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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">MScVnph9Y7BD73MWm3yFGWP</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2019000900392</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2019005015104</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20190157</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Salt Preference is Linked to Hypertension and not to Aging</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Villela</surname>
            <given-names>Patr&#237;cia Teixeira Meirelles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>de-Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Borges</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Villela</surname>
            <given-names>Paula Teixeira Meirelles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bonardi</surname>
            <given-names>Jose Maria Thiago</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bertani</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo Fenner</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moriguti</surname>
            <given-names>Julio Cesar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferriolli</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7139-8883</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Nereida K. C.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <city>Ribeir&#227;o Preto</city>
            <state>SP</state>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMRP-USP) - Divis&#227;o de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica Geral e Geriatria, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Nereida Kilza da Costa Lima,</bold> Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Avenida Bandeirantes, 3.900. Postal Code: 14049-900, Vila Monte Alegre, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>nereida@fmrp.usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and Writing of the manuscript: Villela PTM, Moriguti JC, Lima NKC; Acquisition of data: Villela PTM, de-Oliveira EB, Villela PTM, Bonardi JMT, Bertani RF; Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Villela PTM, de-Oliveira EB, Villela PTM, Bonardi JMT, Bertani RF, Moriguti JC, Ferriolli E, Lima NKC; Statistical analysis and Obtaining financing: Ferriolli E, Lima NKC.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>113</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>392</fpage>
      <lpage>399</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Seasoning is one of the recommended strategies to reduce salt in foods. However, only a few studies have studied salt preference changes using seasoning.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives:</title>
          <p>The aim of this study was to compare preference for salty bread, and if seasoning can change preference in hypertensive and normotensive, young and older outpatients.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Outpatients (n = 118) were classified in four groups: older hypertensive subjects (OH) (n = 32), young hypertensive (YH) (n = 25); older normotensive individuals (ON) (n = 28), and young normotensive (YN) (n = 33). First, volunteers random tasted bread samples with three different salt concentrations. After two weeks, they tasted the same types of breads, with seasoning added in all. Blood pressure (BP), 24-hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion (UNaV, UKV) were measured twice. Analysis: Fisher exact test, McNamer&#8217;s test and ANCOVA. Statistical significance: p &lt; 0.05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>Systolic BP, UNaV, and UKV were greater in HO and HY and they had a higher preference for saltier samples than normotensive groups (HO: 71.9%, HY: 56% vs. NO: 25%, NY; 6%, p&lt;0.01). With oregano, hypertensive individuals preferred smaller concentrations of salt, with reduced choice for saltier samples (HO: 71.9% to 21.9%, and HY: 56% to 16%, p = 0.02), NO preferred the lowest salt concentration sample (53.6% vs. 14.3%, p &lt; 0.01), and NY further increased the preference for the lowest one (63.6% vs. 39.4%, p = 0.03).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions:</title>
          <p>Older and younger hypertensive individuals prefer and consume more salt than normotensive ones, and the seasoned bread induced all groups to choose food with less salt. Salt preference is linked to hypertension and not to aging in outpatients.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Aged</kwd>
        <kwd>Aging</kwd>
        <kwd>Salt Tolerance</kwd>
        <kwd>Food Preferences</kwd>
        <kwd>Sodium Chloride,Dietary/adverse effects</kwd>
        <kwd>Flavoring Agents</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Although the relationship between high salt intake and hypertension is well established<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> and salt consumption by the world population is known to be higher than recommended,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> only a few studies have assessed the preference for salty foods and studied the preference changes using seasoning among hypertensive and normotensive individuals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Many countries are adopting different strategies to reduce salt intake by the population worldwide. The current public health recommendations in most countries are to reduce salt intake from about 9-12 g/day to 5-6 g/day.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The 2010 World Health Organizations (WHO)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> global status report on non- communicable diseases urged member states to take immediate actions to reduce salt intake. To this end, the WHO recommended a 30% reduction in salt intake by 2025, with an eventual target of 5 g per day for adults and lower levels for children based on calorie intake.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Sodium chloride is added to processed foods for palatability, preservation and processing reasons.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
			</p>
      <p>One of the recommended steps to lower salt intake by the Food and Drugs Administration<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> is to flavor food with pepper and other herbs and spices instead of salt.</p>
      <p>Villela et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> compared the preference for salty foods between elderly hypertensive and normotensive subjects and showed that hypertensive individuals prefer and consume more salty foods than normotensive individuals. Some studies have shown that older people prefer more pronounced flavors than young people since the number of papillae and taste buds decreases with age.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The INTERSALT study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> suggested a strong relation between salt intake and a progressive increase in blood pressure (BP) with age up to 4 mm Hg per year for a 6 g/day salt intake. A reduction in salt intake is therefore likely to attenuate the rise of BP with aging, in addition to having an immediate BP lowering effect.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Since raised BP throughout its range is a major cause of cardiovascular disease, a reduction in salt intake, if it lowered BP, would reduce cardiovascular risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Scientific research on this topic is scarce and only a limited number of studies have been performed in an experimental real-life setting.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The aim of the present study was to compare the preference for salty foods among elderly and young individuals and hypertensive and normotensive ones and to determine if seasoning food can change the preference for salt. Another aim was to assess the habitual consumption of sodium and potassium, as well as BP and body mass index (BMI) in the different groups.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <p>This was a double-blind experimental investigation in which the sensory parameters were assessed by a convenience sample of 118 untrained tasters from a public healthy center who gave written informed consent to participate. This healthy center is responsible for the secondary care of an area with about 180,000 inhabitants, descendants of diverse ethnicities and coming from many regions of the country.The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (Protocol no. 464/CEPCSE- FMRP-USP; 09/11/2011) and met the guidelines of the responsible governmental agency.</p>
