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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">zktzdJHqgygNhbmDcCGc8Fc</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2019000900401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20190189</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Acute Physical Stress Preconditions the Heart Against Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury Through Activation of Sympathetic Nervous System</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7852-8786</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Imani</surname>
            <given-names>Alireza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Parsa</surname>
            <given-names>Hoda</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1">*</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chookalaei</surname>
            <given-names>Leila Gholami</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1">*</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rakhshan</surname>
            <given-names>Kamran</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Golnazari</surname>
            <given-names>Masoomeh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faghihi</surname>
            <given-names>Mahdieh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Tehran University of Medical Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">School of Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Department of physiology</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Tehran</city>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of physiology - School of Medicine - Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran - Iran</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Tehran University of Medical Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Baharloo Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Occupational Sleep Research Center</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Tehran</city>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Occupational Sleep Research Center - Baharloo Hospital - Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran - Iran</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Iran University of Medical Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">School of Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Department of physiology</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Tehran</city>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of physiology - School of Medicine - Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran - Iran</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hamedan Branch of Islamic Azad University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Basic Sciences faculty</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Biology Department</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Hamedan</city>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Biology Department - Basic Sciences faculty - Hamedan Branch of Islamic Azad University, Hamedan - Iran</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Alireza Imani,</bold> Department of Physiology - School of Medicine - Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran - Iran. E-mail:<email>aimani@tums.ac.ir</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Imani A, Faghihi M; Acquisition of data: Rakhshan K, Golnazari M; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Imani A, Parsa H, Chookalaei LG, Faghihi M; Statistical analysis and Writing of the manuscript: Imani A, Parsa H, Chookalaei LG; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Imani A.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>10</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>113</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>401</fpage>
      <lpage>408</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Stress is defined as a complicated state that related to homeostasis disturbances, over-activity of the sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis responses. Cardiac preconditioning reduces myocardial damages.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>This study was designed to assess the cardioprotective effects of acute physical stress against ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury through the activation of the sympathetic nervous system.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Thirty-two male Wistar rats were divided into four groups; (1) IR (n = 8): rats underwent I/R, (2) Acute stress (St+IR) (n = 8): physical stress induced 1-hour before I/R, (3) Sympathectomy (Symp+IR) (n = 8): chemical sympathectomy was done 24-hours before I/R and (4) Sympathectomy- physical stress (Symp+St+IR) (n = 8): chemical sympathectomy induced before physical stress and I/R. Chemical sympathectomy was performed using 6-hydroxydopamine (100 mg/kg, sc). Then, the hearts isolated and located in the Langendorff apparatus to induce 30 minutes ischemia followed by 120 minutes reperfusion. The coronary flows, hemodynamic parameters, infarct size, corticosterone level in serum were investigated. P &lt; 0.05 demonstrated significance.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>Physical stress prior to I/R could improve left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP) and rate product pressure (RPP) of the heart respectively, (63 &#177; 2 versus 42 &#177; 1.2, p &lt; 0.05, 70 &#177; 2 versus 43 &#177; 2.6, p &lt; 0.05) and reduces infarct size (22.16 &#177; 1.3 versus 32 &#177; 1.4, p &lt; 0.05) when compared with the I/R alone. Chemical sympathectomy before physical stress eliminated the protective effect of physical stress on I/R-induced cardiac damages (RPP: 21 &#177; 6.6 versus 63 &#177; 2, p &lt; 0.01) (LVDP: 38 &#177; 4.5 versus 43 &#177; 2.6, p &lt; 0.01) (infarct size: 35 &#177; 3.1 versus 22.16 &#177; 1.3, p &lt; 0.01).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Findings indicate that acute physical stress can act as a preconditional stimulator and probably, the presence of sympathetic nervous system is necessary.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Stress, Mechanical</kwd>
        <kwd>Sympathetic Nervous System</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System</kwd>
        <kwd>Ischemia</kwd>
