology, while others result from specific pathophysiological conditions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Analyzing the correlation between baseline PWV and PWVp, a direct influence of the baseline pattern of arterial compliance was observed on the response of the great arteries to orthostatic position (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
      <p>Because no significant increase in SBP was observed in orthostatic position, the increase in PWV may have resulted from circulatory dynamics disorders resulting from gravitational force, in association with structural and geometric characteristics of the aorta. This hypothesis is based on the Moens-Korteweg formula and on the knowledge that PWV depends on vascular radius and thickness, as well as on the vascular elastic module.</p>
      <p>Measurement of PWV during the tilt test exposes the arterial segments to gravitational stress in a distinguished form, imitating, to a certain extent, what occurs during active orthostatic position.</p>
      <p>In fact, the immediate consequence of orthostasis is that gravity favors a progressive increase in blood pressure in the segments below the cardiac level in orthostatic position.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The hydrostatic pressure generated by the gravitational force changes the indifferent hydrostatic point, defined as the axial reference in which the venous blood column pressure is not altered by postural reorientation. Such point is located at the right atrial level in supine position and in the infradiaphragmatic aortic territory in orthostatic position. Because of this, an increase in blood flow to the arterial segments with greater elastic module and smaller radius occurs, evidencing the increase in the measured carotid-femoral PWV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> This increase in PWV accounts for the early return of the reflected waves from the peripheral sites to the ascending aorta. This wave, reflected earlier (during the ventricular ejection period), adds to the incident wave generated by left ventricular ejection and influences the contour of the pressure and flow waves.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> In other words, the earlier return of the reflected component, occurring during the systolic component of the pulse wave, leads to an increase in pulse pressure (pulse summation).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> This increase, provided by the reflected wave in the initial portion of the arterial pulse wave, may result from a complex, evolutionary, functional, anatomical-humoral adaptation of the vascular system, to maintain an effective cerebral blood flow in response to bipedalism (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
			</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Sketch of the mechanism proposed for pulse wave velocity behavior in a healthy young individual. A &#8211; In the supine position, the reflected component occurs during the diastole due to a smaller PWV. B &#8211; In orthostatic position, due to the gravitational force, the indifferent hydrostatic point moves to the subdiaphragmatic aorta, which has a smaller radius and a greater elastic module; therefore, PWV increases, leading to an earlier return of the reflected component of the pulse wave, which then occurs with a systolic &#8220;pulse summation&#8221;. Thus, pulse wave morphology is altered. 321x263 mm (72 x 72 DPI)</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1072-90182-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The observed increase in PWVp can also be attributed to the emergence of new sites of reflection of the pulse in the peripheral circulation due to a possible increase in peripheral vascular resistance in response to standing.</p>
      <p>A phasic response of the central hemodynamics to gravitational stress has been reported in experimental studies with baboons. A later systolic peak resulting from the reflected component of the pulse wave does not occur immediately after taking orthostatic position in these animals. Therefore, the reflected wave appears later in diastole, suggesting a decrease in PWV. Then, the so-called compensatory phase occurs during response to baroreflex.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The role played by wave reflection in the circulatory homeostasis in orthostatic position is reinforced by the observation that nitroglycerin, used sublingually for tilt test sensitization, causes peripheral vasodilation, leading to a delay in the reflected component of the pulse wave and consequent reduction in the proximal systolic pressure, culminating in symptoms of low cerebral blood flow in patients with neuromediated syncope.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In reality, although a decrease in the coefficient of reflection is observed using nitroglycerin, an increase in aortic stiffness is paradoxically observed. This secondary aortic stiffness was attributed to a possible reflex activation of the sympathetic nervous system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Analysis of PWV behavior in this series of patients also showed that the increase in PWV was positively correlated with age, showing that, even in the elderly, who have higher baseline PWV levels, an additional increase occurred by taking orthostatic position (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.357, p &lt; 0.001 in the supine position and r<sup>2</sup> = 0.406, p &lt; 0.001 in orthostatic position). In reality, this additional increase in PWV in the elderly results from the addition of structural findings with the dynamic postural component.</p>
      <p>Another intriguing aspect of this study was the discovery of a negative correlation between HR and PWV in orthostatic position (r = -0.36, p &lt; 0.001). Age was the major variable responsible for HR behavior in orthostatic position (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.27, p &lt; 0.001).</p>
      <p>Aiming at better understanding that finding, the correlation between HR measured during orthostatic stress and baseline PWV was also assessed. A negative correlation between HR and baseline PWV (r = -0.29, p &lt; 0.01) was observed. This result shows a clear association of the baseline pattern of arterial compliance with the level of HR response to orthostatic position.</p>
      <p>Initial experimental studies and studies in human beings in the supine position reported a positive correlation between increased HR and increased aortic stiffness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> However, Wilkinson et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> in a study assessing PWV behavior and the invasive augmentation index in healthy individuals undergoing atrial stimulation, reported no significant alterations in aortic distensibility due to an increase in HR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Further to the lack of consensus on the effects of heart rate on PWV, the possible mechanisms contributing to PWV changes with heart rate have yet to be fully elucidated, although many investigators have attributed heart-rate related changes in arterial stiffness to the viscoelasticity of the arterial wall. With high heart rate being an independent prognostic factor of cardiovascular disease and its association with hypertension, the interaction between heart rate and PWV continues to be relevant in assessing cardiovascular risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Although a first analysis of these data point to a potential disagreement with our findings, they should be considered as complementary to each other and analyzed within a dynamic context, because they were obtained in very distinct physiological conditions.</p>
      <p>Cross-sectional studies have reported that baseline HR does not differ between young and elderly individuals in the supine position.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> However, HR assessment of healthy individuals in the sitting position has shown that HR decreases with age in both sexes. On the other hand, studies using the tilt test to assess cardiovascular adaptation to orthostatic stress have also reported a significantly lower response of HR in elderly individuals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The decrease in HR variability due to postural change observed in elderly patients compared with that in young individuals has been attributed to a decrease in the recruitment of the activity of baroreceptors in orthostatic position.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Considering the dynamic behavior of aortic compliance due to postural change, a greater decrease in systolic volume (SV) in young individuals could lead to a decrease in pulsatile aortic strain, with a subsequent decrease in baroreceptor stimulation and an increase in HR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Maintenance of systolic volume in elderly individuals has been attributed to lower venous compliance in this group, allowing preservation of cardiac filling volume, and, consequently, of systolic volume.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> However, a lower HR associated with age, such as that observed in this study, could also mean an adaptive mechanism of man to bipedalism.</p>