      <p>Exclusion criteria were: (1) food intolerance, (2) urinary incontinence (3), renal insufficiency, (4) presence of flu, colds, or any oral disease that would affect taste on the day of the experiment, (5) alcohol abuse (intake of more than 14 alcoholic drinks per week), (6) cognitive deficit (7), taking medications that might alter gustatory sensitivity such as chemotherapeutic drugs, penicillin, metronidazole, hydrochloride, amphotericin, nortriptyline, hydrochloride, carbamazepine, biguanide, etambutol, phenylbutazone, fluorouracil, allopurinol, penicillamine, or levodopa; (8) pregnancy (9), and having been submitted to radiotherapy of the head and/or cervical region.</p>
      <p>After the exclusions, and factoring individuals who refused to participate, four groups of both genders were studied: 32 older hypertensive individuals aged 60 to 80 who were under treatment (OH), 28 older normotensive volunteers aged 60 to 80 years (ON), 25 young hypertensive subjects aged 30 to 50 years (YH), and 33 young normotensive subjects aged 30 to 50 years (YN). The experiments was conducted over 10 consectives months.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Procedures</title>
        <p>The general data of each volunteer were obtained using a semistructured questionnaire, including previous diagnoses, use of medications, smoking status, and alcohol consumption. Weight and height were measured and BMI was calculated for all participants.</p>
        <p>As a reference of daily sodium and potassium intake, 24- hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion was determined on each of the 2 days preceding the experiment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Urine collection started with voiding and discarding the first urine in the morning after waking up. Subsequently, the urine excreted during the next 24 hours, up to and including the first voiding of the following day, was collected. A second 24-hour urine collection was performed 2 weeks later before the second experiment, for futher determination of sodium and potassium excretion.</p>
        <p>Blood pressure was measured with a semiautomatic instrument (Omron HEM-431 CINT), with 3 measurements on the upper right limb and 3 measurements on the upper left limb after the patients rested in the sitting position for 5 minutes. The measurements were repeated after 2 weeks.</p>
        <p>On the first day of the experiment, 3 samples of french bread rolls of the same composition except for different amounts of salt were prepared. Salt (1.4%, 2.0%, and 2.7%) was added to each kg. French bread habitually sold in this community contains, on average, 2% salt in its composition. Therefore, we provided a sample of bread with less salt (1.5% salt; 30% less salt than ordinary bread), a sample with the usual percentage of salt (2.0%), and a sample of bread with higher salt content (2.7% salt; 30% more salt than usual bread).</p>
        <p>The three bread samples were prepared on the day of the test and offered to the volunteers in a random manner in disposable paper bags coded with random 3-digit numbers so that the investigator involved in the test would be unaware of the salt content of each sample. For the tasting, the samples were tested from left to right with a standard size of 10 to 15 g each in order to provide uniformity. The patients drank mineral water at room temperature between samples in order to help remove the taste. At the end of the test, the volunteers, who did not know that the bread samples contained different amounts of salt, were asked to state which sample they preferred. The participants were asked to avoid eating and drinking 2 h before the experiment.</p>
        <p>In the second experiment, two weeks later, the participants were asked to again taste the 3 samples of french bread containing the same different amounts of salt as in the first experiment (1.5%, 2.0% and 2.7%), but now also containing oregano as an added spice (0.23 g/100 g of bread) and to state their preference. There were no changes in medication between the first and the second tests.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Data analysis</title>
        <p>Firstly, an exploratory analysis of the data was performed. Continuous variables with normal distribution are reported as mean + standard deviation and categorical variables are presented as absolute numbers and percentages. The Fisher exact test was used to compare categorical variables, the McNamer's test was used to evaluate the effect of the intervention and ANCOVA was proposed to compare the groups and to verify the effect of the covariates.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> This analysis assumes that its residues have a normal distribution with mean 0 and variance s<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> constant. Transforms were used in response variables that did not reach the assumption. Differences were considered to be statistically significant when p &lt; 0.05. The SAS system (version 9; SAS Institute, Cary, NC) was used for all statistical calculations.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>Gender and alcohol consumption distribution was similar in all groups (p = 0.63; p = 0.26). There was a higher percentage of smokers among young patients than elderly ones (p &lt; 0.001) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Characteristics and Distribution of clinical data of the volunteers included in the study</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="17%"/>
            <col width="17%"/>
            <col width="17%"/>
            <col width="17%"/>
            <col width="17%"/>
            <col width="11%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">Young Hypertensive<break/>Subjects (YH); n = 25</th>
              <th align="center">Young Normotensive (Y)<break/>Subjects; n = 33</th>
              <th align="center">Older Hypertensive<break/>Subjects (OH); n = 32</th>
              <th align="center">Older Normotensive<break/>Subjects (ON); n = 28</th>
              <th align="center">P Value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Sex</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>p = 0.63</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Male</td>
              <td align="center">11(44.0%)</td>
              <td align="center">13 (30.3%)</td>
              <td align="center">9 (28.1%)</td>
              <td align="center">10 (35.7%)</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Female</td>
              <td align="center">14(56.0%)</td>
              <td align="center">20 (60.7%)</td>
              <td align="center">23 (71.9%)</td>
              <td align="center">18 (64.3%)</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Use of Alcohol</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>p = 0.26</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Yes</td>
              <td align="center">9 (36.0%)</td>
              <td align="center">15 (45.5%)</td>
              <td align="center">8 (25.0%)</td>
              <td align="center">7 (25.0%)</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">No</td>
              <td align="center">26 (64.0%)</td>
              <td align="center">18 (54.5%)</td>
              <td align="center">24 (75.0%)</td>
              <td align="center">21 (75.0%)</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Smoking Habit</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>p &lt; 0.001</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Yes</td>
              <td align="center">6 (24.0%)</td>
              <td align="center">4 (12.2%)</td>
              <td align="center">0(0%)</td>
              <td align="center">1(3.5%)</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">No</td>
              <td align="center">19 (76.0%)</td>
              <td align="center">29 (87.8%)</td>
              <td align="center">32 (100%)</td>
              <td align="center">27 (96.5%)</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Age, years</td>
              <td align="center">40.8 &#177; 6.2</td>
              <td align="center">35.6 &#177; 4.4</td>
              <td align="center">73.6 &#177; 6.3</td>
              <td align="center">71.4 &#177; 7.8</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">SBP, mmHg</td>
              <td align="center">137 &#177; 15</td>
              <td align="center">116 &#177; 11</td>
              <td align="center">134 &#177; 16</td>
              <td align="center">125 &#177; 12</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>p &lt; 0.05*</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">DBP, mmHg</td>
              <td align="center">86 &#177; 9</td>
              <td align="center">75 &#177; 9</td>
              <td align="center">79 &#177; 9</td>
              <td align="center">75 &#177; 7</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>p &lt; 0.05**</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">UNaV, mEq/L</td>
              <td align="center">181.0 &#177; 74.2</td>
              <td align="center">127.6 &#177; 36</td>
              <td align="center">177.3 &#177; 62.3</td>
