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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Vr34J4y4DpkZSjynPQYrSKd</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2019000800274</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20190144</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Importance of Genetic Testing in Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Applications and Challenges in Clinical Practice</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lamounier</surname>
            <given-names>Arsonval</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6929-8392</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferrari</surname>
            <given-names>Filipe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Max</surname>
            <given-names>Renato</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">5</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9320-7999</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ritt</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Eduardo Fonteles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">6</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">7</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2357-5176</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stein</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Health in Code S.L.</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Scientific Department</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>A Coru&#241;a</city>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="ES">Spain</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Health in Code S.L., Scientific Department, A Coru&#241;a - Spain</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade da Coru&#241;a</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">GRINCAR (Cardiovascular Research Group)</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>A Coru&#241;a</city>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="ES">Spain</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade da Coru&#241;a, GRINCAR (Cardiovascular Research Group), A Coru&#241;a - Spain</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Graduate Program in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Sciences</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Graduate Program in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Sciences, Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Exercise Cardiology Research Group (CardioEx)</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Exercise Cardiology Research Group (CardioEx), Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Onofre Lopes</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Natal</city>
          <state>RN</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Onofre Lopes, Natal, RN - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Salvador</city>
          <state>BA</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica, Salvador, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital C&#225;rdio Pulmonar</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Salvador</city>
          <state>BA</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital C&#225;rdio Pulmonar, Salvador, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Ricardo Stein,</bold> Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Rua Jo&#227;o Caetano, 20 Apt 402. Postal Code 90040-060, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil. E-mail: <email>rstein@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Lamounier J&#250;nior A, Stein R; Acquisition of data and Analysis and interpretation of the data: Lamounier J&#250;nior A, Ferrari F, Stein R; Obtaining financing: Stein R; Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Lamounier J&#250;nior A, Ferrari F, Max R, Ritt LEF, Stein R.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>02</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>113</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>274</fpage>
      <lpage>281</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>10</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a clinical syndrome characterized by left ventricular dilatation and contractile dysfunction. It is the most common cause of heart failure in young adults. The advent of next-generation sequencing has contributed to the discovery of a large amount of genomic data related to DCM. Mutations involving genes that encode cytoskeletal proteins, the sarcomere, and ion channels account for approximately 40% of cases previously classified as idiopathic DCM. In this scenario, geneticists and cardiovascular genetics specialists have begun to work together, building knowledge and establishing more accurate diagnoses. However, proper interpretation of genetic results is essential and multidisciplinary teams dedicated to the management and analysis of the obtained information should be considered. In this review, we approach genetic factors associated with DCM and their prognostic relevance and discuss how the use of genetic testing, when well recommended, can help cardiologists in the decision-making process.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/genetics</kwd>
        <kwd>Ventricular Dysfunction, Left</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Genetic Testing/methods</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Transplantation</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Primary cardiomyopathies (PCMs) are a heterogeneous group composed predominantly by genetic diseases associated with pathological alterations of myocardial structure and function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> These diseases often progress to heart failure (HF), with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) being the main indication for heart transplantation (HTx).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Currently, the prevalence of idiopathic DCM is estimated at around 1 case per 2,500 population, but authors such as Hershberger et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> describe a frequency ten times greater.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Particularly in the last two decades, a greater understanding on the etiology and clinical course of many of these diseases has been achieved.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> This has been possible by substantial advances in the use of genetic diagnosis at cardiomyopathy clinics and research centers around the world.</p>
      <p>Traditionally, DCM is defined as dilatation of the left ventricle or both ventricles, with consequent impairment in myocardial contractility, in the absence of abnormal overload and/or ischemic heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> However, this syndrome can encompass a wide range of genetic and acquired disorders that can be expressed to a greater or lesser impact over the patient&#8217;s life course. Some individuals with specific mutations detected in the early DCM-stages may present intermediate phenotypes that do not meet the classical definition of the disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> For this reason, the formulation of some concepts that define subgroups of patients with this syndrome would be relevant, such as the case of hypokinetic non-DCM,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> where systolic dysfunction may occur without left ventricular dilatation. In fact, the observed clinical heterogeneity is the partial reflex of the various genes related to sarcomere proteins, cytoskeleton, intercellular connections, the cell membrane, and ion channels (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> which have been implicated in DCM. Many of these genes have been also associated with other forms of cardiomyopathies (left ventricle non-compaction [LVNC], arrhythmogenic, hypertrophic, and restrictive), and the prevalence of pathogenic variants in each of these genes is distinct for each disorder.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Mutations with pathogenic potential are identified in up to 40% of cases described as idiopathic DCM, depending on the cohort.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Indeed, it has been suggested that genetic testing would have a higher yield (up to 70%) in cohorts of patients with idiopathic DCM already waitlisted for HTx.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