      <p>Heart rate is known to affect preload via its effect on diastolic filling time and to modulate the myocardial contractility status, altering the myocardial concentration of Ca<sup>2+</sup> and Na<sup>+</sup>. As a consequence of increase in myocardial contractility, HR also modulates end-systolic volume, systolic volume and ejection fraction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Thus, a lower HR could initially allow better cardiac performance in the presence of a stiffer arterial system.</p>
      <p>Considering all that has been presented so far, the following hypothesis was formulated: the return of the reflected component of the pulse wave is fundamental to the immediate adaptation to orthostatic position, as well as to the adequate adaptation of baroreceptors. Based on data from this study, it is not possible to determine whether this increase is not only due to the dynamic circulatory changes secondary to gravity, but also to sympathetic activation in response to decreased stroke volume and pulse pressure. If the above hypothesis is correct, one may consider the role played by our findings in some very common clinical conditions associated with orthostatic position (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
			</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figure 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Hypothesis proposed for the role played by the increase in carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity in the maintenance of circulatory homeostasis in response to orthostatic stress. 309x165 mm (72 x 72 DPI). PP: pulse pressure; PWV: pulse wave velocity; MBP: medium blood pressure; HR: heart rate.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1072-90182-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>Study limitations</title>
        <p>This study has some limitations. Assessment of sympathetic response was not performed during the tilt test through venous measurement of catecholamines or recording of neural sympathetic activity through electroneuromyography.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> However, although the present study did not directly assess vasomotor activity, an increase in mean arterial pressure (supine: 099 &#177; 15 mmHg vs. orthostasis: 103 &#177; 11 mmHg, p &lt; 0.01) allowed us to infer that there has been an increase in peripheral vascular resistance due to the reflex sympathetic activation induced by the drop of pulse pressure in orthostasis.</p>
        <p>Another limiting factor was the lack of study of the baroreflex response to orthostatic stress caused by the tilt test, which resulted in lack of data referring to its dysfunction and to the specific location of alterations in its reflex arch. Change in HR was the only response observed, with no other baroreflex measurements, particularly those of systolic volume, although they have been shown to be closely related.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Another possible source of error in PWV measurement lies in determining the arterial segment. Its superficial and noninvasive measurement allows only an estimation of the distance traveled by the pulse wave.</p>
        <p>Obtainment of carotid-femoral PWV comprises the analysis of a relatively long arterial segment, which may be extremely tortuous from the three-dimensional point of view. Another factor is that the vessel may be distorted by the direct application of the pressure transducer. This aspect is more evident in deeper vessels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> These observations become potentially more significant when carotid-femoral PWV measurement is considered during the tilt test. The change from supine decubitus to orthostatic position may increase the difficulty in recording femoral pulse, mainly in obese individuals. In some cases, recording femoral pulse is impossible. In this study, we tried to reduce these sources of error by using observers who were very well-trained in measuring PWV in the supine and orthostatic positions.</p>
        <p>Although this study does not allow comparison of the influence of sex on arterial behavior in orthostatic position, the inclusion of female individuals in this study may not have interfered with the response of PWV increase to postural stress. Considering the greater arterial distensibility in young females,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> a relatively smaller increase could occur in PWV due to postural stress caused by the tilt test. However, this hypothesis cannot be statistically confirmed with the data from this study.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>In conclusion, our study of healthy individuals and in individuals with untreated mild-to-moderate arterial hypertension demonstrates a rapid increase in PWV during the tilt test and its return to baseline levels when resuming to supine position. We found strong indications that these results may enable a better comprehension of the response of the great arteries to gravitational stress. These results may also elucidate this behavior in the long run, in the presence of inherent degenerative disorders, such as arterial hypertension and aging, and predetermined genetic markers.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Jorge Elias Neto, from Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ack>
      <title>Acknowledgements</title>
      <p>To Prof. Dr. Roberto S&#225; Cunha, for the technical assistance.</p>
    </ack>
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            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mill</surname>
            <given-names>Jose Geraldo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">3</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Vit&#243;ria Apart Hospital, Serra, ES - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Katyavala Bwila Benguela, Luanda - Angola</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, Vit&#243;ria, ES - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Jorge Elias Neto &#8226;</bold> Vitoria Apart Hospital - Servi&#231;o de Eletrofisiologia - Rodovia BR-101 Norte, Km 2,38, s/n. CEP 29161-900, Boa Vista II, Serra, ES - Brasil E-mail: <email>jeliasneto@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Neto JE, Ferreira A; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Neto JE, Ferreira A, Futuro G, Santos LC, Gomes F, Heringer Filho N; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Neto JE, Ferreira A; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Neto JE; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Neto JE, Mill JG; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Neto JE, Ferreira A, Mill JG.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>A redu&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia arterial tem sido associada ao envelhecimento e &#224; hipertens&#227;o na postura supina. Entretanto, os efeitos din&#226;micos do ortostatismo na distensibilidade a&#243;rtica n&#227;o foram definidos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Determinar a influ&#234;ncia ortost&#225;tica e a interfer&#234;ncia da idade, press&#227;o arterial (PA) e frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) sobre as grandes art&#233;rias durante o estresse gravitacional.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Noventa e tr&#234;s volunt&#225;rios saud&#225;veis (idade de 42 &#177; 16 anos). A velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;deo-femoral (VOP), assumida como rigidez a&#243;rtica, foi avaliada na posi&#231;&#227;o supina (fase basal) durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o (TT) (fase ortost&#225;tica) e ap&#243;s o retorno &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o supina (fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o). Simultaneamente &#224; aquisi&#231;&#227;o da PWV, registrou-se as medidas de PA e FC.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>A VOP durante o TT aumentou significativamente em compara&#231;&#227;o com as fases basal e de recupera&#231;&#227;o (11,7 &#177; 2,5 m/s vs. 10,1 &#177; 2,3 m/se 9,5 &#177; 2,0 m/s). PA sist&#243;lica (r = 0,55, r = 0,46 e r = 0,39) e idade (r = 0,59, r = 0,63 e r = 0,39) correlacionaram-se com a VOP em todas as fases. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia para todos os testes foi estabelecido como = 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Observou-se um aumento permanente da VOP durante a postura ortost&#225;tica, que retornou ao n&#237;vel basal na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o. Esse padr&#227;o din&#226;mico de resposta da VOP, durante as altera&#231;&#245;es posturais, pode ser explicado pelo aumento da press&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica no n&#237;vel da aorta abdominal que, com raio menor e aumento do m&#243;dulo de elasticidade, propaga o pulso de maneira mais r&#225;pida. Considerando-se que poderia aumentar a reflex&#227;o do pulso central durante a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, podemos especular que esse mecanismo pode desempenhar um papel na adapta&#231;&#227;o global do humano ao estresse gravitacional.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Grandes Art&#233;rias</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Envelhecimento</kwd>