              <td align="center">129.6 &#177; 3 6.6</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>p &lt; 0.05*</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">UKV, mEq/L</td>
              <td align="center">46.2 &#177; 13.4</td>
              <td align="center">40.3 &#177; 12.8</td>
              <td align="center">45.2 &#177; 14.5</td>
              <td align="center">35.2 &#177; 10.1</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>p &lt; 0.05***</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">BMI, kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
              <td align="center">29.1 &#177; 5.0</td>
              <td align="center">25.9 &#177; 4.0</td>
              <td align="center">29.1 &#177; 5.1</td>
              <td align="center">27.0 &#177; 4.0</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>p = 0.02*</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <p>
              <italic>SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; BMI: body mass index; UNaV: 24-hour urinary sodium excretion; UKV: 24-hour urinary sodium excretion; p*: hypertensive groups vs. normotensive groups; p**: young hypertensive group vs. other groups.</italic>
            </p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Urinary sodium excretion was higher in the hypertensive groups (young and older subjects) than in the normotensive groups (young and older volunteers) (p &lt; 0.05) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>), and was higher in men than in women (men: 170.9 &#177; 73.6 mEq/24 h vs. women: 142.6 &#177; 46.0 mEq/24 h, p = 0.01). Volunteers who consumed alcohol had higher sodium excretion than those who did not (p = 0.02). Mean urinary potassium excretion was lower in normotensive elderly subjects than in the other groups (p &lt; 0.05) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). Systolic BP was higher in the hypertensive groups (young and older subjects) compared to the non-hypertensive groups (young and older subjects), with p &lt; 0.05. Mean diastolic BP was significantly higher in the group of YH subjects compared to all other groups of volunteers (p &lt; 0.05) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>BMI was higher in the hypertensive groups than in the normotensive ones (p = 0.02) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>On both days of the experiment, men preferred the saltier samples compared to women (p &lt; 0.01 in the first experiment and p = 0.01 in the second one).</p>
      <p>Alcohol consuming volunteers preferred more often the saltier samples in the first experiment than the other volunteers (p = 0.04) but this difference no longer existed when oregano was added to the samples (second experiment) (p = 0.10). No difference was observed between smokers and nonsmokers.</p>
      <p>On the two days of the experiment, gender, alcohol consumption and smoking did not show any differences in the elderly groups (hypertensive and normotensive), whereas differences were observed between the younger groups. In the first experiment, women in the YN group preferred more often samples with less salt, while men preferred more often saltier samples (p &lt; 0.01). In the second experiment (oregano addition), the distribution was similar between genders, with a nonsignificant trend to a change in preference for less salty samples among men (p = 0.06). In the YH group, those who consumed alcohol in the first experiment more often preferred the saltier samples, and in second experiment (oregano addition), they began to prefer less salty bread samples (p = 0.04).</p>
      <p>On the first day of the experiment, there was a different preference between the elderly hypertensive and normotensive groups (p &lt; 0.01), with the elderly hypertensive group showing a greater preference for saltier samples which persisted in the second experiment (p = 0.02).</p>
      <p>The YH group showed greater preference for samples with higher salt concentrations compared to YN subjects (p = 0.02), with this difference persisting in the second experiment (p &lt; 0.01). The groups of elderly and YH had a similar distribution in the first and second experiment (p = 0.27 and p = 0.25), and the elderly and YN groups did not differ in preference (p = 0.11 and p = 0.34).</p>
      <p>Comparing the first and second experiments, there were significant changes in all groups. In the hypertensive groups (young and older subjects), there was a predominance of preference for saltier samples in the first experiment (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>), whereas a change in preference for standard bread samples and samples with a lower salt concentration (p &lt; 0.01 for the hypertensive elderly group and 0.04 for the YH group) was observed in the second experiment (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). In the group of ON volunteers, in the first experiment the preference was more common for standard bread samples (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>), whereas a greater preference for the sample with a lower salt concentration as observed in the second experiment (with the addition of oregano) (p &lt; 0.01) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). In the first experiment, YN subjects showed a higher preference for the samples with lower salt concentrations (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>), with an increase in this preference in the second experiment (p = 0.03) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). Oregano seems to contribute to the failure to differentiate flavors, with the total number of volunteers who did not notice a difference between samples increasing from 3 (3.13%) to 18 (15.25%), with p &lt; 0.001.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Distribution of the preference for bread samples among hypertensive volunteers in the first experiment, without the addition of oregano. 0: did not perceive a difference; 1: preferred the sample with 1.5% salt; 2: preferred the sample with 2.0% salt; 3: preferred the sample with 2.7% salt.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0392-90157-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Distribution of the preference for bread samples among normotensive volunteers in the first experiment, without the addition of oregano. 0: did not perceive a difference; 1: preferred the sample with 1.5% salt; 2: preferred the sample with 2.0% salt; 3: preferred the sample with 2.7% salt.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0392-90157-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Distribution of the preference for bread samples among hypertensive volunteers in the second experiment, with the addition of oregano. 0: did not perceive a difference; 1: preferred the sample with 1.5% salt; 2: preferred the sample with 2.0% salt; 3: preferred the sample with 2.7% salt.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0392-90157-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figure 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Distribution of the preference for bread samples among normotensive volunteers in the second experiment, with the addition of oregano.0: did not perceive a difference; 1: preferred the sample with 1.5% salt; 2: preferred the sample with 2.0% salt; 3: preferred the sample with 2.7% salt.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0392-90157-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>We found a clear predominance of salt preference in hypertensive participants compared to the non-hypertensive groups. In this study, we used a sensory analysis to investigate salt preference using a method similar to that employed by Shepherd et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> who compared the preference of hypertensive individuals for soup samples with three different salt concentrations. In the cited study, there was a greater preference for the sample with lower salt concentration, in contrast to what was observed in the present study. However, all of the participants in the Shepherd study were hypertensive, with no comparison with normotensive subjects.</p>
      <p>The preference for high salt intake can be caused by physiological, genetic and psychological factors and by changes occurring during human development.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Evidence indicates that the taste of salt is inherently attractive to humans by making the flavor of the foods more palatable compared to the same foods without salt.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Regarding age, there were no differences in preference for salt samples and salt intake. The same result was reported by Khadeja &amp; Leshen,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> who compared salt appetite in the elderly (65-85) and in middle-aged (45-58) people to determine possible age-related changes. To estimate salt appetite, the participants were tested for preferred amounts of salt in the soup, followed by a test with oral sprays of NaCl. Between the taste tests, the participants were interviewed to complete a dietary, seasoning and preference questionnaire. The authors found no clear difference in salt preference in elderly participants compared to middle-aged participants.</p>