			</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Main genes associated with dilated cardiomyopathy</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="13%"/>
            <col width="21%"/>
            <col width="12%"/>
            <col width="16%"/>
            <col width="12%"/>
            <col width="12%"/>
            <col width="12%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Gene</th>
              <th align="center">Protein</th>
              <th align="center">Estimated<break/>contribution</th>
              <th align="center">Association with other<break/>cardiomyopathies</th>
              <th align="center">Other phenotypes</th>
              <th align="center">Inheritance</th>
              <th align="center">Level of<break/>evidence<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
							</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Sarcomere</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">TTN</td>
              <td align="center">Titin</td>
              <td align="center">18-25%</td>
              <td align="center">LVNC</td>
              <td align="center">Myopathies</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">TNNT2</td>
              <td align="center">Troponin T type 2</td>
              <td align="center">2-3%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM, LVNC</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">TNNI3</td>
              <td align="center">Troponin I3, cardiac type</td>
              <td align="center">1-2%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM, RCM</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">AR</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">TPM1</td>
              <td align="center">Tropomyosin 1</td>
              <td align="center">1-2%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM, LVNC</td>
              <td align="center">Congenital heart disease</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">MYH7</td>
              <td align="center">Miosina-7 (beta-myosin heavy chain)</td>
              <td align="center">3-5%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM, LVNC</td>
              <td align="center">Myopathies</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">MYBPC3</td>
              <td align="center">Myosin-binding protein C</td>
              <td align="center">2%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM, LVNC</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">BAG3</td>
              <td align="center">Bcl-2-associated athanogene 3</td>
              <td align="center">2%</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">Myofibrillar myopathy</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ACTC1</td>
              <td align="center">Actin alpha cardiac muscle 1</td>
              <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM, LVNC</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Cytoskeleton</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ACTN2</td>
              <td align="center">Actin alpha cardiac muscle 2</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM</td>
              <td align="center">Congenital heart disease</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">2</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">FLNC</td>
              <td align="center">Filamin C</td>
              <td align="center">2.2%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM, RCM</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LDB3</td>
              <td align="center">LIM domain binding 3</td>
              <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
              <td align="center">NA</td>
              <td align="center">Myofibrillar myopathy</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">2</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ANKRD1</td>
              <td align="center">Ankyrin repeat domain 1</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM</td>
              <td align="center">Congenital heart disease</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">3</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">VCL</td>
              <td align="center">Vinculin</td>
              <td align="center">1%</td>
              <td align="center">NA</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">3</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">JUP</td>
              <td align="center">Junction plakoglobin</td>
              <td align="center">1 %</td>
              <td align="center">ACM</td>
              <td align="center">Naxos disease</td>
              <td align="center">AD/AR</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">DMD</td>
              <td align="center">Dystrophin</td>
              <td align="center">1%</td>
              <td align="center">NA</td>
              <td align="center">Duchenne and Becker<break/>muscular dystrophy</td>
              <td align="center">X-linked</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">DES</td>
              <td align="center">Desmin</td>
              <td align="center">1-2%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM, RCM</td>
              <td align="center">Myofibrillar myopathy</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Cell Membrane</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LMNA</td>
              <td align="center">Lamin A/C</td>
              <td align="center">5-10%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM</td>
              <td align="center">Muscle myopathies,<break/>lipodystrophies, progeria</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">EMD</td>
              <td align="center">Emerin</td>
              <td align="center">NA</td>
              <td align="center">ACM</td>
              <td align="center">Emery-Dreifuss muscular<break/>dystrophy</td>
              <td align="center">X-linked</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Ion Channels</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">SCN5A</td>
              <td align="center">Sodium voltage-gated channel alpha<break/>subunit 5</td>
              <td align="center">2-3%</td>
              <td align="center">LVNC</td>
              <td align="center">Brugada syndrome/LQTS</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ABCC9</td>
              <td align="center">ATP binding cassette subfamily C<break/>member 9</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">Osteochondrodysplasia</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">3</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Desmosome</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">DSC2</td>
              <td align="center">Desmoscollin-2</td>
              <td align="center">1-2%</td>
              <td align="center">ACM</td>
              <td align="center">Palmoplantar<break/>keratoderma</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">DSG2</td>
              <td align="center">Desmoglein 2</td>
              <td align="center">1-2%</td>
              <td align="center">ACM</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">AD/digenic</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">DSP</td>
              <td align="center">Desmoplakin</td>
              <td align="center">3%</td>