        <kwd>Posi&#231;&#227;o Ortost&#225;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>An&#225;lise de Onda de Pulso</kwd>
        <kwd>Gravita&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>As grandes art&#233;rias n&#227;o s&#227;o vistas apenas como meros condutores passivos de sangue, funcionando apenas no seu transporte e distribui&#231;&#227;o, mas desempenhando um papel fundamental e complexo na manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase circulat&#243;ria e na g&#234;nese das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> As grandes art&#233;rias podem ser consideradas um &#243;rg&#227;o funcional com diversas fun&#231;&#245;es, como atividade end&#243;crina e par&#225;crina, al&#233;m da capacidade de abafar o fluxo sangu&#237;neo puls&#225;til.</p>
        <p>O comportamento funcional das grandes art&#233;rias em dec&#250;bito dorsal foi avaliado de forma n&#227;o invasiva, medindo-se a velocidade da onda de pulso (VOP) em v&#225;rios segmentos arteriais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos e longitudinais feitos com essa metodologia mostraram a relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica dessa abordagem para a predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares m&#243;rbidos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
				</p>
        <p>No entanto, devido a limita&#231;&#245;es metodol&#243;gicas, a resposta funcional das grandes art&#233;rias n&#227;o foi investigada na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>H&#225; muito tempo, o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o tem sido utilizado para avaliar a influ&#234;ncia do estresse gravitacional no comportamento dos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Embora essa t&#233;cnica permita uma reprodutibilidade adequada da a&#231;&#227;o gravitacional sobre os indiv&#237;duos em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica ativa, somente a partir do final da d&#233;cada de 1980 &#233; que foram realizados estudos com primatas, com o objetivo de avaliar a influ&#234;ncia das altera&#231;&#245;es posturais sobre o comportamento da onda de pulso a&#243;rtica e da VOP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> O estudo da fun&#231;&#227;o das grandes art&#233;rias na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica pela medida n&#227;o invasiva da VOP carot&#237;deo-femoral pode ser importante para a compreens&#227;o dos mecanismos vasculares de adapta&#231;&#227;o &#224; gravidade e suas implica&#231;&#245;es na homeostase cardiocirculat&#243;ria, no desenvolvimento ou progress&#227;o de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos posturais n&#227;o adapt&#225;veis.</p>
        <p>O presente estudo &#233; o primeiro a avaliar os efeitos da posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o das grandes art&#233;rias em humanos, medindo a VOP carot&#237;dea-femoral em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis e em indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o arterial leve a moderada n&#227;o tratada. Testamos a hip&#243;tese de que o ortostatismo poderia levar ao aumento da VOP em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o de dec&#250;bito dorsal e considerando a influ&#234;ncia da press&#227;o arterial, idade e frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Caracter&#237;sticas dos pacientes</title>
          <p>Para definir o tamanho da amostra, foram utilizados estudos que avaliaram a VOP em dec&#250;bito dorsal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Participaram do estudo 93 indiv&#237;duos, sendo 74 do sexo masculino e 19 do sexo feminino, com idade entre 18 e 75 anos (42 &#177; 16 anos). Vinte e nove (31,1%) indiv&#237;duos apresentavam n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica &#8805; 140 e/ou n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica &gt;90 mmHg. Esses indiv&#237;duos tinham hipertens&#227;o arterial n&#227;o diagnosticada ou haviam interrompido voluntariamente o tratamento anti-hipertensivo por mais de 30 dias. Suas caracter&#237;sticas antropom&#233;tricas e hemodin&#226;micas s&#227;o apresentadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t5">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Caracter&#237;sticas antropom&#243;rficas e hemodin&#226;micas dos participantes</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="16%"/>
                <col width="16%"/>
                <col width="16%"/>
                <col width="16%"/>
                <col width="16%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                  <th align="left">Caracter&#237;sticas</th>
                  <th align="center">
									</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="3">Participantes (n = 93)</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                  <th align="left">Sexo</th>
                  <th align="center">
									</th>
                  <th align="center">Masculino (n = 74)</th>
                  <th align="center">
									</th>
                  <th align="center">Feminino (n = 19)</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                  <th align="left">
									</th>
                  <th align="center">
									</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="3">M&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Idade, anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                  <td align="center">42</td>
                  <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                  <td align="center">16</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Peso, kg</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                  <td align="center">71</td>
                  <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                  <td align="center">12</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Altura, cm</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                  <td align="center">1,7</td>
                  <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                  <td align="center">0,1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">IMC, kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                  <td align="center">24,7</td>
                  <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                  <td align="center">3,1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAS, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                  <td align="center">130</td>
                  <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                  <td align="center">18</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAD, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                  <td align="center">82</td>
                  <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                  <td align="center">13</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAM, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                  <td align="center">99</td>
                  <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                  <td align="center">15</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">FC, bpm</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                  <td align="center">66</td>
                  <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                  <td align="center">11</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PP, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                  <td align="center">47</td>
                  <td align="center">&#177;</td>
                  <td align="center">13</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN7">
                <p>
                  <italic>IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; PAM: press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia; PP: press&#227;o de pulso; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Os valores cont&#237;nuos est&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; DP.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram os seguintes: hist&#243;rico cl&#237;nica ou evid&#234;ncia de algum tipo de doen&#231;a estrutural card&#237;aca; excesso de peso ou obesidade; diabetes mellitus; tabagismo; dislipidemia; doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica; insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica; dados cl&#237;nicos sugestivos de disautonomia; e intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica ou antecedentes de eventos vasovagais. Pacientes com hipertens&#227;o arterial em tratamento anti-hipertensivo e pacientes sob qualquer medica&#231;&#227;o que pudesse interferir nos resultados dos par&#226;metros avaliados ou que poderiam explicar a ocorr&#234;ncia de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m foram exclu&#237;dos do estudo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Medi&#231;&#227;o autom&#225;tica da VOP carot&#237;dea-femoral</title>