        <kwd>Sympathectomy</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Ischemic heart disease is the major health problem in the world.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Although reperfusion, which refers to the rapid reestablishment of blood flow, can be one of the most effective methods against lethal injuries,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> it is associated with additional myocardial damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Many methods have been proposed to diminish the deleterious effect of ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injuries and increase cardiac endurance. Based on these advances, induction the short-term episodes of I/R or using the pharmacological agents earlier than prolonged I/R period induces cardiac preconditioning which can successfully attenuate cellular necrosis and conserve high levels of energy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are two coordinated defence systems. They can mediate two-way brain-body communication during stressful situations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Autonomic system activation contributes to behavioral responses in animals and enables them to regulate homeostasis and improve endurance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Stress is characterized as a general HPA axis response against potential and deleterious stimuli.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> In fact, stress through increasing the activity of HPA axis and corticosterone release plays a critical role in coordinating of neuroendocrine, autonomic and behavioral functions and leads to adaptive responses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> The activity of the sympathetic nervous system increases and neurotransmitter secretion alters during the occurrence of stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Several body systems such as nervous, cardiovascular and immune systems are influenced by stress. Moreover, significant changes in hemodynamic parameters such as; heart rate (HR) and blood pressure are observed during stress which ultimately may lead to heart diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> On the other hand, the release of norepinephrine from the sympathetic nervous system is increased during lethal ischemia and it has a role for inducing of I/R injuries through the generation of hydroxyl free radicals. This current study was designed to evaluate the role of the sympathetic nervous system in mediating acute stress-induced cardioprotection against I/R injury in isolated rat heart.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <p>A total of 32 male Wistar rats (200-250g) were kept in an air-conditioned room on a 12 hours light-dark cycle, at 22 &#177; 2&#730;C, with free access to water and food. The experimental protocols followed in this study conformed to the Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the National Institutes of Health (NIH Publication No. 85-23, revised 1996) and were further approved by the institutional ethical committee of Tehran University of Medical Sciences (Tehran, Iran).</p>
      <p>Stress box apparatus was used for physical stress exposure. It contained stainless bars at the bottom, connected to electroshock device using a connecting cable. Physical stress was induced using electrical foot shock (1mA) for 10 seconds with 50 seconds intervals for one hour. After that, animals were anaesthetized with sodium thiopental (60 mg/kg, i.p),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> put on a surgical board. The chest was opened and the surgical silk suture (6-0) placed under the root of the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD). Finally, the heart was removed from the chest and connected to Langendorff-perfusion apparatus. Heart was perfused in a retrograde manner using Krebs-Henseleit bicarbonate buffer (in mmol/l): sodium bicarbonate = 25, sodium chloride = 118.5, potassium chloride = 4.7, magnesium sulfate = 1.2, glucose = 11, gassed with 95% O<sub>2</sub> and 5% CO<sub>2</sub> (pH = 7.3-7.4 at 37&#730;C). Thereafter, the ends of the suture were passed through a plastic tube to create a snare for ischemia induction. Reperfusion was performed by releasing the snare. Latex fluid- filled balloon was inserted inside the left ventricle and connected to a pressure transducer (Harvard, March-Hugsteten, Germany), the biolab apparatus was used for recording the ventricular pressures. During the surgical procedure, recording was done during three designated periods: 20-30 minutes of the baseline (a period without any manipulation), 30 minutes of the local ischemia and 120 minutes of the reperfusion. After reperfusion, LAD was occluded again; Evans Blue dye (3 mL of 1.5% solution) was administrated to discriminate ischemic zone (the area at risk; [AAR]) from non-ischemic zone.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> After freezing (&#8722;20&#176;C for 24 hours), heart tissue was sliced into 2mm transverse sections and kept in 1% 2, 3, 5 triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC in 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH = 7.4 Sigma) solution for 15-20 min at 37&#176;C to delineate ischemic from infarct zone.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> At the end of the experiments, the ratio of AAR and infarcted size (IS) were calculated by the Photoshop program.</p>
      <p>Animals were allotted in 4 groups:</p>
      <p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>IR group (n = 8): Rats were kept in stress box device (without stress exposure) for 1 hour and then, hearts were removed from the chest and subjected to ischemia and reperfusion.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Acute stress (St+IR) group (n=8): Rats were exposed electrical feet shock in the stress box for 1 hour and then, hearts were removed from the chest and subjected to ischemia and reperfusion.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Sympathectomy (Symp+IR) group (n = 8): chemical sympathectomy was done by injection of a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA, 100 mg/kg, sc) 24 hours prior to I/R induction.<sup>(16)</sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Sympathectomy- physical stress (Symp+St+IR) group (n = 8): chemical sympathectomy was done 24 hours prior to physical stress and I/R induction.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </p>
      <p>We measured serum corticoesterone levels by ELISA method. Moreover, systolic blood pressure was measured via non-invasive technique (Tail Cuff and power lab) to confirm chemical sympathectomy (n = 4).</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>The sample size and group divisions were defined based on our previous studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> All data are reported as means &#177; S.E.M. Normality was checked using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, SPSS software version 20. One way ANOVA and Tukey post hoc test was done for comparison of parameters between different groups. Analysis of changes in mean values over three times was done using repeated measurement ANOVA within each group. Sample t-test was used to compare systolic blood pressure before and after sympathectomy. Significant changes were considered as p &lt; 0.05.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Effect of acute physical stress on coronary flow and heart rate</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref> shows coronary flow (CF) at the end of the baseline, ischemia and reperfusion periods. There are significant differences for CF at the end of ischemia and reperfusion when compared to the end of the baseline period within groups (p &lt; 0.01). HR was significantly decreased at the end of both ischemia and reperfusion in comparison with the end of baseline period within groups (p &lt; 0.01), but no significant change were observed between different groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Coronary flow (CF) at the end of baseline, ischemia and reperfusion periods. IR: Ischemia/reperfusion; St: Physical stress; Symp: Symapathectomy. ** p &lt; 0.01 vs baseline phase within the same group.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Heart rate (HR) at the end of baseline, ischemia and reperfusion periods. IR: Ischemia/reperfusion; St: Physical stress; Symp: Symapathectomy. ** p &lt; 0.01 vs. baseline phase within the same group.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Effect of acute physical stress on cardiac hemodynamic parameters</title>