              <td align="center">ACM</td>
              <td align="center">Carvajal syndrome</td>
              <td align="center">AR</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">PKP2</td>
              <td align="center">Plakophilin 2</td>
              <td align="center">&lt;5%</td>
              <td align="center">ACM</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Lysosome</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LAMP2</td>
              <td align="center">Lysosome-associated membrane<break/>protein 2</td>
              <td align="center">4%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM</td>
              <td align="center">Danon disease</td>
              <td align="center">X-linked</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Sarcoplasmic</bold>
                <break/>
                <bold>Reticulum</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">PNL</td>
              <td align="center">Phospholamban</td>
              <td align="center">1%</td>
              <td align="center">HCM, ACM</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">RYR2</td>
              <td align="center">Ryanodine receptor 2</td>
              <td align="center">NA</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">CPVT</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">2</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">RBM20</td>
              <td align="center">RNA binding motif protein 20</td>
              <td align="center">2%</td>
              <td align="center">LVNC</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">AD</td>
              <td align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <p>
              <italic>HCM: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; RCM: restrictive cardiomyopathy; LVNC: Left ventricle non-compaction cardiomyopathy; ACM: arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy; CPVT: catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia; LQTS: long QT syndrome; NA: not available; AD: autosomal dominant; AR: autosomal recessive.</italic>
            </p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN2">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>
              <italic>The genes were classified according to three levels.</italic>
            </p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN3">
            <p>
              <italic>Level 1: Multiple studies, variants and families reported and cosegregation with established disease. Level 2: Single or few studies, variants and families reported and limited cosegregation observed. Level 3: Single or few studies, variants and families reported and unestablished cosegregation.</italic>
            </p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>In the last decade, recommendations for the use of genetic testing in familial DCM have been established by respective guidelines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Genetic testing can help in the management of patients and their relatives, as well as optimize the risk stratification. Careful clinical evaluation, a thorough family history, and the results of genetic testing are the cornerstones of this approach. Considering the incipient use of genetics in DCM management in Brazil, the aim of this review is to present and discuss the importance of molecular testing in the DCM spectrum.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Methods for genetic diagnosis in dilated cardiomyopathy</title>
        <p>The use of next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms has enabled two approaches for the genetic diagnosis of DCM:</p>
        <p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Whole-exome sequencing: this approach covers &#8220;all&#8221; exons and flanking regions of the human genome (in practice, it considers only those genes for which correlated clinical information already exists). Exome sequencing has been more used in applied clinical research, resulting in the discovery of new genes potentially associated with DCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> These &#8220;new&#8221; genes are also called candidate genes because the level of evidence supporting its pathogenic potential is still low or uncertain. It would result in a greater number of unknown clinical significance variants;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Targeted NGS: NGS panels sequence a certain number of genes for which there is higher evidence of a causal association with DCM (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> The large volume of cases already described in carriers of pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants in these genes raised useful information for clinical decision-making;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> it is important to emphasize that most of the mutations reported in DCM are exclusive to a single family, which leads to barriers in the interpretation of the genetic data. Therefore, integration of clinical manifestations and family history is essential in the decision-making process.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> There are around a hundred genes associated with DCM, with different levels of evidence for their associations. Furthermore, it bears stressing that the presence of a genetic mutation does not always mean that the disease will develop.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> The best-documented genes are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </p>
        <p>In recent years, the increasingly widespread use of NGS panels has allowed the identification of a significant number of individuals with variants in the same gene. This population has been enabling relevant clinical descriptions in DCM, as in the most recent studies addressing different genes (<italic>TTN</italic>, <italic>LMNA</italic>, <italic>FLNC</italic>, or <italic>BAG3</italic>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Cosegregation of variants in these genes has been demonstrated as disease-causing in multiple DCM-families, and the ever-increasing number of identified carriers has enabled genotype-phenotype correlation analyses on the prognosis of the disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Briefly, genetic testing through the aforementioned techniques can help cardiologists in three important clinical scenarios:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>familial management;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>etiological definition and;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>assertive risk stratification.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Importance of family screening in dilated cardiomyopathy</title>
        <p>A cohort study with advanced HF patients waiting in the transplant list shows that the diagnosis of familial DCM (FDCM) was systematically neglected.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> The mere use of the pedigree tool increased the prevalence of this diagnosis from 4.1%to 26%. Prospective cohorts have since found that 25 to 40% of non-ischemic DCM cases are in fact familial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> drawing attention to the hereditary component of this syndrome, as well as to the importance of early detection and treatment of affected relatives. In this context, pedigree with at least three generations and the use of genetic testing is strongly recommended.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The identification of a pathogenic or a likely pathogenic variant in an index case (proband) allows the entire family of the patient may benefit from genetic screening.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> This is particularly useful in cases where clinical evaluation alone has not been able to establish the diagnosis in a relative.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> In addition, the early identification of a family member carrier who is asymptomatic, or in the subclinical phase of the disease, may be particularly relevant when genetic testing reveals etiologies with greater arrhythmogenic potential or known to evolve faster.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Moreover, in this scenario, it would be possible to apply measures to delay disease progression or even avert a fulminant outcome. On the other hand, regular follow-up of the index case's relatives that are identified as non-carriers of a pathogenic variant is not recommended;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> this avoids unnecessary health expenditures and prevents additional psychological stress to the patient/family.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Etiological definition and associated prognosis</title>