      <p>Regarding gender, men usually prefer more salt than women.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> It is well established that salt intake is lower in women as a function of their lower absolute caloric intake and that women add less salt to soups than men.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> The present study also showed a higher salt consumption among men.</p>
      <p>The variables that significantly influenced the preference for samples of saltier breads were the presence of hypertension, male gender and alcohol consumption. These were maintained even in the presence of oregano, except for subjects with higher alcohol consumption, for which the preference for saltier samples ceased to exist when oregano was added to bread.</p>
      <p>Contrary to our hypothesis, we found no relationship between sodium intake and age, BMI or tobacco use, but sodium intake was significantly higher among volunteers who consumed alcohol. These volunteers preferred saltier samples and showed an average larger amount of sodium excretion in 24hour urine, in agreement with data reported by Gibson &amp; Margaret<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> who showed that high alcohol intake is one of the major features among high salt consumers. It is important to note that one of the exclusion criteria for the present study was alcohol abuse so that the effect of alcohol on salt preference could have been underestimated if individuals with greater consumption had been included. Alcohol consumption has been associated with increased BP and an increased risk of hypertension in many observational studies and clinical trials, demonstrating that these associations are causal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Hypertensive volunteers had higher mean BP and higher average urinary sodium excretion compared to normotensive volunteers, in agreement with the association between increased sodium excretion and increased arterial BP reported in several studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Thus, it was observed that hypertensive patients had higher mean BP even when treated, with a greater preference for salt intake and with higher urinary sodium excretion compared to normotensive subjects.</p>
      <p>These results support recommendations for the reduction of high salt intake in the population for prevention and control of adverse BP levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Despite the small percentage of smokers included in this study (9.3%), no significant differences were identified as to their preferences. Recent research in Germany has shown that smoking did not present a risk to gustatory commitment, although food preferences were not compared and the average age of individuals who participated in the study was 56 years.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
			</p>
      <p>For potassium intake, the present study found increased urinary potassium excretion in the hypertensive groups, in contrast to the study of Galletti et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> which showed low potassium excretion in 24hour urine in 1232 hypertensive Italians from 47 volunteer centers of the Italian Society of Hypertension. Observational studies have shown an inverse relationship between potassium intake and BP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> The electrolyte excretion in 24-hour urine analysis and BP in the INTERSALT study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> showed that potassium excretion was negatively correlated with BP. Cappuccio et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> performed a meta-analysis of 19 studies with oral potassium supplementation involving 586 participants. The results showed that oral potassium supplementation significantly reduced both systolic and diastolic BP and that reductions in BP were higher in hypertensive patients than in normotensive individuals. Perhaps the finding in the present investigation differing from other studies could be explained by the fact that the volunteers had been regularly monitored at a secondary level health center for many years, having received nutritional guidance regarding a balanced diet rich in fruits and vegetables, and greater potassium intake.</p>
      <p>It is important to emphasize that this study did not evaluate long-term adherence to bread with oregano, only preference in a tasting test in a small sample. A larger, longer, and randomized clinical trial is needed to confirm the benefits of an intervention contributing to the reduction of daily sodium intake, by adding spice to food.</p>
      <p>The volunteers were followed up at a public health center, not being able to extrapolate the results to different populations.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusions</title>
      <p>The present study demonstrated a greater preference for salt and more salt consumption in hypertensive than normotensive individuals regardless of age. The intervention of adding oregano to food led to a preference for samples with lower salt content in all groups, i.e., hypertensive, normotensive, young or old subjects. A higher preference for salt was found to be associated with male gender and alcohol consumption.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by Abbot Vascular.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Patr&#237;cia Teixeira Meirelles Villela, from Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo under the protocol number 464. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>A Prefer&#234;ncia ao Sal est&#225; Relacionada &#224; Hipertens&#227;o e n&#227;o ao Envelhecimento</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Villela</surname>
            <given-names>Patr&#237;cia Teixeira Meirelles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>de-Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Borges</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Villela</surname>
            <given-names>Paula Teixeira Meirelles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bonardi</surname>
            <given-names>Jose Maria Thiago</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bertani</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo Fenner</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moriguti</surname>
            <given-names>Julio Cesar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferriolli</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7139-8883</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Nereida K. C.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMRP-USP) - Divis&#227;o de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica Geral e Geriatria, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Nereida Kilza da Costa Lima,</bold> Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Avenida Bandeirantes, 3.900. CEP: 14049-900, Vila Monte Alegre, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>nereida@fmrp.usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Villela PTM, Moriguti JC, Lima NKC; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Villela PTM, de-Oliveira EB, Villela PTM, Bonardi JMT, Bertani RF; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Villela PTM, de-Oliveira EB, Villela PTM, Bonardi JMT, Bertani RF, Moriguti JC, Ferriolli E, Lima NKC; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Ferriolli E, Lima NKC.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>Adicionar temperos aos alimentos &#233; umas das estrat&#233;gias recomendadas para diminuir a quantidade de sal nos alimentos. No entanto, poucos estudos investigaram altera&#231;&#245;es na prefer&#234;ncia ao sal atrav&#233;s do uso de temperos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos:</title>