        <p>The left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP, the difference between intraventricular systolic and diastolic pressures), rate product pressure (RPP, LVDP multiplied by HR) and were diminished at the end of reperfusion in comparison to the end of baseline period among groups,</p>
        <p>The amount of RPP and LVDP in acute stress group were extremely increased in comparison to IR group (p &lt; 0.05 in induction of chemical sympathectomy before physical stress were considerably decreased RPP and LVDP in comparison to physical stress group p &lt; 0.05, but there is no marked difference between sympathectomy group when compared to IR group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Left Ventricular Developed Pressure (LVDP) and rate product pressure (RPP) at the end of reperfusion period. IR: Ischemia/reperfusion; St: Physical stress; Symp: Symapathectomy. * p &lt; 0.05 compared to IR, &amp;&amp; p &lt; 0.01 compared to St + IR.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Effect of acute physical stress on infarcts size (%IS/AAR)</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figures 4</xref> shows the size of the infarct (%IS/AAR) in different groups.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>The percentage of infracts size (IS/AAR %). IR: Ischemia/reperfusion; St: Physical stress; Symp: Symapathectomy. * p &lt; 0.05 compared to IR, &amp;&amp; p &lt; 0.01 compared to St+IR.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Infarct size was greatly deacreased in acute stress group as compared to the IR group (p &lt; 0.05), but there was no considerable change in chemical sympathectomy group as compared to the control group. Chemical sympathectomy prior to acute physical stress represented no extermly change as compared to IR group, while it has been shown significant reduced infarct size as compared with acute physical stress alone (p &lt; 0.01).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Effect of acute physical stress on corticosterone level in serum</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref> shows the serum level of corticosterone in different groups. Induction of acute physical stress without or with chemical sympathectomy in St and St+Symp+IR groups could increase the amount of serum corticosterone as compared to the IR group, (p &lt; 0.01).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Corticosterone level in serum. IR: Ischemia/reperfusion; St: Physical stress; Symp: Symapathectomy. ** p&lt;0.01 compared to IR.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Effect of chemical sympathectomy on Systolic blood pressure</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref> represents the significant reduction of systolic blood pressure after induction of chemical sympathectomy (p &lt; 0.05).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figure 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Systolic blood pressure before and after chemical sympathectomy. *p &lt; 0.05 compared to before sympathectomy.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>Nowadays daily life is associated with stress that is divided to acute stress and chronic stress, based on exposure duration.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Acute stress mediates several neurogenic pathways.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Electrophysiological recordings revealed that acute stress manifests good effects such as favour heightened arousal and increases cognitive flexibility in an attentional set-shifting task.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> In the other view, stress is divided into physical and psychological. A physical stressor such as surgery, trauma and heavy physical activity can trigger many cardiac events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Psychological stress can affect the cardiovascular system through metabolic, inflammatory and hormonal factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> In this study, we evaluated the effects of acute physical stress prior to sympathectomy on ischemia-reperfusion injuries in isolated rat heart.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>The effects of stress</title>
        <p>Our results showed that induction of acute stress prior to ischemia-reperfusion period led to a decrease in the infarct size, improve hemodynamic parameter and increase in the plasma corticosterone level as compared to IR group and Symp+IR group. Two paradoxical theories have been proposed to explain both advantage and disadvantage effect of stress on the heart. Extremely elevated HR, cardiac contractility and peripheral resistant due to exposure to acute stress can increase the cardiac load and oxygen consumption. In contrast, emerging evidences indicate the opposite effect, for example; cold restraint stress induces cardiac cell protection<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> and it can diminish infarct size as a main parameter of cardiac damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In this regard, Abe et al. demonstrated that acute stress attenuates ischemia-reperfusion injury in the kidney through the activation of sympathetic and anti-inflammatory pathway.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Moreover, exposure to intermediate stress involves in cell protection against subsequent lethal ischemia, as a concept, preconditioning phenomenon.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> It seems that acute physical stress exposure as a preconditioning agent protects the heart against I/R. We observed an increase in RPP and LVDP amounts due to acute stress induction in St+IR group as compared with IR group that indicates acute stress would trigger mechanisms to prepare the body for suitable responses to stimuli because the improvement of the cardiac function is important. Therefore, it seems that the effectiveness of stress induction is associated with; 1. nature of the stressor, 2. stress episode duration, 3. intensity of the stimulus and 4. stress predictability or unpredictability. In fact, each of the above factors effects on the neural and hormonal responses to stress. Our results showed that corticosterone is elevated after stress induction, and in Symp+St+IR group is higher than the IR group. It is well established that stress enhances the activity of the HPA axis which results to increase corticosterone secretion<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> that can be protective as it prepares the organism to deal with challenges. Based on our results sympathectomy did not effect on stress-induced elevated corticosterone possibly because stress affects HPA axis through different mechanisms such as changes in metabolic and inflammatory factors in addition to increased sympathetic nervous system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Furthermore, this hormone induces changes in immune cells redistribution that enhance immune function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> We showed that infarct size is decreased in St+IR group in comparison to the IR group and the hemodynamic parameters are improved in St+IR group in compare to the IR group. Diminished infarct size led to reducing in cardiac arrhythmia occurrence<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> and also improved cardiac contractility.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> It seems the beneficial effects of acute stress induction may relate to the improvement of immune system function due to elevated corticosterone level encounter inflammatory factors, which trigger I/R injuries.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>The effects of sympathectomy</title>