        <p><bold>TTN truncating variants</bold>: a milestone in knowledge about the role of genetics in DCM was a study by Herman et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> In this publication, titin-truncating variants (TTNtv) were identified in 25% of cases of FDCM and in 18% of sporadic DCM-cases. These prevalence were obtained across three different cohorts, with a frequency of TTNtv between 8 and 40%. It is worth noting that higher frequencies were observed in subjects undergoing HTx or with severe systolic dysfunction. Since then, other studies have sought to ascertain the natural history of DCM by assessing TTNtv patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> No difference was observed in the incidence of outcomes among affected carriers vs. non-carriers,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> as there was no difference in mesocardial fibrosis between these groups.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> However, males with TTNtv manifested the disease at younger ages than female carries (78% vs. 30% of women at age 40).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Other authors have identified that affected TTNtv carriers would have an earlier outcome event (death from any cause, waiting for HTx, or requiring a ventricular-assist device) than non-carriers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> In this same line, male carriers had a lower survival rate (28% of men had a cardiovascular event vs. 8% of women before age 50), considering the outcomes death by HF, HTx, or use of a ventricular assist device.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In a robust sample (n = 558), a high incidence of cardiovascular death starting at age 40 years was observed in patients with TTNtv.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> In this cohort, the incidence of cardiovascular events was again higher in men than in women &#8220;(1.25% vs. 0.75%/year between the ages of 40-60), with sudden cardiac death being the most frequent outcome. In addition, several publications have described a high incidence of atrial fibrillation, as well as sustained and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia, in these patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Although according to the literature, the presence of TTNtv is associated with early onset of arrhythmic manifestations, it has not yet been possible to define a characteristic phenotype for these patients, unlike for patients with mutations in other DCM-related genes. Moreover, it has been proposed that TTNtv may be acting as a susceptibility genetic substrate to different DCM-types (anthracycline-induced, peripartum, and alcoholic).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Finally, patients with titin cardiomyopathy appear to have a more favorable clinical course and respond better to drug therapy than those affected by variants in the lamin (<italic>LMNA</italic>) gene.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>
				</p>
        <p><bold>Lamin</bold>: <italic>LMNA</italic> pathogenic variants produce a well-characterized DCM phenotype associated with conduction disease/malignant arrhythmias, also called cardiolaminopathies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Phenotypic expression have been described as a progressive atrioventricular conduction disease which usually precedes ventricular dysfunction and/or ventricular arrhythmias, although ventricular or supraventricular arrhythmias (especially atrial fibrillation) may be identified as the first manifestation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Diagnosis is usually established after age 20, with high penetrance (&gt;90%) after 40 years.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Once the first symptoms have manifested, cardiolaminopathies can progress to advanced HF faster than primary DCM of other etiologies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><italic>LMNA</italic> mutations prevalence ranges from 5-10% in FDCM cohorts and 2-5% in sporadic cases, accounting for up to 30% of the DCM-cases associated with conduction disease/arrhythmias. Their prevalence is lower in cases of isolated DCM (non-arrhythmic).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Between 2013 and 2015, Hasselberg et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> identified a 6% prevalence of <italic>LMNA</italic> gene mutations in a cohort of 79 Norwegians young with FDCM. A particularly high proportion of carriers (19%) required HTx. In another study, 122 affected <italic>LMNA</italic> carriers were followed for seven years; 27 progressed to terminal DCM or death. It is worth noting that, in this same cohort, asymptomatic carriers had a 9% annual incidence of any documented cardiac event over 4 years of follow-up.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> These findings suggest a significant unfavorable prognosis and faster progression to HTx/death than in DCMs with other etiologies.</p>
        <p>These clinical and epidemiological profile supports the recommendations for genetic testing of patients with non-ischemic DCM. Furthermore, an early implant of a cardioverter/defibrillator (ICD) should be considered when a <italic>LMNA</italic> pathogenic variant is identified (Class of recommendation IIa, level of evidence B) in a patient with risk factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Based on the study published in 2012 that enrolled 269 patients with cardiolaminopathy, the risk of cardiac events is highest when the patient has two or more of these risk criteria at the time of diagnosis: 1) non-sustained ventricular tachycardia; 2) left ventricular ejection fraction &lt;45%; 3) male sex; and 4) a truncating-type variant.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Since then, other authors have proposed that not only truncating variants but also missense-type genetic variants, would be relevant due to the potential for sudden death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Finally, a new risk score for patients with DCM associated with <italic>LMNA</italic> variants should be published soon. We hope that it will increase the accuracy of risk stratification in these patients.</p>