          <p>O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar a prefer&#234;ncia pelo p&#227;o salgado, e at&#233; que ponto o uso de temperos pode alterar as prefer&#234;ncias dos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos e normotensos, pacientes ambulatoriais jovens e idosos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Os pacientes ambulatoriais (n = 118) foram classificados em quatro grupos: idosos com hipertens&#227;o (IH) (n = 32), jovens hipertensos (JH) (n = 25); indiv&#237;duos idosos normotensos (IN) (n = 28), e jovens normotensos (JN) (n = 33). Primeiro, os volunt&#225;rios provaram amostras aleat&#243;rias de p&#227;o com tr&#234;s diferentes concentra&#231;&#245;es de sal. Ap&#243;s duas semanas, eles provaram os mesmos tipos de p&#227;o, por&#233;m acrescidos de temperos. A press&#227;o arterial (PA), e a excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de s&#243;dio e pot&#225;ssio de 24 horas (UNaV, UKV) foram medidas duas vezes. An&#225;lise: Teste exato de Fisher, teste de McNemar e teste ANCOVA. Signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica: p &lt; 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>A PA sist&#243;lica e a excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de s&#243;dio e pot&#225;ssio foram maiores nos grupos IH e JH, e eles tiveram maior prefer&#234;ncia por amostras mais salgadas quando comparados com os grupos de normotensos (IH: 71,9%, JH: 56% vs. IN: 25%, JN; 6%, p &lt; 0,01). Quando o or&#233;gano foi adicionado, a prefer&#234;ncia dos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos foi pelas amostras com menores concentra&#231;&#245;es de sal, com uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da escolha por amostras mais salgadas (IH: 71,9% a 21,9%, e JH: 56% a 16%, p = 0,02); o grupo IN preferiu a amostra com a concentra&#231;&#227;o de sal mais baixa (53,6% vs. 14,3%, p &lt; 0,01) e no grupo JN aumentou ainda mais o n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos com prefer&#234;ncia pela amostra com concentra&#231;&#245;es mais baixas de sal (63,6% vs. 39,4%, p = 0,03).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es:</title>
          <p>Os idosos e jovens hipertensos preferem e consomem mais sal do que os normotensos, e o p&#227;o adicionado de tempero ajudou todos os grupos a escolher alimentos menos salgados. A prefer&#234;ncia ao sal est&#225; ligada &#224; hipertens&#227;o e n&#227;o &#224; idade nos pacientes ambulatoriais.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Idoso</kwd>
        <kwd>Envelhecimento</kwd>
        <kwd>Toler&#226;ncia ao Sal</kwd>
        <kwd>Prefer&#234;ncias Alimentares</kwd>
        <kwd>Cloreto de S&#243;dio na Dieta/efeitos adversos</kwd>
        <kwd>Aromatizantes</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Embora a rela&#231;&#227;o entre a ingest&#227;o elevada de sal e a hipertens&#227;o esteja bem estabelecida<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> e o consumo de sal pela popula&#231;&#227;o mundial seja maior do que o recomendado,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> poucos estudos avaliaram a prefer&#234;ncia por alimentos salgados e investigaram as mudan&#231;as nas prefer&#234;ncias, por meio do uso de temperos, entre os indiv&#237;duos hipertensos e normotensos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Muitos pa&#237;ses est&#227;o adotando diferentes estrat&#233;gias para diminuir a ingest&#227;o de sal pela popula&#231;&#227;o mundial. A recomenda&#231;&#227;o atual da sa&#250;de p&#250;blica, na maioria dos pa&#237;ses, &#233; diminuir a ingest&#227;o de sal de aproximadamente 9-12 g/dia para 5-6 g/dia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O Relat&#243;rio Mundial da Sa&#250;de elaborado pela Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de (OMS) em 2010<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> sobre doen&#231;as n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis expressou a necessidade de os pa&#237;ses membros tomarem a&#231;&#245;es imediatas para diminuir o consumo de sal. Com esse objetivo, a OMS recomendou uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 30% na ingest&#227;o de sal at&#233; 2025, sugerindo uma meta final de 5 g por dia para os adultos e n&#237;veis mais baixos para as crian&#231;as, com base na ingest&#227;o de calorias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O cloreto de s&#243;dio &#233; adicionado aos alimentos processados por motivos de palatabilidade, conserva&#231;&#227;o e processamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Uma das etapas recomendadas pela Food and Drugs Administration (FDA)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> para diminuir a ingest&#227;o de sal &#233; aromatizar os alimentos com pimenta e outras ervas e especiarias ao inv&#233;s de utilizar sal.</p>
        <p>Villela et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> compararam a prefer&#234;ncia por alimentos salgados entre idosos hipertensos e indiv&#237;duos normotensos e mostraram que os indiv&#237;duos hipertensos preferem e consomem mais alimentos salgados do que os indiv&#237;duos normotensos. Alguns estudos demonstraram que as pessoas mais velhas preferem sabores mais acentuados do que os jovens, porque o n&#250;mero de papilas e bot&#245;es gustativos diminuem com a idade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O estudo INTERSALT<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> indicou uma forte rela&#231;&#227;o entre a ingest&#227;o de sal e o aumento progressive da press&#227;o arterial (PA) com o envelhecimento, de at&#233; 4 mm Hg por ano para uma ingest&#227;o de sal de 6 g/dia. A redu&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o de sal, consequentemente, tem a possibilidade de atenuar o aumento da PA associado ao envelhecimento, al&#233;m de ter um efeito imediato na diminui&#231;&#227;o da PA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Uma vez que a PA elevada, em todas as suas varia&#231;&#245;es, &#233; uma das principais causas de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, a diminui&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o de sal, associada &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da PA, reduz o risco cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> H&#225; escassez de pesquisas cient&#237;ficas sobre esse assunto e apenas um pequeno n&#250;meros de estudos experimentais em contextos da vida real foi desenvolvido.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar a prefer&#234;ncia por alimentos salgados entre indiv&#237;duos idosos e jovens, bem como entre hipertensos e normotensos, e determinar se a adi&#231;&#227;o de temperos aos alimentos pode alterar a prefer&#234;ncia ao sal. Outro objetivo foi avaliar o consumo habitual de s&#243;dio e pot&#225;ssio, al&#233;m da PA e do &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) nos diferentes grupos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>Trata-se de um estudo experimental duplo-cego, no qual os par&#226;metros sensoriais foram avaliados por uma amostra de conveni&#234;ncia de 118 provadores n&#227;o-treinados de um centro p&#250;blico de sa&#250;de, que assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido para participar. Esse centro &#233; respons&#225;vel pela sa&#250;de secund&#225;ria de uma &#225;rea com aproximadamente 180.000 habitantes, descendentes de diversas etnias e oriundos de v&#225;rias regi&#245;es do pa&#237;s. O estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (protocolo no. 464/CEPCSE- FMRP-USP; 09/11/2011) e atende &#224;s diretrizes da ag&#234;ncia governamental respons&#225;vel.</p>
        <p>Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram: (1) intoler&#226;ncia alimentar, (2) incontin&#234;ncia urin&#225;ria (3), insufici&#234;ncia renal, (4) presen&#231;a de gripes, resfriados, ou qualquer doen&#231;a oral que pudesse afetar o paladar no dia do experimento, (5) consumo abusivo de &#225;lcool (ingest&#227;o de mais do que 14 bebidas alco&#243;licas por semana), (6) d&#233;ficit cognitivo (7), uso de medicamentos que pudessem alterar a sensibilidade gustativa, tais como drogas quimioter&#225;picas, penicilina, metronidazol, hidrocloreto, anfotericina, nortriptilina, cloridrato, carbamazepina, biguanida, etambutol, fenilbutazona, fluorouracil, alopurinol, penicilamina, ou levodopa; (8) gravidez (9), e ter sido submetido &#224; radioterapia na cabe&#231;a e/ou na regi&#227;o cervical.</p>
        <p>Feitas as exclus&#245;es, e levando em conta os indiv&#237;duos que se recusaram a participar, quatro grupos de ambos os sexos foram inclu&#237;dos no estudo: 32 idosos com hipertens&#227;o, entre 60 e 80 anos de idade, que estavam sob tratamento (IH), 28 volunt&#225;rios idosos normotensos, entre 60 e 80 anos de idade (IN), 25 indiv&#237;duos jovens hipertensos entre 30 e 50 anos de idade (JH), e 33 jovens normotensos, entre 30 e 50 anos de idade (JN). Os experimentos foram realizados durante 10 meses consecutivos.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Procedimentos</title>
          <p>Os dados gerais de cada volunt&#225;rio foram obtidos atrav&#233;s de um question&#225;rio semi-estrutural, incluindo diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio, uso de medica&#231;&#245;es, tabagismo, e consumo de &#225;lcool. O peso e a altura foram medidos e o IMC de todos os participantes foi calculado.</p>