        <p>It has been established that exposure to stressful conditions increase autonomic nervous system activity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> The cardioprotection of sympathetic activity has been investigated<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> and we used chemical sympathectomy after acute stress induction to confirm the protective effects of the sympathetic nervous system. Animals in Symp+IR group were subjected to chemical sympathectomy before induction of I/R and there was no significant change in infarct size in comparison to IR group, indicating that chemical sympathetic denervation has no effect on IR injury. In addition, chemical sympathectomy prior to physical acute stress removed the cardioprotection effect of acute stress on infarct size in Symp+St+IR group that emphasizes the presence of sympathetic system is necessary for cardioprotective effects of acute stress. We found that acute stress induction after chemical sympathectomy could overcome harm effects of deleted sympathetic system on hemodynamic parameters in Symp+St+IR group when compared to Symp+IR group that indicates the essential role of sympathetic system physiological activity in regulating HR, pressure and flow.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Hara and Abiko declared norepinephrine has two opposite effects on ischemia damages according to the duration of ischemia, means that it could protect the heart with short ischemia and increase the injuries with prolonged ischemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Positive and negative properties of the sympathetic nervous system are associated with the duration of stimulus exposure. At the long term ischemia, large quantities of norepinephrine are released from the sympathetic nervous system, acting as a source of the free radical and subsequent generation of OH free radical.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> Protective effect of norepinephrine can be emerged by producing energy for cardiac muscle in short term ischemia episode.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Moreover, Yohimbine (as an alpha2 receptor antagonist) administration reduced the incidence of arrhythmia through increasing sympathetic norepinephrine release.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> According to our previous studies, pretreatment with alpha receptor agonist such as phenylephrine could protect the cardiomyocytes against I/R damages in isolated HR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Activation of protein kinase-C (PKC) signalling pathway<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> and NO release<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> by norepinephrine, are involved in the opening of mitochondrial KATP channels, which in turn can reduce mitochondrial calcium load<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> and will lead to attenuation of norepinephrine beneficial effects. Also, we showed that systolic blood pressure declined after chemical sympathectomy that is compatible with this fact that muscle sympathetic outflow is responsible for the regulation of blood pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> The limitations of this study were the method of induction physical stress does not commonly occur in daily life. Unfortunately, the data of corticosterone level in Symp+IR group were missed so we can&#8217;t discuss the effect of sympathectomy on corticosterone level and comparison between St+IR group and Symp+St+IR group is not significant. In consistence with our results, Lowrance et al. showed that stress-induced corticosterone level didn&#8217;t change following pharmacological sympathectomy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>The present study showed that induction of physical acute stress before I/R led to cardioprotection and chemical sympathectomy removed this beneficial effect of physical acute stress.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
        <label>*</label>
        <p>Contributed equally to this work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Alireza Imani, from Tehran University of Medical Sciences.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Tehran University of Medical Sciences under the protocol number 30486. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ack>
      <title>Acknowledgements</title>
      <p>This study was supported by Tehran University of medical sciences.</p>
    </ack>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Estresse F&#237;sico Agudo Precondiciona o Cora&#231;&#227;o Contra a Inj&#250;ria por Isquemia/Reperfus&#227;o Atrav&#233;s da Ativa&#231;&#227;o do Sistema Nervoso Simp&#225;tico</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7852-8786</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Imani</surname>
            <given-names>Alireza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Parsa</surname>
            <given-names>Hoda</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2">*</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chookalaei</surname>
            <given-names>Leila Gholami</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2">*</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rakhshan</surname>
            <given-names>Kamran</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Golnazari</surname>
            <given-names>Masoomeh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">4</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faghihi</surname>
            <given-names>Mahdieh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Fisiologia - Faculdade de Medicina - Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran - Ir&#227;</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro de Pesquisa do Sono Ocupacional - Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran - Ir&#227;</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Fisiologia - Faculdade de Medicina - Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran - Ir&#227;</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Departmento de Biologia - Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias B&#225;sicas - Hamedan Branch of Islamic Azad University, Hamedan - Ir&#227;</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Alireza Imani,</bold> Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran - Iran. E-mail:<email>aimani@tums.ac.ir</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Imani A, Faghihi M; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Rakhshan K, Golnazari M; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Imani A, Parsa H, Chookalaei LG, Faghihi M; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Imani A, Parsa H, Chookalaei LG; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Imani A.