        <p><bold>Other genes</bold>: Some sarcomere genes more often associated with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) may also cause DCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> The beta-myosin heavy chain (<italic>MYH7</italic>), troponin T (<italic>TNNT2</italic>), and tropomyosin (<italic>TPM1</italic>) sarcomere genes are those for which associated prognostic information is available. Depending on the location of the genetic variant in the <italic>MYH7</italic> gene, the natural history may be particularly severe, similarly to that observed occurs in cases of DCM caused by <italic>TNNT2</italic> mutations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><italic>TPM1</italic> variants cause less than 1% of DCM cases but account for a significant portion of pediatric forms of this disease, in which rapid progression to death or HTx is not uncommon.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> A meta-analysis of nearly 8,100 patients evaluated genotype-phenotype correlations of DCM with the <italic>TTN</italic> and <italic>LMNA</italic> genes, as well as genes encoding sarcomere proteins such as myosin-binding protein C (<italic>MYBPC3</italic>), <italic>MYH7</italic>, <italic>TNNT2</italic>, troponin I (<italic>TNNI3</italic>), RNA-binding protein 20 (<italic>RBM20</italic>), and phospholamban (<italic>PLN</italic>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> A significantly higher frequency of HTx was observed in patients with <italic>LMNA</italic> mutations (27%) than for carriers of <italic>RBM20</italic> and <italic>MYBPC3</italic>mutations (~10% each). Across the different genes examined, those affected were predominantly male (79% for <italic>MYBPC3</italic> mutations and 69% for <italic>LMNA</italic> and <italic>MYH7</italic> variants), except for <italic>PLN</italic> mutations (46% men).</p>
        <p>More recently, the filamin C (<italic>FLNC</italic>) and Bcl-2-associated athanogene 3 (<italic>BAG3</italic>) genes have had their role in the DCM natural history characterized in high-impact publications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref><italic>FLNC</italic> was associated with a more arrhythmogenic profile, and <italic>BAG3</italic>, with a greater number of HF-related events. <italic>FLNC</italic> truncating variants were found cosegregating in 28 affected families with a particular form of arrhythmogenic/DCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> The most prevalent clinical features were ventricular dilatation (68%), systolic dysfunction (46%), and myocardial fibrosis (67%). Ventricular arrhythmias were documented in 82% of the patients, and cases of sudden death were reported in 21/28 families. Another study identified <italic>FLNC</italic> truncation variants in 2.2% of DCM-patients, 85% of whom had ventricular arrhythmias and/or sudden death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> Additional right-heart involvement was reported in 38% of the cases. Thus, early ICD implantation could be considered in these patients, even when they do not meet the criteria established in current DCM guidelines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In recent years, several isolated BAG3 reports have been described in DCM-families.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> In a meaningful way, BAG3 associated phenotype was recently defined with data from a cohort of 129 carriers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> After a mean follow-up of 38 months, the number of carriers affected with DCM raised from 57% to 68%. It represents 26% of the carriers who initially had a negative phenotype but manifested the disease. Considering carriers over the age of 40, 80% were phenotype-positive. In this sample, the incidence of cardiac events in carriers of <italic>BAG3</italic> variants with DCM was 5.1% per year (outcomes: sustained ventricular tachycardia, sudden death, HF death, need for ventricular assist device and HTx), with a predominance of HF-events versus a lower number of arrhythmic outcomes. Male patients, those with systolic dysfunction, or increased ventricular diameter had the highest incidence of events during the follow-up.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Based on these findings, variants of the <italic>BAG3</italic> gene do not appear to be related to a need for early ICD implantation, unlike <italic>FLNC</italic> mutations.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Genetic heterogeneity and overlapping phenotype</title>
        <p>Many of the genes described as disease-causing in patients with DCM are also associated with the development of other forms of PCMs (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). This fact may result in the presence of more than one phenotype in the same pedigree or overlapping phenotypes in the same individual, as occurs, for example, with LVNC and DCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In a cohort of 95 patients with LVNC (68 unrelated individuals and 27 relatives, 23% of cases familial), a genetic variant was identified in 38% of the cases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> The most frequent genes were <italic>TTN</italic>, <italic>LMNA</italic>, and <italic>MYBPC3</italic>; one family was affected by a <italic>RBM20</italic> mutation. In this family, three generations were affected on the maternal side, and the index case underwent to HTx at the age of 21 (3 years after diagnosis). The number of major cardiovascular events in this cohort was significantly higher in patients with LVNC than those probands with non-ischemic DCM of known etiology. Approximately 10% of the patients with LVNC required HTx vs. 2.8% in the non-ischemic DCM group.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> One of the families with LVNC in this cohort was found carrying a <italic>MYH7</italic> gene variant which has been associated in different studies with malignant-HCM. Although the affected individuals did not meet definitive criteria for HCM, several had an appreciable increase in myocardial wall thickness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> This should draw the attention of cardiologists to the phenotypic heterogeneity of PCMs, as well as to the need to bear in mind what an etiological diagnosis can represent in terms of the natural history of the disease.</p>
        <p>Genes usually related to arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM) may produce indistinguishable clinical phenotype from those with DCM. Patients affected by desmoplakin (<italic>DSP</italic>) or <italic>FLNC</italic> truncating variants, for instance, may be affected by a form of ACM with exclusive left ventricle involvement.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> There are several reports of DCM-patients affected by mutations in desmosomal genes that do not fulfil any (or only some) of the arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia diagnostic criteria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In a study of 89 unrelated end-stage DCM patients requiring HTx, screening of the five most common desmosomal genes (<italic>PKP2</italic>, <italic>DSP</italic>, <italic>JUP</italic>, <italic>DSC2</italic>, <italic>DSG2</italic>) identified genetic variants in 18% of the probands.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Genetic testing in relatives identified additionally 38 carriers, including some with subclinical DCM. Histopathological analysis of explanted hearts was heterogeneous; some cases showed fibro-fatty infiltration of the right ventricle, some of the left ventricle, and some had no observable fibro-fatty replacement.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Final considerations</title>
        <p>In view of the foregoing, we conclude that the PCMs, particularly the dilated form (DCM), reflect a complex, highly heterogeneous syndrome of challenging diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. In this scenario, molecular NGS diagnosis can be a very useful tool for clinical cardiologists practice. Although still incipient in Brazil, the use of genetic testing in DCM and HTx services should be considered, since etiological diagnosis often allows a more assertive clinical management and risk stratification. Moreover, clinical and genetic screening of patients' relatives with these conditions is somewhat neglected, although it is a recommended approach. In this way, cardiomyopathy units and HTx services, as well as correlated research groups, should address this topic more incisively and focus on disseminating knowledge among health professionals and in the society as a whole.</p>