          <p>Como refer&#234;ncia de ingest&#227;o di&#225;ria de s&#243;dio e pot&#225;ssio, a excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de s&#243;dio e pot&#225;ssio de 24 horas foi determinada nos dois dias que antecederam o in&#237;cio do experimento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> O primeiro passo para a coleta foi esvaziar a bexiga e desprezar a primeira urina da manh&#227; ap&#243;s levantar. Depois, a urina excretada durante as 24 horas seguintes, incluindo a primeira urina do dia posterior, foi coletada. Uma segunda coleta de urina de 24 horas foi realizada duas semanas mais tarde, antes do segundo experimento, para posterior determina&#231;&#227;o da excre&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio e pot&#225;ssio.</p>
          <p>A press&#227;o arterial foi medida usando um aparelho semiautom&#225;tico (Omron HEM-431 CINT), com 3 aferi&#231;&#245;es no membro superior direito e 3 aferi&#231;&#245;es no membro superior esquerdo, ap&#243;s os pacientes terem ficado em repouso, na posi&#231;&#227;o sentada, por cinco minutos. As aferi&#231;&#245;es foram repetidas ap&#243;s 2 semanas.</p>
          <p>No primeiro dia do experimento, 3 amostras de p&#227;o franc&#234;s com a mesma composi&#231;&#227;o, exceto pelas quantidades diferentes de sal, foram preparadas. O sal (1,4%, 2,0%, e 2,7%) foi adicionado a cada kg. O p&#227;o franc&#234;s normalmente vendido nessa comunidade cont&#233;m, em m&#233;dia, 2% de sal na sua composi&#231;&#227;o. Consequentemente, n&#243;s oferecemos uma amostra de p&#227;o com menos sal (1,5% de sal; 30% menos sal do que o p&#227;o comum), uma amostra com a quantidade normal de sal (2,0%), e uma amostra de p&#227;o com uma quantidade maior de sal (2,7% de sal; 30% mais sal do que o p&#227;o normal).</p>
          <p>As tr&#234;s amostras de p&#227;o foram preparadas no dia do teste e oferecidas para os volunt&#225;rios aleatoriamente em sacos de papel descart&#225;veis, codificados com n&#250;meros aleat&#243;rios de tr&#234;s d&#237;gitos, de modo que o investigador envolvido no teste n&#227;o tivesse conhecimento da quantidade de sal de cada amostra. No teste de degusta&#231;&#227;o, as amostras foram provadas da esquerda para a direita, com um tamanho padronizado de 10 a 15 g cada, para proporcionar uniformidade. Os pacientes beberam &#225;gua mineral em temperatura ambiente entre as amostras para ajudar a remover o sabor. No final do teste, foi solicitado aos volunt&#225;rios, que n&#227;o sabiam que as amostras de p&#227;o continham quantidades diferentes de sal, que indicassem qual amostra eles haviam preferido. Foi pedido aos volunt&#225;rios que evitassem comer e beber 2 horas antes do experimento.</p>
          <p>No segundo experimento, duas semanas mais tarde, foi proposto aos participantes que provassem novamente as 3 amostras de p&#227;o franc&#234;s, contendo as mesmas quantidades diferentes de sal do primeiro experimento (1,5%, 2,0% e 2,7%), mas dessa vez acrescido de or&#233;gano (0,23 g/100 g de p&#227;o), e que eles indicassem sua prefer&#234;ncia. N&#227;o houve altera&#231;&#245;es na medica&#231;&#227;o entre o primeiro e segundo testes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise dos dados</title>
          <p>Primeiramente, foi realizada uma an&#225;lise explorat&#243;ria dos dados. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas com distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foram expressas em m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o e as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram expressas em n&#250;meros absolutos e porcentagens. O teste exato de Fisher foi usado para comparar as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas, o teste de McNemar foi usado para avaliar o efeito da interven&#231;&#227;o e o teste ANCOVA foi proposto para comparar os grupos e verificar o efeito das covariantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Esta an&#225;lise pressup&#245;e que a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos res&#237;duos siga a distribui&#231;&#227;o normal com m&#233;dia 0 e vari&#226;ncia s2 constante. As vari&#225;veis que n&#227;o apresentaram distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foram transformadas. As diferen&#231;as foram consideradas estatisticamente significantes quando p &lt;0,05. Todos os dados foram submetidos ao pacote estat&#237;stico SAS, vers&#227;o 9.0 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>A distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis sexo e consumo de &#225;lcool foi semelhante em todos os grupos (p = 0,63; p = 0,26). Houve um maior percentual de tabagistas nos pacientes jovens em rela&#231;&#227;o aos idosos (p &lt; 0,001) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Caracter&#237;sticas e Distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados cl&#237;nicos dos volunt&#225;rios inclu&#237;dos no estudo</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="17%"/>
              <col width="17%"/>
              <col width="17%"/>
              <col width="17%"/>
              <col width="17%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">Jovem hipertenso (JH);<break/>n = 25</th>
                <th align="center">Jovem normotenso (JN);<break/>n = 33</th>
                <th align="center">Idoso hipertenso (IH);<break/>n = 32</th>
                <th align="center">Idoso normotenso (IN);<break/>n = 28</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Sexo</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>p = 0.63</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Masculino</td>
                <td align="center">11(44.0%)</td>
                <td align="center">13 (30.3%)</td>
                <td align="center">9 (28.1%)</td>
                <td align="center">10 (35.7%)</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Feminino</td>
                <td align="center">14(56.0%)</td>
                <td align="center">20 (60.7%)</td>
                <td align="center">23 (71.9%)</td>
                <td align="center">18 (64.3%)</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Uso de &#193;lcool</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>p = 0.26</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">9 (36.0%)</td>
                <td align="center">15 (45.5%)</td>
                <td align="center">8 (25.0%)</td>
                <td align="center">7 (25.0%)</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">26 (64.0%)</td>
                <td align="center">18 (54.5%)</td>
                <td align="center">24 (75.0%)</td>
                <td align="center">21 (75.0%)</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>H&#225;bito de fumar</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>p &lt; 0.001</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">6 (24.0%)</td>
                <td align="center">4 (12.2%)</td>
                <td align="center">0(0%)</td>
                <td align="center">1(3.5%)</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">19 (76.0%)</td>
                <td align="center">29 (87.8%)</td>
                <td align="center">32 (100%)</td>
                <td align="center">27 (96.5%)</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Idade, anos</td>
                <td align="center">40.8 &#177; 6.2</td>
                <td align="center">35.6 &#177; 4.4</td>
                <td align="center">73.6 &#177; 6.3</td>
                <td align="center">71.4 &#177; 7.8</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAS, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">137 &#177; 15</td>
                <td align="center">116 &#177; 11</td>
                <td align="center">134 &#177; 16</td>
                <td align="center">125 &#177; 12</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>p &lt; 0.05*</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAD, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">86 &#177; 9</td>
                <td align="center">75 &#177; 9</td>
                <td align="center">79 &#177; 9</td>
                <td align="center">75 &#177; 7</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>p &lt; 0.05**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">UNaV, mEq/L</td>
                <td align="center">181.0 &#177; 74.2</td>
                <td align="center">127.6 &#177; 36</td>
                <td align="center">177.3 &#177; 62.3</td>
                <td align="center">129.6 &#177; 3 6.6</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>p &lt; 0.05*</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">UKV, mEq/L</td>
                <td align="center">46.2 &#177; 13.4</td>
                <td align="center">40.3 &#177; 12.8</td>
                <td align="center">45.2 &#177; 14.5</td>
                <td align="center">35.2 &#177; 10.1</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>p &lt; 0.05***</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IMC, kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center">29.1 &#177; 5.0</td>
                <td align="center">25.9 &#177; 4.0</td>