          <p>O &#237;ndice da VOP carot&#237;dea-femoral, uma medida da rigidez a&#243;rtica, foi avaliado com um dispositivo autom&#225;tico (Complior, Colson, Fran&#231;a) que mede o tempo de retardo entre o r&#225;pido movimento ascendente dos p&#233;s das ondas de pulso registradas simultaneamente nas art&#233;rias car&#243;tida e femoral utilizando-se 2 transdutores de press&#227;o (tipo TY-306; Fukuda Deshi Co., T&#243;quio, Jap&#227;o). A VOP foi calculada como a raz&#227;o entre a dist&#226;ncia e o retardo de tempo pelo m&#233;todo <italic>foot-to-foot</italic>, sendo expressa em metros por segundo. (6). Todas as medidas VOP em dec&#250;bito dorsal foram obtidas e avaliadas por um &#250;nico observador. A obten&#231;&#227;o da VOP durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o exigiu 2 pesquisadores, que estavam familiarizados com a t&#233;cnica em dec&#250;bito dorsal e foram treinados para a medi&#231;&#227;o da VOP na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Protocolo do teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o associado &#224; medi&#231;&#227;o da VOP</title>
          <p>Todos os indiv&#237;duos foram avaliados no per&#237;odo da manh&#227;, tendo sido previamente orientados a permanecerem em jejum por 12 horas. Antes do exame, foram obtidas as medidas antropom&#233;tricas de peso, altura e per&#237;metros de cintura e quadril. Em seguida, os indiv&#237;duos foram colocados em dec&#250;bito dorsal em uma mesa mec&#226;nica para o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Ap&#243;s um descanso de 20 minutos, durante o qual os indiv&#237;duos foram instru&#237;dos sobre a sequ&#234;ncia din&#226;mica do protocolo, as seguintes medidas basais foram obtidas: VOP, frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC), press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS), press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica (PAD), press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia (PAM) e press&#227;o de pulso (PP). Em seguida, os pacientes foram inclinados em um &#226;ngulo de 70&#186;. O teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o durou 20 minutos. As medidas dos par&#226;metros monitorados durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o foram realizadas em intervalos de 2 minutos e 2 minutos ap&#243;s o retorno &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o de dec&#250;bito dorsal. A monitoriza&#231;&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fica foi realizada continuamente. A press&#227;o arterial foi medida de maneira n&#227;o invasiva em intervalos de 2 minutos usando o monitor Omega 1400 (Invivo Research Laboratories, EUA) durante a obten&#231;&#227;o das medidas de VOP ou quando o paciente relatava algum sintoma ou havia apresentado sinais cl&#237;nicos ou altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas sugestivas desse diagn&#243;stico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>As caracter&#237;sticas antropom&#233;tricas, biol&#243;gicas e hemodin&#226;micas foram expressas em m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o (DP). A an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia unidirecional (ANOVA) foi utilizada para comparar os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos obtidos na condi&#231;&#227;o basal, durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o em 70&#186; (0-2 min, 10 min e 20 min) e na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o (0-2 min). A correla&#231;&#227;o entre a VOP obtida durante o protocolo e todos os par&#226;metros foi determinada pelo coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson em toda a amostra. Em seguida, utilizou-se regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla para avaliar a influ&#234;ncia dos diferentes par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos na VOP durante a fase &#225;rvore. Todas as premissas necess&#225;rias para a an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o foram verificadas.</p>
          <p>Os coeficientes de correla&#231;&#227;o linear parcial entre a VOP e a idade controlada para o efeito da press&#227;o arterial foram calculados para cada fase do protocolo. Da mesma forma, determinou-se a influ&#234;ncia da idade na correla&#231;&#227;o da VOP e press&#227;o arterial. Em seguida, foram realizadas a an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia multivariada (MANOVA) e an&#225;lise de covari&#226;ncia (ANCOVA) para avaliar os efeitos independentes da idade e da PAS na VOP nas diferentes fases do protocolo. Considerando que os 2 principais fatores moduladores do n&#237;vel de VOP s&#227;o a idade e a PAS, foram avaliados os resultados cl&#237;nicos ap&#243;s o ajuste para essas 2 vari&#225;veis. Com o objetivo de avaliar as vari&#225;veis que interferem no comportamento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, foi realizada a regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla. Realizou-se a avalia&#231;&#227;o de normalidade dos dados para todas as vari&#225;veis.</p>
          <p>O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia para todos os testes foi estabelecido como &#945; = 0,05. As an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram realizadas com o software SPSS for Windows (vers&#227;o 18.0, SPSS Inc., 2010).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Efeitos do teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o em 70&#186; nas caracter&#237;sticas hemodin&#226;micas dos participantes</title>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">figura 1</xref> mostra o comportamento din&#226;mico das vari&#225;veis hemodin&#226;micas durante o protocolo.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f5">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Gr&#225;fico mostrando o comportamento din&#226;mico dos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos monitorados durante o protocolo. 151x155 mm (96 x 96 DPI).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1072-90182-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 2</xref> mostra os valores m&#233;dios das vari&#225;veis estudadas no in&#237;cio do estudo, durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o e na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t6">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Efeitos do teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o a 70&#186;/20 min. (m&#233;dia na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica) nos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos dos participantes e na VOP</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="25%"/>
                <col width="25%"/>
                <col width="25%"/>
                <col width="25%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                  <th align="center">Basal</th>
                  <th align="center">Teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o<break/>(m&#233;dia na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica)</th>
                  <th align="center">Recupera&#231;&#227;o</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                  <th align="center">M&#233;dia &#177; DP</th>
                  <th align="center">M&#233;dia &#177; DP</th>
                  <th align="center">M&#233;dia &#177; DP</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAS, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">130 &#177; 1811</td>
                  <td align="center">128 &#177; 15</td>
                  <td align="center">121 &#177; 16<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAD, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">082 &#177; 13<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">***</xref>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">087 &#177; 11</td>
                  <td align="center">077 &#177; 13<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAM, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">099 &#177; 15<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">***</xref>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">103 &#177; 11</td>
                  <td align="center">093 &#177; 14<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PP, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">047 &#177; 13<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">***</xref>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">042 &#177; 8</td>