        <p>Despite its potential benefits, the limitations of genetic testing should not be overlooked. The possible psychological impact of the genetic testing results on patients and their families should be anticipated and discussed. In addition, genetic testing cannot determine whether the proband will develop symptoms, as well as the severity of these potential symptoms.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Finally, we illustrate the present article with a clinical case from our practice in which genetic testing was part of the clinical evaluation.</p>
        <p><bold>Clinical case:</bold> A 30-year-old male was hospitalized due to congestive HF (NYHA functional class III). After 1 year of occasional palpitations, a diagnosis of DCM was established. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, which revealed diffuse hypokinesis, left ventricular dysfunction (left ventricular ejection fraction, 46%), and diffuse mesoepicardial fibrosis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Comparison with a previous echocardiogram performed two years latter suggested a rapid clinical progression (left ventricular ejection fraction, 32%); systolic and diastolic diameters, 49 and 58 mm, respectively; left atrial diameter, 44 mm. Echocardiogram showed atrial fibrillation and the coronary angiography did not reveal any evidence of coronary heart disease. Taking into consideration, the severity of the case and a positive family history of sudden death (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>), genetic testing was performed (NGS panel for DCM). A <italic>LMNA</italic> p.Leu176Pro variant was identified, providing etiological confirmation for familial DCM. Based on these findings an ICD was implanted for primary prevention, despite of the left ventricular ejection fraction &gt; 30%. Consistent with descriptions in the literature, cardiolaminopathy of the patient did not respond adequately to optimized clinical treatment and progressed rapidly to HTx. One year later, the patient developed anasarca and was hospitalized again, requiring positive inotropic supporting with intravenous agents. HTx was performed 2 months later. The patient&#8217;s children (both under 10 years of age) were apparently healthy. As the mean age of diagnosis of <italic>LMNA</italic> gene carriers is from the third decade of life onward, ethical recommendations for genetic testing in underage relatives were followed, respecting the appropriate age for genetic counseling.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> However, it is important to mention that cases of children affected by <italic>LMNA</italic> cardiomyopathy have been reported rarely, which should call into question the current expectant management of young children of patients with cardiolaminopathies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging showing extensive and diffuse area of mesocardial fibrosis.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-02-0274-90144-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Index case heredogram showing involvement in first, second and third degree relatives. AF: atrial fibrillation.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-02-0274-90144-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Filipe Ferrari, from Graduate Program in Cardiology and Cardiovascular Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Import&#226;ncia do Teste Gen&#233;tico na Miocardiopatia Dilatada: Aplica&#231;&#245;es e Desafios na Pr&#225;tica Cl&#237;nica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lamounier</surname>
            <given-names>Arsonval</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6929-8392</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferrari</surname>
            <given-names>Filipe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">4</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Max</surname>
            <given-names>Renato</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">5</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9320-7999</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ritt</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Eduardo Fonteles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">6</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">7</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2357-5176</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stein</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">4</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Health in Code S.L., Scientific Department, A Coru&#241;a - Espanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade da Coru&#241;a, GRINCAR (Cardiovascular Research Group), A Coru&#241;a - Espanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo de Pesquisa em Cardiologia do Exerc&#237;cio (CardioEx) - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA) - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Onofre Lopes, Natal, RN - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica, Salvador, BA - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital C&#225;rdio Pulmonar, Salvador, BA - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Ricardo Stein,</bold> Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Rua Jo&#227;o Caetano, 20 Apt 402. CEP 90040-060, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil. E-mail: <email>rstein@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Lamounier J&#250;nior A, Stein R; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Lamounier J&#250;nior A, Ferrari F, Stein R; Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Stein R; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Lamounier J&#250;nior A, Ferrari F, Max R, Ritt LEF, Stein R.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A miocardiopatia dilatada (MCD) &#233; uma s&#237;ndrome caracterizada por dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e disfun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til, sendo considerada a causa mais comum de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em adultos jovens. O uso do sequenciamento de nova gera&#231;&#227;o tem contribu&#237;do com a descoberta de uma grande quantidade de dados gen&#244;micos relacionados &#224; MCD, identificando muta&#231;&#245;es que envolvem genes que codificam prote&#237;nas do citoesqueleto, sarc&#244;mero e canais i&#244;nicos, os quais s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por aproximadamente 40% dos casos classificados como MCD idiop&#225;tica. Nesse cen&#225;rio, geneticistas e especialistas em gen&#233;tica cardiovascular passaram a atuar em conjunto, agregando conhecimento e estabelecendo diagn&#243;sticos mais precisos. No entanto, &#233; fundamental interpretar corretamente os resultados gen&#233;ticos, sendo necess&#225;rio criar e fomentar equipes multidisciplinares dedicadas &#224; gest&#227;o e an&#225;lise das informa&#231;&#245;es coletadas. Nesta revis&#227;o, abordamos os fatores gen&#233;ticos associados &#224; MCD, aspectos progn&#243;sticos, al&#233;m de discutirmos como o emprego dos testes gen&#233;ticos, quando bem indicados, pode ser &#250;til na tomada de decis&#227;o na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica dos cardiologistas.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Dilatada/gen&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular Esquerda</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Testes Gen&#233;ticos/m&#233;todos</kwd>