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>O estresse &#233; definido como um estado complicado de dist&#250;rbios da homeostase, hiperatividade do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico e das respostas do eixo hipot&#225;lamo-hip&#243;fise-adrenal. O pr&#233;-condicionamento card&#237;aco diminui os danos do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Esse estudo avaliou os efeitos cardioprotetores do estresse f&#237;sico agudo contra a les&#227;o por isquemia-reperfus&#227;o (I/R) atrav&#233;s da ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Trinta e dois ratos machos Wistar foram divididos em quatro grupos; (1) IR (n = 8): ratos submetidos a I/R, (2) Estresse agudo (St+IR) (n = 8): estresse f&#237;sico induzido 1 hora antes da I/R, (3) Simpatectomia (Symp+IR) (n = 8): a simpatectomia qu&#237;mica foi realizada 24 horas antes da I/R e (4) Simpatectomia-estresse f&#237;sico (Symp+St+IR) (n = 8): simpatectomia induzida antes do estresse f&#237;sico e da I/R. A simpatectomia qu&#237;mica foi realizada com 6-hidroxidopamina (100 mg/kg, SC). Em seguida, os cora&#231;&#245;es foram isolados e colocados em aparato de Lagendorff por 30 minutos para induzir isquemia, seguida de reperfus&#227;o por 120 minutos. Os fluxos coronarianos, os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos, o tamanho do infarto e os n&#237;veis de corticosterona plasm&#225;tica foram investigados. Valores de p &lt; 0,05 foram considerados significativos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>O estresse f&#237;sico anterior &#224; I/R pode melhorar a press&#227;o desenvolvida no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDVE) e duplo produto (DP), respectivamente, (63 &#177; 2 <italic>versus</italic> 42 &#177; 1,2, p &lt; 0,05, 70 &#177; 2 <italic>versus</italic> 43 &#177; 2,6, p &lt; 0,05) e reduzir o tamanho do infarto (22,16 &#177; 1,3 <italic>versus</italic> 32&#177;1,4, p &lt; 0,05) quando comparado com a I/R isoladamente. A simpatectomia qu&#237;mica antes do estresse f&#237;sico eliminou o efeito protetor do estresse f&#237;sico sobre os danos card&#237;acos induzidos pela I/R (DP: 21 &#177; 6,6 <italic>versus</italic> 63 &#177; 2, p &lt; 0,01) (PDVE: 38 &#177; 4,5 <italic>versus</italic> 43 &#177; 2,6, p &lt; 0,01) (tamanho do infarto: 35 &#177; 3,1 <italic>versus</italic> 22,16 &#177; 1,3, p &lt; 0,01).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Os achados indicam que o estresse f&#237;sico agudo pode funcionar como um estimulador pr&#233;-condicional e, provavelmente, a presen&#231;a do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico &#233; necess&#225;ria.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Estresse Mec&#226;nico</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Nervoso Simp&#225;tico</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Hipot&#225;lamo Hipofisario</kwd>
        <kwd>Isquemia</kwd>
        <kwd>Simpatectomia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; o principal problema de sa&#250;de no mundo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Embora a reperfus&#227;o, que se refere ao r&#225;pido reestabelecimento do fluxo sangu&#237;neo, seja um dos m&#233;todos mais eficazes contra as les&#245;es letais,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> ela est&#225; associada com danos adicionais ao mioc&#225;rdio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Foram propostos muitos m&#233;todos para minimizar os efeitos delet&#233;rios das les&#245;es por isquemia/reperfus&#227;o (I/R) e aumentar a resist&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Com base nesses avan&#231;os, a indu&#231;&#227;o de epis&#243;dios de curto prazo de I/R ou o uso precoce de agentes farmacol&#243;gicos, ao inv&#233;s de per&#237;odos prolongados de I/R, induz o pr&#233;-condicionamento card&#237;aco, que pode atenuar a necrose celular e conservar n&#237;veis altos de energia com sucesso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico e o eixo hipot&#225;lamo-hip&#243;fise-adrenal (HHA) s&#227;o dois sistemas de defesa coordenados. Eles podem mediar a comunica&#231;&#227;o bidirecional entre c&#233;rebro e corpo durante situa&#231;&#245;es de estresse.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> A ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema auton&#244;mico contribui para as respostas comportamentais em animais e promove a regula&#231;&#227;o da homeostase e a melhora da resist&#234;ncia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> O estresse &#233; caracterizado por uma resposta geral do eixo HHA contra est&#237;mulos potenciais e delet&#233;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> De fato, o estresse, atrav&#233;s do aumento da atividade do eixo HHA e da libera&#231;&#227;o de corticosterona, desempenha um papel fundamental na coordena&#231;&#227;o das fun&#231;&#245;es neuroend&#243;crina, auton&#244;mica e comportamental e resulta em respostas adaptativas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> A ocorr&#234;ncia de estresse aumenta a atividade do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico bem como altera a secre&#231;&#227;o de neurotransmissores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> V&#225;rios sistemas corporais, tais como os sistemas nervoso, cardiovascular e imunol&#243;gico s&#227;o influenciados pelo estresse. Al&#233;m disso, s&#227;o observadas altera&#231;&#245;es significativas nos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos, tais como frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) e press&#227;o arterial, durante o estresse, que podem causar doen&#231;as do cora&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Por outro lado, a libera&#231;&#227;o de norepinefrina do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico aumenta na isquemia letal e contribui para a indu&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es por I/R atrav&#233;s da produ&#231;&#227;o de radicais livres de hidroxila. Este estudo foi elaborado com a finalidade de avaliar o papel do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico na media&#231;&#227;o da cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida por estresse agudo contra les&#245;es por I/R em cora&#231;&#245;es isolados de ratos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>No total, 32 ratos machos Wistar (200-250 g) foram mantidos em ambiente com ar condicionado, com ciclo de 12h de luz e 12h de escurid&#227;o, a uma temperatura de 22 &#177; 2&#730;C, com livre acesso a &#225;gua e comida. Os protocolos experimentais seguidos nesse estudo est&#227;o em conformidade com as Diretrizes para o Cuidado e Uso de Animais de Laborat&#243;rio publicadas pelo <italic>National Institutes of Health</italic> (NIH publica&#231;&#227;o no. 85-23, revista em 1996) e foram posteriormente aprovados pelo comit&#234; de &#233;tica institucional da Universidade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Tehran (Tehran, Ir&#227;).</p>