                  <td align="center">044 &#177; 11<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">FC, bpm</td>
                  <td align="center">066 &#177; 11<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">***</xref>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">079 &#177; 14</td>
                  <td align="center">068 &#177; 13<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">VOP, m/s</td>
                  <td align="center">010 &#177; 2.3<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">***</xref>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">011 &#177; 2.5</td>
                  <td align="center">009 &#177; 2,0<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN8">
                <label>***</label>
                <p>
                  <italic>p &lt; 0,001 vs. teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o;</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN9">
                <label>&#8224;&#8224;&#8224;</label>
                <p>
                  <italic>p &lt; 0,001 vs. teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN10">
                <p>
                  <italic>PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; PAM: press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia; PP: press&#227;o de pulso; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; VOP: velocidade da onda de pulso.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Com base na an&#225;lise desses dados, a resposta dos indiv&#237;duos &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es posturais mostrou-se associada a um aumento de 6% na PAD, que foi mantido durante toda a fase da posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. O mesmo foi observado para o valor da PAM na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. Por outro lado, a PP na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica diminuiu em 10,6%. Observou-se aumento de 11,5% na VOP na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (VOPp) em compara&#231;&#227;o com o valor basal da VOP.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Associa&#231;&#227;o entre a VOP em dec&#250;bito dorsal e as caracter&#237;sticas antropom&#233;tricas e hemodin&#226;micas dos participantes</title>
          <p>Os resultados da an&#225;lise de correla&#231;&#227;o linear entre a VOP carot&#237;dea-femoral na posi&#231;&#227;o de dec&#250;bito dorsal e os par&#226;metros antropom&#233;tricos e hemodin&#226;micos est&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 3</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t7">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Correla&#231;&#227;o entre a velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;dea-femoral na posi&#231;&#227;o de dec&#250;bito dorsal e par&#226;metros antropom&#243;rficos e hemodin&#226;micos</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="45%"/>
                <col width="31%"/>
                <col width="24%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                  <th align="left">Par&#226;metros</th>
                  <th align="center">Coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Idade, anos</td>
                  <td align="center">0,593</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Peso, kg</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,063</td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Altura, cm</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8211;0,125</td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">IMC, kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">0,194</td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAS, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">0,547</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAD, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">0,528</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAM, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">0,560</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">FC, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">0,063</td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PP, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">0,216</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,05</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN11">
                <p>
                  <italic>IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; PAM: press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; PP: press&#227;o de pulso; NS: n&#227;o significante.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>A regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla mostrou que a idade (p &lt; 0,001) e a PAS (p &lt; 0,001) foram as &#250;nicas vari&#225;veis preditivas independentes da VOP basal. Esses 2 fatores representaram aproximadamente 50% da variabilidade observada na VOP basal (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,505, p &lt; 0,001).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Associa&#231;&#227;o entre a VOP m&#233;dia durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o a 70&#186; e as caracter&#237;sticas antropom&#233;tricas e hemodin&#226;micas dos participantes</title>
          <p>A an&#225;lise da correla&#231;&#227;o entre as medidas de VOP realizadas em dec&#250;bito dorsal (VOP basal) e a VOP durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o (VOPp) mostrou influ&#234;ncia significativa da VOP basal na resposta obtida em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2A</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f6">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Gr&#225;fico de dispers&#227;o entre a velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;dea-femoral na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (VOPp) e: A &#8211; velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;deafemoral basal (VOP basal), p &lt; 0,01; B &#8211; press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS), p &lt; 0,001; C &#8211; idade, em 93 participantes, p &lt; 0,001; D &#8211; frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) em 93 participantes, p &lt; 0,001.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1072-90182-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Os resultados da an&#225;lise de correla&#231;&#227;o linear entre a VOPp carot&#237;dea-femoral obtida durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o e os par&#226;metros antropom&#233;tricos e hemodin&#226;micos dos participantes do estudo est&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 4</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t8">
            <label>Tabela 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Correla&#231;&#227;o entre a VOP m&#233;dia carot&#237;dea-femoral durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o a 70&#186;/20 min com os par&#226;metros antropom&#243;rficos e hemodin&#226;micos</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="45%"/>
                <col width="31%"/>
                <col width="24%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                  <th align="left">Par&#226;metros</th>
                  <th align="center">Coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Idade, anos</td>
                  <td align="center">0,638</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Peso, kg</td>
                  <td align="center">0,220</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,05</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Altura, cm</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8211;0,020</td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">IMC, kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">0,323</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PASp, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">0,464</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PADp, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">0,363</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAMp, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">0,358</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">FCp, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">-0,366</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PPp, mmHg</td>
                  <td align="center">0,307</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN12">
                <p>
                  <italic>IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; PASp: m&#233;dia da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o; PADp: m&#233;dia da press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o; PAMp: m&#233;dia da press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o; FCp: m&#233;dia da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o; PPp: m&#233;dia da press&#227;o de pulso durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o; NS: n&#227;o significante.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Mais uma vez, a regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla definiu a idade e a PAS como os principais fatores preditivos independentes da VOP obtidos durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o, representando, juntos, 49% das varia&#231;&#245;es na VOP durante esse teste (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,490).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Associa&#231;&#227;o entre a VOP durante a fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o e as caracter&#237;sticas antropom&#233;tricas e hemodin&#226;micas dos participantes</title>