        <kwd>Transplante de Cora&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>As miocardiopatias prim&#225;rias (MCP) s&#227;o um grupo heterog&#234;neo de doen&#231;as predominantemente gen&#233;ticas que podem apresentar altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais e funcionais patol&#243;gicas do mioc&#225;rdico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Estas doen&#231;as evoluem para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) com frequ&#234;ncia, sendo a miocardiopatia dilatada (MCD) a principal indica&#231;&#227;o de transplante card&#237;aco (TxC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Atualmente, estima-se que a preval&#234;ncia da MCD idiop&#225;tica seja em torno de 1 caso para cada 2.500 indiv&#237;duos, mas autores como Hershberger et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> descrevem uma frequ&#234;ncia dez vezes maior.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Particularmente nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas obteve-se maior compreens&#227;o sobre a etiologia e o curso cl&#237;nico de muitas destas doen&#231;as.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Este cen&#225;rio foi proporcionado por avan&#231;os substanciais no emprego do diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico em servi&#231;os de miocardiopatia e centros de pesquisa por todo o mundo. </p>
        <p>Tradicionalmente, a MCD &#233; definida como dilata&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) ou de ambos, com consequente preju&#237;zo no desempenho contr&#225;til do m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco, na aus&#234;ncia de condi&#231;&#245;es anormais de sobrecarga e/ou doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Entretanto, essa s&#237;ndrome pode englobar uma diversidade de dist&#250;rbios gen&#233;ticos e adquiridos que podem se expressar mais ou menos com o passar dos anos. Nesse particular, alguns indiv&#237;duos portadores de muta&#231;&#245;es e tamb&#233;m diagnosticados em est&#225;gios iniciais de MCD podem apresentar fen&#243;tipos intermedi&#225;rios que n&#227;o atendem &#224;s cl&#225;ssicas defini&#231;&#245;es da doen&#231;a, criando, assim, limita&#231;&#245;es que dificultam o diagn&#243;stico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Por esta raz&#227;o, a reformula&#231;&#227;o de alguns conceitos que definem subgrupos de pacientes com esta s&#237;ndrome torna-se importante, como &#233; o caso da MCP hipocin&#233;tica n&#227;o dilatada,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> onde a disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica pode n&#227;o estar associada &#224; dilata&#231;&#227;o do VE.</p>
        <p>De fato, a heterogeneidade cl&#237;nica observada &#233; em parte reflexo dos diversos genes relacionados &#224;s prote&#237;nas do sarc&#244;mero, citoesqueleto, uni&#245;es intercelulares, membrana celular e canais i&#244;nicos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> que t&#234;m sido associados &#224;s MCD. Muitos destes genes tamb&#233;m est&#227;o associados a outras formas de MCP (n&#227;o compactada, arritmog&#234;nica, hipertr&#243;fica e restritiva), sendo distinta a preval&#234;ncia de variantes patog&#234;nicas em cada um destes genes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Muta&#231;&#245;es com potencial patog&#234;nico s&#227;o identificadas em at&#233; 40% dos casos descritos como MCD idiop&#225;tica, dependendo da coorte.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Inclusive, tem sido sugerido que a rentabilidade do estudo gen&#233;tico seria maior em coortes de pacientes com MCD dita idiop&#225;tica j&#225; em lista de TxC, podendo alcan&#231;ar os 70%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Principais genes associados &#224; miocardiopatia dilatada</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="12%"/>
              <col width="16%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Gene</th>
                <th align="center">Prote&#237;na</th>
                <th align="center">Contribui&#231;&#227;o<break/>estimada</th>
                <th align="center">Associa&#231;&#227;o<break/>com outras<break/>Miocardiopatias</th>
                <th align="center">Outros fen&#243;tipos</th>
                <th align="center">Heran&#231;a</th>
                <th align="center">N&#237;vel de<break/>evid&#234;ncia<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
								</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Sarc&#244;mero</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">TTN</td>
                <td align="center">Titina</td>
                <td align="center">18-25%</td>
                <td align="center">MNC</td>
                <td align="center">Miopatias</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">TNNT2</td>
                <td align="center">Troponina T tipo 2</td>
                <td align="center">2-3%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH, MCN</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">TNNI3</td>
                <td align="center">Troponina tipo I3</td>
                <td align="center">1-2%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH, MCR</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">AR</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">TPM1</td>
                <td align="center">Tropomiosina 1</td>
                <td align="center">1-2%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH, MNC</td>
                <td align="center">Doen&#231;a card&#237;aca cong&#234;nita</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MYH7</td>
                <td align="center">Miosina-7 (cadeia pesada de &#946;-miosina)</td>
                <td align="center">3-5%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH, MNC</td>
                <td align="center">Miopatias</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MYBPC3</td>
                <td align="center">Prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o de miosina card&#237;aca</td>
                <td align="center">2%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH, MNC</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">BAG3</td>
                <td align="center">BCL-2 associada ao athanogene 3</td>
                <td align="center">2%</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">Miopatiamiofibrilar</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ACTC1</td>
                <td align="center">Actina card&#237;aca</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH, MNC</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Citoesqueleto</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ACTN2</td>
                <td align="center">&#945;-actinina 2</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH</td>
                <td align="center">Doen&#231;a card&#237;aca cong&#234;nita</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FLNC</td>
                <td align="center">Filamina C</td>
                <td align="center">2.2%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH, MCR</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDB3</td>
                <td align="center">Prote&#237;na 3 de liga&#231;&#227;o ao dom&#237;nio LIM</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Miopatiamiofibrilar</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ANKRD1</td>
                <td align="center">Dom&#237;nio de repeti&#231;&#227;o anquirin 1</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH</td>
                <td align="center">Doen&#231;a card&#237;aca cong&#234;nita</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">VCL</td>
                <td align="center">Vinculina</td>
                <td align="center">1%</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">JUP</td>
                <td align="center">Placoglobina de jun&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">1 %</td>
                <td align="center">DAVD</td>
                <td align="center">Doen&#231;a de Naxos</td>
                <td align="center">AD/AR</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DMD</td>