        <p>Uma caixa com dispositivo estressor foi usada para exposi&#231;&#227;o ao estresse f&#237;sico. Ela continha barras de a&#231;o inoxid&#225;vel na parte inferior, ligadas a um dispositivo de eletrochoque atrav&#233;s de um cabo de conex&#227;o. O estresse f&#237;sico foi induzido atrav&#233;s de choque el&#233;trico nas patas (1mA) por 10 segundos com 50 segundos de intervalos durante 1 hora. Depois disso, os animais foram anestesiados com tiopental s&#243;dico (60 mg/kg, i.p)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> e colocados na prancha cir&#250;rgica. O t&#243;rax foi aberto e a sutura de seda 6-0 foi colocada sob a raiz da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria descendente anterior esquerda (DAE). Finalmente, o cora&#231;&#227;o foi removido do t&#243;rax e ligado a um aparelho de perfus&#227;o de Langendorff. O cora&#231;&#227;o foi perfundido de forma retr&#243;grada com tamp&#227;o de bicarbonato de Krebs-Henseleit (em mmol/l): bicarbonato de s&#243;dio = 25, cloreto de s&#243;dio = 118,5, cloreto de pot&#225;ssio= 4,7, sulfato de magn&#233;sio = 1,2, glicose = 11, borbulhada com uma combina&#231;&#227;o de 95% O<sub>2</sub> e 5% CO<sub>2</sub> (pH = 7,3-7,4, a 37&#730;C). Depois disso, as extremidades da sutura foram passadas por uma pipeta de pl&#225;stico para formar um la&#231;o para indu&#231;&#227;o da isquemia. A reperfus&#227;o foi realizada atrav&#233;s da libera&#231;&#227;o do la&#231;o. Um bal&#227;o de l&#225;tex foi inserido no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e conectado a um transdutor de press&#227;o (Harvard, March-Hugstetten, Alemanha), o aparato da Biolab foi usado para o registro das press&#245;es ventriculares. Durante o procedimento cir&#250;rgico, o registro foi feito ao longo de tr&#234;s per&#237;odos determinados: 20-30 minutos nos momentos basais (per&#237;odo sem qualquer manipula&#231;&#227;o), 30 minutos da isquemia local e 120 minutos da reperfus&#227;o. Ap&#243;s a reperfus&#227;o, a art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria DAE foi oclu&#237;da novamente; foi administrado 3mL da solu&#231;&#227;o de azul de Evans a 1,5% para diferenciar a zona isqu&#234;mica (a &#225;rea sob risco; [ASR]) da zona n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Ap&#243;s congelado (&#8722;20&#176;C por 24 horas), o cora&#231;&#227;o foi cortado em sec&#231;&#245;es paralelas de 2mm e mantido em 2,3,5-cloreto de trifeniltetraz&#243;lio (1%) (TTC em tamp&#227;o fosfato 0,1M, pH 7,4 - Sigma) por 15-20 min a 37&#176;C para separar a zona isqu&#234;mica da zona de infarto.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Ao final dos experimentos, a raz&#227;o do tamanho do infarto sobre a &#225;rea sob risco (TI/ASR %) foi calculada usando o programa Photoshop.</p>
        <p>Os animais foram alocados em 4 grupos:</p>
        <p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Grupo IR (n = 8): Os ratos foram mantidos em caixas com dispositivo estressor (sem exposi&#231;&#227;o ao estresse) durante 1 hora e, em seguida, os cora&#231;&#245;es foram removidos do t&#243;rax e submetidos a isquemia e reperfus&#227;o.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Grupo Estresse agudo (St+IR) (n = 8): Os ratos foram expostos a choques el&#233;tricos nas patas na caixa estressora durante 1 hora e, em seguida, os cora&#231;&#245;es foram removidos do t&#243;rax e submetidos a isquemia e reperfus&#227;o.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Grupo Simpatectomia (Symp+IR) (n = 8): a simpatectomia qu&#237;mica foi realizada atrav&#233;s de inje&#231;&#227;o de 6 hidroxidopamina (6-OHDA, 100 mg/kg, SC) 24 horas antes da indu&#231;&#227;o da I/R.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
							</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Grupo Simpatectomia-estresse f&#237;sico (Symp+St+IR) (n = 8): a simpatectomia qu&#237;mica foi realizada 24 horas antes do estresse f&#237;sico e da indu&#231;&#227;o da I/R.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </p>
        <p>Os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de corticosterona foram medidos usando o m&#233;todo de ELISA. Al&#233;m disso, a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica foi medida usando uma t&#233;cnica n&#227;o-invasiva (Tail Cuff e power lab) para confirmar a simpatectomia qu&#237;mica (n = 4).</p>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>O tamanho da amostra e as divis&#245;es dos grupos foram definidos com base em estudos anteriores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Todos os dados foram relatados como m&#233;dia &#177; DP. A normalidade foi checada por meio do teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov, software SPSS vers&#227;o 20. Para compara&#231;&#227;o dos par&#226;metros entre os diferentes grupos foi utilizado o teste One-way ANOVA e teste Post-Hoc de Tukey. A an&#225;lise das altera&#231;&#245;es nos valores m&#233;dios por mais de tr&#234;s vezes foi feita utilizando ANOVA de medi&#231;&#227;o repetida dentro de cada grupo. O teste t da amostra foi usado para comparar a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica antes e depois da simpatectomia. Foram consideradas altera&#231;&#245;es significativas quando p&lt; 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Efeito do estresse f&#237;sico agudo sobre o fluxo coronariano e a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref> mostra o fluxo coronariano (FCo) no final dos per&#237;odos de baseline, isquemia e reperfus&#227;o. N&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as significativas para o FCo no final da isquemia e reperfus&#227;o quando comparado com o final do per&#237;odo de baseline entre os grupos (p &lt; 0,01). A FC diminuiu significativamente no final tanto da isquemia quanto da reperfus&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o ao final do per&#237;odo de baseline entre os grupos (p &lt; 0,01), mas nenhuma mudan&#231;a significativa foi observada entre grupos diferentes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f7">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Fluxo coronariano (FCo) no final do per&#237;odo basal, per&#237;odos de isquemia e reperfus&#227;o. IR: Isquemia/reperfus&#227;o; St: estresse f&#237;sico; Symp: Simpatectomia. ** p &lt; 0,01 vs fase basal dentro do mesmo grupo.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f8">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) no final do per&#237;odo basal, per&#237;odos de isquemia e reperfus&#227;o. IR: Isquemia/reperfus&#227;o, St: estresse f&#237;sico; Symp: Simpatectomia. ** p &lt; 0,01 vs. fase de linha de base dentro do mesmo grupo.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Efeito do estresse f&#237;sico agudo sobre os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos card&#237;acos</title>
          <p>A press&#227;o desenvolvida do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDVE, a diferen&#231;a entre as press&#245;es intraventriculares sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica), duplo produto (DP, PDVE multiplicada pela FC) diminu&#237;ram no final da reperfus&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o ao final do per&#237;odo de baseline entre os grupos.</p>