          <p>Avaliou-se a correla&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis obtidas quando os indiv&#237;duos retornaram &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o de dec&#250;bito dorsal 20 minutos ap&#243;s o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o (fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o). Essa fase final do estudo representa uma resposta imediata (0-2 min) dos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos e sua correla&#231;&#227;o com a VOP durante a fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o (VOPrec). Observou-se correla&#231;&#227;o significativa entre a VOPrec e a maioria das vari&#225;veis avaliadas nessa fase do protocolo. Mais uma vez, a vari&#225;vel idade apresentou a maior correla&#231;&#227;o positiva (r = 0,533, p &lt; 0,001) com a VOPrec. Observou-se tamb&#233;m uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre a VOPrec e os seguintes par&#226;metros: IMC (r = 0,26, p &lt; 0,05); PAS (r = 0,39, p &lt; 0,001); PAD (r = 0,49, p &lt; 0,001); e PAM (r = 0,457, p &lt; 0,001). Na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o se observou mais nenhuma correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre a FC (r = 0,055, NS) e a VOPrec. Como ocorreu nas 2 fases anteriores, a regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o mostrou que a PAS (p &lt; 0,001) e a idade (p &lt; 0,001) foram preditoras independentes de varia&#231;&#245;es na VOPrec. Juntas, essas vari&#225;veis representaram aproximadamente 40% das varia&#231;&#245;es na VOPrec.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise dos efeitos da press&#227;o de distensibilidade na rigidez a&#243;rtica na posi&#231;&#227;o de dec&#250;bito dorsal basal, na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica e ap&#243;s o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>A varia&#231;&#227;o da VOP carot&#237;dea-femoral, como &#237;ndice de rigidez a&#243;rtica, foi avaliada em rela&#231;&#227;o aos valores de PAS, visando comparar os efeitos da press&#227;o de distensibilidade sobre as propriedades mec&#226;nicas das grandes art&#233;rias na popula&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2B</xref>).</p>
          <p>A an&#225;lise da PAS na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica passiva mostrou que a PAS representou aproximadamente 21% (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,214, p &lt; 0,001) das varia&#231;&#245;es observadas na VOP. Ap&#243;s o ajuste da PAS para idade, a PAS demonstrou desempenhar um papel ainda mais significativo no padr&#227;o de comportamento da VOPp (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,38, p &lt; 0,001).</p>
          <p>Finalmente, na an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica realizada na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o, a PAS continuou desempenhando um papel significativo nas varia&#231;&#245;es da VOPrec (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,15, p &lt; 0,001). O mesmo foi observado para a PAS ajustada para idade (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,23, p &lt; 0,001).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise do efeito do envelhecimento na rigidez a&#243;rtica na posi&#231;&#227;o de dec&#250;bito dorsal basal, na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica e ap&#243;s o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>Para avaliar os efeitos do envelhecimento sobre a rigidez arterial, executou-se uma curva de correla&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2C</xref>) em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; idade. Em todas as fases do protocolo, a VOP aumentou significativamente com a idade (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,351, p &lt; 0,001; r<sup>2</sup> = 0,4066, p &lt; 0,001; r<sup>2</sup> = 0,283, p &lt; 0,001).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do efeito da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na VOP medida nas diferentes fases do protocolo</title>
          <p>Avaliou-se a influ&#234;ncia do comportamento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na distensibilidade arterial. Como descrito anteriormente, nenhuma correla&#231;&#227;o foi observada entre a FC e a VOP avaliada nas fases inicial e de recupera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Por outro lado, durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o, observou-se correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre a VOPp e a FC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2D</xref>).</p>
          <p>A frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca representou aproximadamente 13% da varia&#231;&#227;o da VOP durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,136, p &lt; 0,001), sendo que essa influ&#234;ncia continuou sendo observada mesmo ap&#243;s a VOP ter sido ajustada para idade (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,154, p &lt; 0,001). A diminui&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica se mostrou significativamente condicionada ao aumento da idade dos participantes (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,27, p &lt; 0,001).</p>
          <p>Por fim, avaliou-se a correla&#231;&#227;o entre o comportamento da FC na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica e os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos no in&#237;cio do estudo. Observou-se correla&#231;&#227;o negativa com a medida da VOP basal (r = -0,30, p &lt; 0,01).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>O principal novo achado deste estudo foi o aumento instant&#226;neo e significativo da VOP na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 3</xref>). Esse padr&#227;o de comportamento funcional vascular esteve presente em todos os indiv&#237;duos estudados independentemente da idade, resultando em n&#237;veis de VOP em indiv&#237;duos jovens durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o semelhantes aos dos idosos em dec&#250;bito dorsal.</p>
        <p>Como observado neste estudo, embora a PAS seja uma das vari&#225;veis mais importantes respons&#225;veis pelo aumento direto na VOP, tanto no in&#237;cio quanto na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 4</xref>), nenhum aumento adicional na PAS foi detectado durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o com seus n&#237;veis basais (PAS basal: 130 &#177; 18 mmHg, PASp: 128 &#177; 15 mmHg, NS). De fato, observou-se uma tend&#234;ncia decrescente na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. Esse achado est&#225; de acordo com dados encontrados na literatura, que tamb&#233;m evidenciaram aus&#234;ncia de aumento estatisticamente significativo ou mesmo tend&#234;ncia decrescente na PAS na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Outro aspecto importante &#233; que, embora este estudo n&#227;o tenha avaliado diretamente a atividade vasomotora, o fato de ter encontrado um aumento na PAM (PAM basal: 99 &#177; 15, PAMp: 103 &#177; 11, p &lt; 0,05) significa que houve provavelmente um aumento na resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica devido &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica reflexa induzida pela queda na press&#227;o de pulso na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. Assim, embora uma VOP vari&#225;vel possa ser fortemente influenciada pela PAM, a eleva&#231;&#227;o na VOP pode ser atribu&#237;da tanto aos dist&#250;rbios circulat&#243;rios secund&#225;rios devido ao estresse gravitacional quanto ao aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica, e n&#227;o ao efeito da PAM elevada.</p>
        <p>Sabe-se que a transmiss&#227;o da onda de pulso depende principalmente da elasticidade arterial ou do coeficiente de rigidez. No entanto, outros fatores devem ser considerados. Alguns desses fatores est&#227;o relacionados &#224; fisiologia cardiovascular, enquanto outros resultam de condi&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas espec&#237;ficas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Analisando-se a correla&#231;&#227;o entre a VOP basal e a VOPp, observou-se influ&#234;ncia direta do padr&#227;o basal de complac&#234;ncia arterial na resposta das grandes art&#233;rias &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>Como n&#227;o foi observado aumento significativo da PAS na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, o aumento da VOP pode ter resultado de dist&#250;rbios da din&#226;mica circulat&#243;ria decorrentes da for&#231;a gravitacional, associados a caracter&#237;sticas estruturais e geom&#233;tricas da aorta. Essa hip&#243;tese se baseia na f&#243;rmula de Moens-Korteweg e no conhecimento de que a VOP depende do raio e da espessura vascular, bem como do m&#243;dulo el&#225;stico vascular.</p>