                <td align="center">29.1 &#177; 5.1</td>
                <td align="center">27.0 &#177; 4.0</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>p = 0.02*</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>
                <italic>PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; UNaV: excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de s&#243;dio de 24 horas; UKV: excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de pot&#225;ssio de 24 horas; p*: hypertensive groups vs. normotensive groups; p**: young hypertensive group vs. other groups.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>A excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de s&#243;dio foi maior nos grupos hipertensos (indiv&#237;duos jovens e idosos) em compara&#231;&#227;o com os grupos normotensos (volunt&#225;rios jovens e idosos) (p &lt; 0,05) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>), e foi maior nos homens do que nas mulheres (homens: 170,9 &#177; 73,6 mEq/24h vs. mulheres: 142,6 &#177; 46,0 mEq/24 h, p = 0,01). Os volunt&#225;rios que consumiam &#225;lcool tiveram maior excre&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio do que aqueles que n&#227;o consumiam (p = 0,02). A excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria m&#233;dia de pot&#225;ssio foi menor nos idosos normotensos do que nos outros grupos (p &lt; 0,05) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>). A PAS foi maior nos grupos hipertensos (indiv&#237;duos jovens e idosos) em rela&#231;&#227;o aos grupos de n&#227;o hipertensos (indiv&#237;duos jovens e idosos), com p &lt; 0,05. A PAD m&#233;dia foi significativamente maior no grupo dos sujeitos JH em rela&#231;&#227;o a todos os outros grupos de volunt&#225;rios (p &lt; 0,05) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>O IMC foi maior nos grupos hipertensos do que nos grupos de normotensos (p = 0,02) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>Nos dois dias de experimento, os homens preferiram as amostras mais salgadas quando comparados com as mulheres (p &lt; 0,01 no primeiro experimento e p = 0,01, no segundo).</p>
        <p>Entre os volunt&#225;rios que consumiam &#225;lcool foi observada maior prefer&#234;ncia pelas amostras mais salgadas, no primeiro experimento, do que nos outros grupos de volunt&#225;rios (p = 0,04), mas essa diferen&#231;a deixou de existir quando foi acrescentado or&#233;gano &#224;s amostras (segundo experimento) (p = 0,10). Nenhuma diferen&#231;a foi observada na compara&#231;&#227;o entre fumantes e n&#227;o fumantes.</p>
        <p>Nos dois dias de experimentos, o sexo, o consumo de &#225;lcool e o tabagismo n&#227;o apontaram nenhuma diferen&#231;a nos grupos de idosos (hipertensos e normotensos), ao passo que foram observadas diferen&#231;as entre os grupos de jovens. No primeiro experimento, entre as mulheres do grupo JN predominou a prefer&#234;ncia pelas amostras com menor quantidade de sal, enquanto que entre os homens predominou a prefer&#234;ncia pelas amostras mais salgadas (p &lt; 0,01). No segundo experimento (adi&#231;&#227;o de or&#233;gano), a distribui&#231;&#227;o foi semelhante entre os sexos, com uma tend&#234;ncia n&#227;o significativa &#224; mudan&#231;a na prefer&#234;ncia por amostras menos salgadas entre os homens (p = 0,06). No grupo JH, entre aqueles indiv&#237;duos que consumiam mais &#225;lcool, predominou, no primeiro experimento, a prefer&#234;ncia pelas amostras mais salgadas e, no segundo experimento (adi&#231;&#227;o de or&#233;gano), eles passaram a preferir amostras de p&#227;o menos salgadas (p = 0,04).</p>
        <p>No primeiro dia do experimento, houve diferen&#231;a na prefer&#234;ncia entre os grupos de idosos hipertensos e normotensos (p &lt; 0,01), com uma predomin&#226;ncia na prefer&#234;ncia por amostras mais salgadas entre o grupo de idosos hipertensos, que persistiu no segundo experimento (p = 0,02).</p>
        <p>No grupo JH, foi observada maior prefer&#234;ncia por amostras com concentra&#231;&#245;es mais elevadas de sal, quando comparado com os indiv&#237;duos do grupo JN (p = 0,02), e essa diferen&#231;a persistiu no segundo experimento (p &lt; 0,01). Os grupos de idosos e JH tiveram uma distribui&#231;&#227;o semelhante no primeiro e no segundo experimentos (p = 0,27 e p = 0,25), e os grupos de idosos e JN n&#227;o mostraram diferen&#231;as na prefer&#234;ncia (p = 0,11 e p = 0,34).</p>
        <p>Ao compararmos o primeiro e o segundo experimentos, observamos altera&#231;&#245;es significativas em todos os grupos. Nos grupos de hipertensos (indiv&#237;duos jovens e idosos), predominou a prefer&#234;ncia por amostras mais salgadas no primeiro experimento (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>), ao passo que foi observada, no segundo experimento (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>), uma mudan&#231;a de prefer&#234;ncia para as amostras do p&#227;o padr&#227;o e amostras com menor concentra&#231;&#227;o de sal (p &lt; 0,01para o grupo de idosos hipertensos e 0,04 para o grupo JH). No grupo de volunt&#225;rios IN, no primeiro experimento, a prefer&#234;ncia mais comum foi pelas amostras de p&#227;o padr&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>), ao passo que foi observada uma prefer&#234;ncia pela amostra com menor concentra&#231;&#227;o de sal no segundo experimento (com a adi&#231;&#227;o de or&#233;gano) (p &lt; 0,01) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref>). No primeiro experimento, os indiv&#237;duos do grupo JN preferiram as amostras com menor concentra&#231;&#227;o de sal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>), sendo observado um aumento dessa prefer&#234;ncia no segundo experimento (p = 0,03) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref>). O or&#233;gano parece influir na capacidade de distin&#231;&#227;o de sabores, pois o n&#250;mero total de volunt&#225;rios que n&#227;o percebeu diferen&#231;as entre as amostras subiu de 3 (3,13%) para 18 (15,25%), com p &lt; 0,001.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Distribui&#231;&#227;o da prefer&#234;ncia pelas amostras de p&#227;o entre os volunt&#225;rios hipertensos no primeiro experimento, sem a adi&#231;&#227;o de or&#233;gano. 0: n&#227;o percebeu a diferen&#231;a; 1: preferiu a amostra com 1,5% de sal; 2: preferiram a amostra com 2,0% de sal; 3: preferiram a amostra com 2,7% de sal.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0392-90157-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Distribui&#231;&#227;o da prefer&#234;ncia pelas amostras de p&#227;o entre os volunt&#225;rios normotensos no primeiro experimento, sem a adi&#231;&#227;o de or&#233;gano. 0: n&#227;o percebeu a diferen&#231;a; 1: preferiu a amostra com 1,5% sal; 2: preferiram a amostra com 2,0% de sal; 3: preferiram a amostra com 2.7% de sal.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0392-90157-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f7">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Distribui&#231;&#227;o da prefer&#234;ncia pelas amostras de p&#227;o entre os volunt&#225;rios hipertensos no segundo experimento, com a adi&#231;&#227;o de or&#233;gano. 0: n&#227;o percebeu a diferen&#231;a; 1: preferiu a amostra com 1.5% de sal; 2: preferiram a amostra com 2,0% de sal; 3: preferiram amostra com 2,7% de sal.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0392-90157-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f8">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Distribui&#231;&#227;o da prefer&#234;ncia pelas amostras de p&#227;o entre os volunt&#225;rios normotensos no segundo experimento, com a adi&#231;&#227;o de or&#233;gano. 0: n&#227;o percebeu a diferen&#231;a; 1: preferiu a amostra com 1,5% de sal; 2: preferiram a amostra com 2,0% de sal; 3: preferiram a amostra com 2,7% de sal.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-03-0392-90157-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>N&#243;s encontramos uma evidente predomin&#226;ncia de prefer&#234;ncia ao sal nos participantes hipertensos em compara&#231;&#227;o com os grupos de n&#227;o hipertensos. Neste estudo, foi realizada uma an&#225;lise sensorial para investigar a prefer&#234;ncia ao sal atrav&#233;s de um m&#233;todo semelhante &#224;quele empregado por Shepherd et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> que compararam a prefer&#234;ncia de indiv&#237;duos hipertensos por amostras de sopa com tr&#234;s concentra&#231;&#245;es de sal diferentes. No referido estudo, predominou a prefer&#234;ncia pela amostra com menor concentra&#231;&#227;o de sal, em compara&#231;&#227;o com o que foi obsevado no presente estudo. Entretanto, todos os participantes do estudo Shepherd eram hipertensos, e n&#227;o foi feita compara&#231;&#227;o com indiv&#237;duos normotensos.</p>