          <p>As quantidades de DP e PDVE no grupo de estresse agudo aumentaram significativamente em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo IR (p &lt; 0,05). Na indu&#231;&#227;o da simpatectomia qu&#237;mica anterior ao estresse f&#237;sico, o DP e a PDVE diminu&#237;ram consideravelmente em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo estresse f&#237;sico (p &lt; 0,05), mas n&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as acentuadas entre o grupo simpatectomia em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo IR (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f9">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Press&#227;o desenvolvida do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDVE) e taxa de duplo produto (DP) no final da reperfus&#227;o. IR: Isquemia/reperfus&#227;o; St: estresse f&#237;sico; Symp: Simpatectomia. * p &lt; 0,05 comparado ao IR, &amp;&amp; p &lt; 0,01 comparado a St + IR.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Efeito do estresse f&#237;sico agudo no tamanho do infarto (TI/ASR %)</title>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref> mostra o tamanho do infarto (TI/ASR %) nos diferentes grupos.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f10">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>A porcentagem de tamanho do infarto (TI/ASR%). IR: Isquemia/reperfus&#227;o; St: estresse f&#237;sico; Symp: Simpatectomia. * p &lt; 0,05 comparado ao IR, &amp;&amp; p &lt; 0,01 comparado a St + IR.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>O tamanho do infarto foi muito menor no grupo estresse agudo se comparado com o grupo IR (p &lt; 0,05), mas n&#227;o houve altera&#231;&#227;o consider&#225;vel no grupo simpatectomia qu&#237;mica quando comparado com o grupo controle. A simpatectomia qu&#237;mica anterior ao estresse f&#237;sico agudo n&#227;o representou nenhuma altera&#231;&#227;o extrema se comparado com o grupo IR, ao passo que foi demonstrada diminui&#231;&#227;o significativa no tamanho do infarto quando comparado com o estresse f&#237;sico agudo isoladamente (p &lt; 0,01).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Efeito do estresse f&#237;sico agudo nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de corticosterona</title>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 5</xref> mostra o n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de corticosterona nos diferentes grupos. A indu&#231;&#227;o do estresse f&#237;sico agudo, com ou sem simpatectomia qu&#237;mica nos grupos St e St+Symp+IR, aumentou a quantidade de corticosterona s&#233;rica quando comparado com o grupo IR (p &lt; 0,01).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f11">
              <label>Figura 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>N&#237;vel de corticosterona no soro. IR: Isquemia/reperfus&#227;o; St: estresse f&#237;sico; Symp: Simpatectomia. ** p &lt; 0,01 comparado ao IR.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf05-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Efeito da simpatectomia qu&#237;mica na press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica</title>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 6</xref> representa a redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o da simpatectomia qu&#237;mica (p &lt; 0,05).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f12">
              <label>Figura 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica antes e ap&#243;s a simpatectomia qu&#237;mica. * p &lt; 0,05 comparado antes da simpatectomia.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0401-90189-gf06-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Atualmente a vida cotidiana est&#225; associada com o estresse, que &#233; dividido em estresse agudo e estresse cr&#244;nico, dependendo da dura&#231;&#227;o da exposi&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> O estresse agudo medeia v&#225;rias vias neurog&#234;nicas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Registros eletrofisiol&#243;gicos revelaram que o estresse agudo pode ter efeitos positivos, tais como favorecer maior estimula&#231;&#227;o e aumentar a flexibilidade cognitiva em tarefas de mudan&#231;a de configura&#231;&#227;o atencional.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Sob outro ponto de vista, o estresse &#233; dividido em f&#237;sico e psicol&#243;gico. Um estressor f&#237;sico, como uma cirurgia, um trauma e atividade f&#237;sica pesada podem desencadear muitos eventos card&#237;acos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> O estresse psicol&#243;gico pode afetar o sistema cardiovascular atrav&#233;s de fatores metab&#243;licos, inflamat&#243;rios e hormonais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Nesse estudo, foram avaliados os efeitos do estresse f&#237;sico agudo anteriores &#224; simpatectomia sobre as les&#245;es por isquemia-reperfus&#227;o no cora&#231;&#227;o isolado de ratos.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Os efeitos do estresse</title>
          <p>Os resultados mostraram que a indu&#231;&#227;o do estresse agudo antes do per&#237;odo isquemia-reperfus&#227;o levou a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o no tamanho do infarto, melhorou os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos e aumentou os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de corticosterona quando comparado com os grupos IR e Symp+IR. Duas teorias paradoxais foram propostas para explicar tanto os efeitos vantajosos e desvantajosos do estresse para o cora&#231;&#227;o. A FC extremamente elevada, a contratilidade card&#237;aca e a resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica decorrentes da exposi&#231;&#227;o ao estresse podem aumentar a carga card&#237;aca e o consumo de oxig&#234;nio. Em contrapartida, existem ind&#237;cios crescentes do efeito oposto, por exemplo; o estresse de conten&#231;&#227;o no frio induz a prote&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas do cora&#231;&#227;o <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> e pode diminuir o tamanho do infarto como par&#226;metro principal do dano card&#237;aco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A este respeito, Abe et al. demonstraram que o estresse agudo atenua a les&#227;o por isquemia-reperfus&#227;o no rim atrav&#233;s da ativa&#231;&#227;o da via simp&#225;tica e antiinflamat&#243;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m disso, a exposi&#231;&#227;o para intermediar o estresse envolve a prote&#231;&#227;o celular contra uma isquemia letal posterior, como um conceito, e fen&#244;meno pr&#233;-condicionante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Parece que a exposi&#231;&#227;o ao estresse f&#237;sico como um agente pr&#233;-condicionante protege o cora&#231;&#227;o contra a I/R. Foi observado um aumento das quantidades de DP e PDVE em decorr&#234;ncia da indu&#231;&#227;o do estresse agudo no grupo St+IR em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo IR, indicando que o estresse agudo desencadeou mecanismos para preparar o corpo para respostas adequadas aos est&#237;mulos, uma vez que a melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; importante. Consequentemente, parece que a efic&#225;cia da indu&#231;&#227;o do estresse est&#225; associada com; 1. natureza do estressor, 2. dura&#231;&#227;o do epis&#243;dio de estresse, 3. intensidade do est&#237;mulo e 4. previsibilidade ou imprevisibilidade do estresse. De fato, cada um dos fatores acima tem efeitos sobre as respostas neurais e hormonais ao estresse. Nossos resultados mostraram que a corticosterona aumenta ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o de estresse, e no grupo Symp+St+IR ela &#233; mais elevada do que no grupo IR. &#201; um fato que o estresse melhora a atividade do eixo HPA que resulta no aumento da secre&#231;&#227;o da corticosterona<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> que pode ter um efeito