        <p>A medi&#231;&#227;o da VOP durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o exp&#245;e os segmentos arteriais ao estresse gravitacional de forma distinta, imitando, at&#233; certo ponto, o que ocorre durante a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica ativa.</p>
        <p>De fato, a consequ&#234;ncia imediata da ortostase &#233; que a gravidade favorece um aumento progressivo da press&#227;o arterial nos segmentos abaixo do n&#237;vel card&#237;aco na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A press&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica gerada pela for&#231;a gravitacional altera o ponto hidrost&#225;tico indiferente, definido como a refer&#234;ncia axial na qual a press&#227;o da coluna sangu&#237;nea venosa n&#227;o &#233; alterada pela reorienta&#231;&#227;o postural. Tal ponto est&#225; localizado no n&#237;vel atrial direito em dec&#250;bito dorsal e no territ&#243;rio a&#243;rtico infradiafragm&#225;tico em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. Devido a isso, ocorre um aumento do fluxo sangu&#237;neo para os segmentos arteriais com maior m&#243;dulo el&#225;stico e menor raio, evidenciando o aumento da VOP carot&#237;dea-femoral medida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Esse aumento na VOP responde pelo retorno precoce das ondas refletidas das regi&#245;es perif&#233;ricas &#224; aorta ascendente. Essa onda, refletida anteriormente (durante o per&#237;odo de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular), se soma &#224; onda incidente gerada pela eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e influencia o contorno das ondas de press&#227;o e fluxo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Em outras palavras, o retorno anterior do componente refletido, ocorrendo durante o componente sist&#243;lico da onda de pulso, leva a um aumento na press&#227;o de pulso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Esse aumento, proporcionado pela onda refletida na por&#231;&#227;o inicial da onda de pulso arterial, pode resultar de um processo complexo evolutivo funcional de adapta&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mico-humoral do sistema vascular, para manter um fluxo sangu&#237;neo cerebral efetivo em resposta ao bipedismo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f7">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Desenho do mecanismo proposto para o comportamento da velocidade da onda de pulso em um indiv&#237;duo jovem saud&#225;vel. A &#8211; Em dec&#250;bito dorsal, o componente refletido ocorre durante a di&#225;stole devido a uma menor VOP. B &#8211; Na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, devido &#224; for&#231;a gravitacional, o ponto hidrost&#225;tico indiferente se move para a aorta subdiafragm&#225;tica, que possui raio menor e maior m&#243;dulo el&#225;stico; portanto, a VOP aumenta, levando a um retorno mais precoce do componente refletido da onda de pulso, que ent&#227;o ocorre com um aumento do pulso sist&#243;lico. Assim, a morfologia da onda de pulso &#233; alterada. 321x263 mm (72 x 72 DPI)</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1072-90182-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>O aumento observado na VOPp tamb&#233;m pode ser atribu&#237;do ao surgimento de novos locais de reflex&#227;o do pulso na circula&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica devido a um poss&#237;vel aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica em resposta &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.</p>
        <p>Houve relatos de resposta f&#225;sica da hemodin&#226;mica central ao estresse gravitacional em estudos experimentais com babu&#237;nos. Nesses animais, o pico sist&#243;lico posterior resultante do componente refletido da onda de pulso n&#227;o ocorre imediatamente ap&#243;s a mudan&#231;a para a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. Portanto, a onda refletida aparece mais tarde na di&#225;stole, sugerindo uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na VOP. Ent&#227;o, a fase denominada compensat&#243;ria ocorre durante a resposta ao barorreflexo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O papel desempenhado pela reflex&#227;o das ondas na homeostase circulat&#243;ria na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica &#233; refor&#231;ado pela observa&#231;&#227;o de que a nitroglicerina, utilizada sublingualmente para sensibiliza&#231;&#227;o ao teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o, causa vasodilata&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica, levando a um retardo no componente refletido da onda de pulso e consequente redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica proximal, culminando em sintomas de baixo fluxo sangu&#237;neo cerebral em pacientes com s&#237;ncope neuromediada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Na realidade, embora se observe uma diminui&#231;&#227;o no coeficiente de reflex&#227;o com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da nitroglicerina, observa-se, paradoxalmente, um aumento na rigidez a&#243;rtica. Essa rigidez a&#243;rtica secund&#225;ria foi atribu&#237;da a uma poss&#237;vel ativa&#231;&#227;o reflexa do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A an&#225;lise do comportamento da VOP nessa casu&#237;stica tamb&#233;m mostrou que o aumento da VOP correlacionou-se positivamente com a idade, demonstrando que, mesmo em idosos, que apresentam maiores valores iniciais de VOP, ocorreu um acr&#233;scimo adicional na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,357, p &lt; 0,001 em dec&#250;bito dorsal e r<sup>2</sup> = 0,406, p &lt; 0,001 na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica). Na realidade, esse aumento adicional da VOP nos idosos resulta da adi&#231;&#227;o de achados estruturais com o componente postural din&#226;mico.</p>
        <p>Outro aspecto curioso do presente estudo foi a descoberta de uma correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre a FC e a VOP na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (r = -0,36, p &lt; 0,001). A idade foi a principal vari&#225;vel respons&#225;vel pelo comportamento da FC na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (r<sup>2</sup> = 0,27, p &lt; 0,001).</p>
        <p>Com o objetivo de melhor compreender esse achado, tamb&#233;m foi avaliada a correla&#231;&#227;o entre a FC medida durante o estresse ortost&#225;tico e a VOP basal. Observou-se uma correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre a FC e a VOP basal (r = -0,29, p &lt; 0,01). Esse resultado mostra uma clara associa&#231;&#227;o do padr&#227;o basal de complac&#234;ncia arterial com o n&#237;vel de resposta da FC &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.</p>
        <p>Estudos experimentais iniciais e estudos em seres humanos em dec&#250;bito dorsal relataram correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre o aumento da FC e o aumento da rigidez a&#243;rtica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Entretanto, Wilkinson et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> em um estudo que avaliou o comportamento da VOP e o &#237;ndice de aumento invasivo em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis submetidos &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, n&#227;o relataram altera&#231;&#245;es significativas na distensibilidade a&#243;rtica devido ao aumento da FC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m da falta de consenso sobre os efeitos da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na VOP, os poss&#237;veis mecanismos que contribuem para as altera&#231;&#245;es da VOP com a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ainda n&#227;o foram completamente elucidados, embora muitos pesquisadores tenham atribu&#237;do altera&#231;&#245;es na rigidez arterial, relacionadas &#224; frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, &#224; viscoelasticidade da parede arterial. Com a alta frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca sendo um fator progn&#243;stico independente da doen&#231;a cardiovascular e sua associa&#231;&#227;o com a hipertens&#227;o, a intera&#231;&#227;o entre a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e a VOP continua sendo relevante na avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Embora uma primeira an&#225;lise desses dados aponte para um potencial desacordo com os nossos achados, eles devem ser considerados como complementares entre si e analisados dentro de um contexto din&#226;mico, pois foram obtidos em condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas muito distintas.</p>