        <p>A prefer&#234;ncia por maior ingest&#227;o de sal pode ser causada por fatores fisiol&#243;gicos, gen&#233;ticos e psicol&#243;gicos e por altera&#231;&#245;es que ocorrem ao longo do desenvolvimento humano.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> H&#225; evid&#234;ncias que indicam que o gosto do sal &#233; inerentemente atrativo para os seres humanos, uma vez que torna os alimentos mais palat&#225;veis quando comparados com os mesmos alimentos sem sal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>No tocante &#224; idade, n&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as na prefer&#234;ncia por amostras de sal e na ingest&#227;o de sal. O mesmo resultado foi relatado por Khadeja e Leshen,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> que compararam o apetite de idosos por sal (65-85) e indiv&#237;duos de meia-idade (45-58) para determinar poss&#237;veis altera&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; idade. Para calcular o apetite por sal, foi realizado um teste com os participantes para determinar a prefer&#234;ncia de quantidade de sal acrescida &#224; sopa e, em seguida, foi feito um teste com sprays orais de NaCl. Entre os testes de degusta&#231;&#227;o, os participantes foram entrevistados para completarem um questin&#225;rio sobre prefer&#234;ncias por alimentos e temperos. Os autores n&#227;o encontraram diferen&#231;as evidentes em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; prefer&#234;ncia ao sal entre os participantes idosos e os participantes de meia-idade.</p>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao sexo, os homens geralmente preferiram mais sal do que as mulheres.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> &#201; bem estabelecido que a ingest&#227;o de sal &#233; menor nas mulheres em fun&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica absoluta mais baixa e que as mulheres adicionam menor quantidade de sal &#224; sopa do que os homens.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> O presente estudo tamb&#233;m mostrou um maior consumo de sal por parte dos homens.</p>
        <p>As vari&#225;veis que influenciaram significamente a prefer&#234;ncia por amostras de p&#227;o mais salgado foram a presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o, o sexo masculino e o consumo de &#225;lcool. Elas se mantiveram at&#233; mesmo ap&#243;s a adi&#231;&#227;o de or&#233;gano, exceto pelos indiv&#237;duos que mais consomem &#225;lcool, dentre os quais a prefer&#234;ncia pelas amostras mais salgadas deixou de existir quando o or&#233;gano foi adicionado ao p&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Contrariando a nossa hip&#243;tese, n&#243;s n&#227;o encontramos nenhuma rela&#231;&#227;o entre a ingest&#227;o de &#225;lcool e a idade, o IMC ou o tabagismo, mas a ingest&#227;o de s&#243;dio foi significativamente maior nos volunt&#225;rios que consumiam &#225;lcool. Esses volunt&#225;rios preferiram amostras mais salgadas e tiveram uma maior excre&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de s&#243;dio na urina de 24 horas, em conson&#226;ncia com os dados apresentados por Gibson e Margaret,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> que mostraram que o alto consumo de &#225;lcool &#233; uma das principais caracter&#237;sticas dentre os maiores consumidores de sal. &#201; importante ressaltar que um dos crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o do presente estudo foi o consumo abusivo de &#225;lcool, de modo que o efeito do &#225;lcool na prefer&#234;ncia ao sal poderia ter sido subestimado se os indiv&#237;duos que consumiam mais &#225;lcool tivessem sido inclu&#237;dos. O consumo de &#225;lcool vem sendo associado com o aumento da PA e do risco de hipertens&#227;o em muitos estudos observacionais e ensaios cl&#237;nicos, demonstrando que essas associa&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o causais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Os volunt&#225;rios hipertensos tiveram uma PA m&#233;dia mais alta e maior excre&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de s&#243;dio na urina na compara&#231;&#227;o com volunt&#225;rios normotensos, em conformidade com a associa&#231;&#227;o entre o aumento da excre&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio e a eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA relatados em v&#225;rios estudos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Dessa forma, observou-se que os pacientes hipertensos apresentaram uma PA m&#233;dia mais alta, mesmo quando tratados, com uma maior prefer&#234;ncia pela ingest&#227;o de sal e com exce&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de s&#243;dio mais alta em rela&#231;&#227;o aos indiv&#237;duos normotensos.</p>
        <p>Esses resultados mostram uma correla&#231;&#227;o com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para diminui&#231;&#227;o da alta ingest&#227;o de sal na popula&#231;&#227;o como forma de prevenir e controlar os n&#237;veis adversos da PA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Apesar do pequeno percentual de fumantes inclu&#237;dos neste estudo (9,3%), n&#227;o foram identificadas diferen&#231;as significativas com rela&#231;&#227;o as suas prefer&#234;ncias. Uma pesquisa recente desenvolvida na Alemanha mostrou que o tabagismo n&#227;o apresenta risco para o comprometimento gustativo, embora as prefer&#234;ncias alimentares n&#227;o tenham sido comparadas e a m&#233;dia de idade dos indiv&#237;duos que participaram do estudo fosse 56 anos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; ingest&#227;o de pot&#225;ssio, o presente estudo encontrou um aumento na excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de pot&#225;ssio nos grupos hipertensos, ao contr&#225;rio do estudo desenvolvido por Galletti et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> que mostrou baixa excre&#231;&#227;o de pot&#225;ssio na urina de 24 horas em 1,232 italianos hipertensos, de 47 centros de volunt&#225;rios da Sociedade Italiana de Hipertens&#227;o. Estudos observacionais demonstraram uma rela&#231;&#227;o inversa entre a ingest&#227;o de pot&#225;ssio e a PA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> A excre&#231;&#227;o de eletr&#243;litos na urina de 24 horas e a PA analisadas no estudo INTERSALT<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> mostraram correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre a excre&#231;&#227;o de pot&#225;ssio e a PA. Cappuccio et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> realizaram uma meta-an&#225;lise de 19 estudos com suplementa&#231;&#227;o oral de pot&#225;ssio, envolvendo 586 participantes. Os resultados mostraram que a suplementa&#231;&#227;o oral de pot&#225;ssio reduziu significativamente tanto a PA sist&#243;lica quanto a diast&#243;lica e que as redu&#231;&#245;es da PA foram maiores entre os pacientes hipertensos do que nos indiv&#237;duos normotensos. Talvez as principais conclus&#245;es deste estudo sejam contrastantes com as de outros estudos pelo fato de os volunt&#225;rios terem sido monitorados regularmente em um centro de sa&#250;de de n&#237;vel secund&#225;rio, durante v&#225;rios anos, tendo recebido orienta&#231;&#227;o nutricional com rela&#231;&#227;o a uma dieta balanceada, rica em frutas e vegetais, e com maior ingest&#227;o de pot&#225;ssio.</p>
        <p>&#201; importante salientar que este estudo n&#227;o avaliou a ades&#227;o de longo prazo ao p&#227;o com or&#233;gano, mas apenas a prefer&#234;ncia atrav&#233;s de testes de palatabilidade em uma amostra pequena. Um ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado maior e mais longo &#233; necess&#225;rio para confirmar os benef&#237;cios de uma interven&#231;&#227;o que contribua para a redu&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o di&#225;ria de s&#243;dio, por meio da adi&#231;&#227;o de temperos aos alimentos.</p>
        <p>Os vount&#225;rios foram acompanhados em um centro p&#250;blico de sa&#250;de, n&#227;o sendo poss&#237;vel extrapolar os resultados para outras popula&#231;&#245;es.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
        <p>O presente estudo demonstrou maior prefer&#234;ncia ao sal e maior consumo de sal pelos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos em rela&#231;&#227;o aos indiv&#237;duos normotensos, independentemente da idade. A adi&#231;&#227;o de or&#233;gano aos alimentos resultou na prefer&#234;ncia pelas amostras com menores quantidades de sal, em todos os grupos, ou seja, nos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos, normotensos, jovens ou idosos. Foi observada uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre a maior prefer&#234;ncia ao sal e o sexo masculino e o consumo de &#225;lcool.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de Patr&#237;cia Teixeira Meirelles Villela pela Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 464. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