protetor uma vez que prepara o organismo para lidar com desafios. Com base nos nossos resultados, a simpatectomia n&#227;o teve efeito na corticosterona elevada por indu&#231;&#227;o de estresse possivelmente porque o estresse afeta o eixo HPA por meio de diferentes mecanismos, tais como altera&#231;&#245;es nos fatores metab&#243;licos e inflamat&#243;rios al&#233;m do aumento do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Ademais, esse horm&#244;nio induz mudan&#231;as na redistribui&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas imunes que melhoram a fun&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Foram demonstradas uma diminui&#231;&#227;o no tamanho do infarto no grupo St+IR em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo IR e uma melhora dos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos no grupo St+IR em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo IR. A diminui&#231;&#227;o no tamanho do infarto levou &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de ocorr&#234;ncia de arritmia card&#237;aca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> e tamb&#233;m melhorou a contratilidade card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Parece que os efeitos ben&#233;ficos da indu&#231;&#227;o do estresse agudo podem estar relacionados com a melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o do sistema imunol&#243;gico como consequ&#234;ncia do encontro do n&#237;vel elevado de corticosterona com fatores inflamat&#243;rios, desencadeando as les&#245;es por I/R.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Os efeitos da simpatectomia</title>
          <p>J&#225; foi estabelecido que a exposi&#231;&#227;o a condi&#231;&#245;es estressantes aumenta a atividade do sistema nervoso auton&#244;mico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> A cardioprote&#231;&#227;o da atividade simp&#225;tica foi estudada<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> e n&#243;s utilizamos a simpatectomia qu&#237;mica ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o do estresse agudo para confirmar os efeitos protetivos do sistema nervosa simp&#225;tico. Os animais no grupo Symp+IR foram submetidos &#224; simpatectomia qu&#237;mica antes da indu&#231;&#227;o da I/R e n&#227;o houve mudan&#231;a significativa no tamanho do infarto em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo IR, indicando que a denerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica qu&#237;mica n&#227;o tem nenhum efeito sobre a les&#227;o por IR. Adicionalmente, a simpatectomia qu&#237;mica anterior ao estresse f&#237;sico agudo removeu o efeito de cardioprote&#231;&#227;o do estresse agudo sobre o tamanho do infarto no grupo Symp+St+IR, o que enfatiza que a presen&#231;a do sistema simp&#225;tico &#233; necess&#225;ria para os efeitos cardioprotetores do estresse agudo. Foi constatado que a indu&#231;&#227;o do estresse agudo ap&#243;s a simpatectomia qu&#237;mica superou os efeitos nocivos do sistema simp&#225;tico suprimido sobre os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos no grupo Symp+St+IR quando comparado com o grupo Symp+IR, indicando o papel primordial da atividade fisiol&#243;gica do sistema simp&#225;tico na regula&#231;&#227;o da FC, da press&#227;o e do fluxo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Hara e Abiko<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> declarou que a norepinefrina tem dois efeitos positivos sobre os danos conforme a dura&#231;&#227;o da isquemia, o que significa que a isquemia curta pode proteger o cora&#231;&#227;o e a isquemia prolongada, aumentar as les&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> As propriedades positiva e negativa do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico est&#227;o associadas com o tempo de exposi&#231;&#227;o ao est&#237;mulo. Na isquemia de longo prazo, grandes quantidades de norepinefrina s&#227;o liberadas do sistema nervosa simp&#225;tico, agindo como uma fonte de radical livre e gera&#231;&#227;o subsequente do radical livre OH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> O efeito protetor da norepinefrina pode surgir da produ&#231;&#227;o de energia para o m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco em epis&#243;dios de isquemia de curto prazo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a administra&#231;&#227;o de ioimbina (como antagonista dos receptores alfa-2) reduziu a incid&#234;ncia de arritmia atrav&#233;s do aumento da libera&#231;&#227;o da norepinefrina simp&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> De acordo com estudos pr&#233;vios, o pr&#233;-tratamento com agonistas do receptor alfa, tais como a fenilefrina, pode proteger os cardiomi&#243;citos contra os danos da I/R na FC isolada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> A ativa&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na quinase-C (PKC) via de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> e a libera&#231;&#227;o de NO<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> pela norepinefrina, est&#227;o envolvidas na abertura de canais KATP mitocondriais, que por sua vez podem reduzir a carga mitocondrial de c&#225;lcio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> e causar a atenua&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos ben&#233;ficos da norepinefrina. Tamb&#233;m foi demonstrado que a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica diminuiu ap&#243;s a simpatectomia qu&#237;mica, corroborando o fato de que a descarga simp&#225;tica muscular &#233; respons&#225;vel pela regula&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> As limita&#231;&#245;es desse estudo foram o m&#233;todo de indu&#231;&#227;o de estresse f&#237;sico que n&#227;o ocorre normalmente na vida cotidiana. Infelizmente, n&#243;s n&#227;o t&#237;nhamos os dados do n&#237;vel de corticosterona no grupo Symp+IR, de modo que n&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel discutir o efeito da simpatectomia no n&#237;vel de corticosterona e a compara&#231;&#227;o entre o grupo St+IR e o grupo Symp+St+IR n&#227;o foi significativa. Em conson&#226;ncia com nossos resultados, Lowrance <italic>et al</italic>. mostraram que o n&#237;vel de corticosterona induzido por estresse n&#227;o sofreu altera&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s a simpatectomia farmacol&#243;gica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>O presente estudo mostrou que a indu&#231;&#227;o de estresse f&#237;sico agudo anterior &#224; I/R teve como como consequ&#234;ncia a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o e a simpatectomia qu&#237;mica removeu esse efeito ben&#233;fico do estresse agudo f&#237;sico.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
          <label>*</label>
          <p>Contribu&#237;ram igualmente para este trabalho</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Alireza Imani pela Tehran University of Medical Sciences.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Tehran University of Medical Sciences sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 30486. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <ack>
        <title>Agradecimentos</title>
        <p>Esse estudo foi financiado pela Universidade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Tehran.</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