        <p>Estudos transversais relataram que a FC basal n&#227;o difere entre jovens e idosos em dec&#250;bito dorsal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Entretanto, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da FC de indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis na posi&#231;&#227;o sentada mostrou que a FC diminui com a idade em ambos os sexos. Por outro lado, estudos que utilizaram o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o para avaliar a adapta&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular ao estresse ortost&#225;tico tamb&#233;m relataram uma resposta significativamente menor da FC em idosos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A diminui&#231;&#227;o da variabilidade da FC devido &#224; mudan&#231;a postural observada em pacientes idosos, comparada com a de indiv&#237;duos jovens, tem sido atribu&#237;da a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o no recrutamento da atividade de barorreceptores na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Considerando o comportamento din&#226;mico da complac&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica devido &#224; altera&#231;&#227;o postural, maior diminui&#231;&#227;o do VS em indiv&#237;duos jovens poderia levar a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da tens&#227;o a&#243;rtica puls&#225;til, com subsequente diminui&#231;&#227;o na estimula&#231;&#227;o dos barorreceptores e aumento da FC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A manuten&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico em idosos tem sido atribu&#237;da &#224; menor complac&#234;ncia venosa nesse grupo, permitindo a preserva&#231;&#227;o do volume de enchimento card&#237;aco e, consequentemente, do volume sist&#243;lico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Entretanto, a menor FC associada &#224; idade, como a observada neste estudo, tamb&#233;m poderia significar um mecanismo adaptativo do homem para o bipedismo.</p>
        <p>Sabe-se que a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca afeta a pr&#233;-carga atrav&#233;s do seu efeito no tempo de enchimento diast&#243;lico e modula o status de contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica, alterando a concentra&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de Ca<sup>2+</sup> e Na<sup>+</sup>. Como consequ&#234;ncia do aumento da contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica, a FC tamb&#233;m modula o volume sist&#243;lico final, o volume sist&#243;lico e a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Assim, uma FC menor poderia inicialmente permitir melhor desempenho card&#237;aco na presen&#231;a de um sistema arterial mais r&#237;gido.</p>
        <p>Considerando tudo o que foi apresentado at&#233; o momento, formulou-se a seguinte hip&#243;tese: o retorno do componente refletido da onda de pulso &#233; fundamental para a adapta&#231;&#227;o imediata &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, bem como para a adapta&#231;&#227;o adequada dos barorreceptores. Com base nos dados deste estudo, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel determinar se esse aumento &#233; decorrente n&#227;o apenas das altera&#231;&#245;es din&#226;micas circulat&#243;rias secund&#225;rias &#224; gravidade, mas tamb&#233;m &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica em resposta &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico e da press&#227;o de pulso. Se a hip&#243;tese acima estiver correta, pode-se considerar o papel desempenhado pelos nossos achados em algumas condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas muito comuns associadas &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f8">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Hip&#243;tese proposta para o papel do aumento da velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;dea-femoral na manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase circulat&#243;ria em resposta ao estresse ortost&#225;tico. 309x165 mm (72 x 72 DPI). PP: press&#227;o de pulso; VOP: velocidade da onda de pulso; PAM: press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-06-1072-90182-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es do estudo</title>
          <p>O presente estudo apresenta algumas limita&#231;&#245;es. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da resposta simp&#225;tica n&#227;o foi realizada durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s da medi&#231;&#227;o venosa de catecolaminas ou registro da atividade simp&#225;tica neural pela eletroneuromiografia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> No entanto, embora o presente estudo n&#227;o avalie diretamente a atividade vasomotora, o aumento da press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia (dec&#250;bito dorsal: 099 &#177; 15 mmHg vs. ortostase: 103 &#177; 11 mmHg, p &lt; 0,01) permitiram inferir que houve aumento na resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica devido &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica reflexa induzida pela queda da press&#227;o de pulso na ortostase.</p>
          <p>Outro fator limitante foi a falta de estudo da resposta barorreflexa ao estresse ortost&#225;tico causado pelo teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o, o que resultou na falta de dados referentes &#224; sua disfun&#231;&#227;o e &#224; localiza&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica das altera&#231;&#245;es em seu arco reflexo. A altera&#231;&#227;o da FC foi a &#250;nica resposta observada, sem outras medidas do barorreflexo, particularmente as de volume sist&#243;lico, embora elas tenham demonstrado estar intimamente relacionadas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Outra poss&#237;vel fonte de erro na medi&#231;&#227;o da VOP est&#225; na determina&#231;&#227;o do segmento arterial. Sua medi&#231;&#227;o superficial e n&#227;o invasiva permite apenas uma estimativa da dist&#226;ncia percorrida pela onda de pulso.</p>
          <p>A obten&#231;&#227;o da VOP carot&#237;dea-femoral compreende a an&#225;lise de um segmento arterial relativamente longo, que pode ser extremamente tortuoso do ponto de vista tridimensional. Outro fator &#233; que o vaso pode ser distorcido pela aplica&#231;&#227;o direta do transdutor de press&#227;o. Esse aspecto &#233; mais evidente em vasos mais profundos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Essas observa&#231;&#245;es tornam-se possivelmente mais significativas quando a medida da VOP carot&#237;dea-femoral &#233; considerada durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o. A mudan&#231;a do dec&#250;bito dorsal para a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica pode aumentar a dificuldade de registro do pulso femoral, principalmente em indiv&#237;duos obesos. Em alguns casos, a obten&#231;&#227;o do pulso femoral torna-se imposs&#237;vel. No presente estudo, buscamos reduzir essas fontes de erro utilizando observadores muito bem treinados para medir a VOP em dec&#250;bito dorsal e na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.</p>
          <p>Embora este estudo n&#227;o permita comparar a influ&#234;ncia do sexo no comportamento arterial na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, a inclus&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos do sexo feminino neste estudo pode n&#227;o ter interferido na resposta do aumento da VOP ao estresse postural. Considerando a maior distensibilidade arterial em mulheres jovens,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> poderia ocorrer um aumento relativamente menor na VOP devido ao estresse postural causado pelo teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, esta hip&#243;tese n&#227;o pode ser estatisticamente confirmada com os dados do presente estudo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Em conclus&#227;o, o presente estudo, composto por indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis e indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o arterial leve a moderada n&#227;o tratada, demonstra um r&#225;pido aumento da VOP durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o e seu retorno ao n&#237;vel basal ao retornar para a posi&#231;&#227;o de dec&#250;bito dorsal. Encontramos fortes ind&#237;cios de que esses resultados podem permitir uma melhor compreens&#227;o da resposta das grandes art&#233;rias ao estresse gravitacional. Esses resultados tamb&#233;m podem elucidar esse comportamento no longo prazo, na presen&#231;a de dist&#250;rbios degenerativos inerentes, como hipertens&#227;o arterial e envelhecimento, al&#233;m de marcadores gen&#233;ticos predeterminados.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Jorge Elias Neto pela Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <ack>
        <title>Agradecimentos</title>
        <p>Ao Prof. Dr. Roberto S&#225; Cunha, pela assist&#234;ncia t&#233;cnica.</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