                <td align="center">Distrofina</td>
                <td align="center">1%</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Distrofia muscular de Duchenne<break/>e Becker</td>
                <td align="center">Ligado ao X</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DES</td>
                <td align="center">Desmina</td>
                <td align="center">1-2%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH, MCR</td>
                <td align="center">Miopatiamiofibrilar</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Membrama celular</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LMNA</td>
                <td align="center">Lamina A/C</td>
                <td align="center">5-10%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH</td>
                <td align="center">Miopatias musculares,<break/>lipodistrofias, progeria</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">EMD</td>
                <td align="center">Emerina</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Distrofia muscular de<break/>Emery-Dreifuss</td>
                <td align="center">Ligada ao X</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Canais i&#244;nicos</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SCN5A</td>
                <td align="center">Canal de s&#243;dio card&#237;aco</td>
                <td align="center">2-3%</td>
                <td align="center">MNC</td>
                <td align="center">S&#237;ndrome de Brugada/SQTL</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ABCC9</td>
                <td align="center">Canal de pot&#225;ssio sens&#237;vel ao ATP</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 1%</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">Osteocondrodisplasia</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Desmossomo</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DSC2</td>
                <td align="center">Desmoscolina 2</td>
                <td align="center">1-2%</td>
                <td align="center">MCA</td>
                <td align="center">Ceratodermiapalmoplantar</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DSG2</td>
                <td align="center">Desmogle&#237;na 2</td>
                <td align="center">1-2%</td>
                <td align="center">MCA</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">AD/dig&#234;nica</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DSP</td>
                <td align="center">Desmoplaquina</td>
                <td align="center">3%</td>
                <td align="center">MCA</td>
                <td align="center">S&#237;ndrome de Carvajal</td>
                <td align="center">AR</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PKP2</td>
                <td align="center">Placofilina 2</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;5%</td>
                <td align="center">MCD</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Lisossomo</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LAMP2</td>
                <td align="center">Prote&#237;na de membrana associada<break/>ao lisossoma 2</td>
                <td align="center">4%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH</td>
                <td align="center">Doen&#231;a de Danon</td>
                <td align="center">Ligada ao X</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Ret&#237;culo</bold>
                  <break/>
                  <bold>Sarcoplasm&#225;tico</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PNL</td>
                <td align="center">Fosfolambano</td>
                <td align="center">1%</td>
                <td align="center">MCH, MCA</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">RYR2</td>
                <td align="center">Receptor 2 de rianodina</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">TVPC</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">RBM20</td>
                <td align="center">Prote&#237;na de liga&#231;&#227;o ao RNA 20</td>
                <td align="center">2%</td>
                <td align="center">MNC</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">AD</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>
                <italic>MCPs: miocardiopatias; MCH: miocardiopatia hipertr&#243;fica; MCR: miocardiopatia restritiva; MNC: miocadiopatia n&#227;o-compactada; MCA: miocardiopatia arritmog&#234;nica; DAVD: displasia arritmog&#234;nica do ventr&#237;culo direito; TVPC: taquicardia ventricular polim&#243;rfica catecolamin&#233;rgica; SQTL: s&#237;ndrome do QT longo; ND: N&#227;o dispon&#237;vel; AD: Autoss&#244;mica dominante; AR: Autoss&#244;mica recessiva.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>
                <italic>Os genes foram classificados de acordo com tr&#234;s n&#237;veis. N&#237;vel 1: m&#250;ltiplos estudos, variantes e fam&#237;lias relatados e cosegrega&#231;&#227;o com doen&#231;a estabelecida. N&#237;vel 2: &#250;nico ou poucos estudos, variantes e fam&#237;lias relatados e cosegrega&#231;&#227;o limitada observada. N&#237;vel 3: &#250;nico ou poucos estudos, variantes e fam&#237;lias relatados e cosegrega&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o estabelecida.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN6">
              <p>
                <italic>N&#237;vel 1: m&#250;ltiplos estudos, variantes e fam&#237;lias relatados e cosegrega&#231;&#227;o com doen&#231;a estabelecida. N&#237;vel 2: &#250;nico ou poucos estudos, variantes e fam&#237;lias relatados e cosegrega&#231;&#227;o limitada observada. N&#237;vel 3: &#250;nico ou poucos estudos, variantes e fam&#237;lias relatados e cosegrega&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o estabelecida.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>H&#225; cerca de 10 anos, diretrizes estabeleceram crit&#233;rios para a utiliza&#231;&#227;o dos testes gen&#233;ticos na MCD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Estes, por sua vez, podem auxiliar no manejo de pacientes e de seus familiares, otimizando inclusive a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco. Nesse &#226;mbito, a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica cuidadosa, assim como uma hist&#243;ria familiar associada aos resultados gen&#233;ticos, s&#227;o pilares fundamentais. Assim sendo, o objetivo principal desta revis&#227;o &#233; o de descrever aspectos cl&#237;nicos e epidemiol&#243;gicos das principais etiologias gen&#233;ticas relacionadas ao espectro da MCD, uma vez que o emprego de testes moleculares no manejo de pacientes com esta doen&#231;a ainda &#233; uma realidade incipiente em nosso pa&#237;s.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>T&#233;cnicas utilizadas para o diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico na miocardiopatia dilatada</title>
          <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de plataformas de sequenciamento gen&#233;tico de nova gera&#231;&#227;o (do ingl&#234;s, "NGS") possibilitou duas abordagens diagn&#243;sticas na MCD:</p>
          <p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>O <italic>estudo ampliado:</italic> atrav&#233;s do <italic>exoma</italic>, o qual aborda &#8220;todos&#8221; &#233;xons e regi&#245;es flanqueantes do genoma humano, na qual, de fato, se considera somente aqueles genes para os quais j&#225; exista informa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica correlacionada. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o do exoma vem sendo mais empregada em contextos de pesquisa cl&#237;nica aplicada, resultando na descoberta de novos genes de poss&#237;vel associa&#231;&#227;o com MCD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Estes "novos" genes, tamb&#233;m s&#227;o chamados de genes candidatos, pois sua patogenicidade &#233; de menor grau ou mesmo incerta, o que resultaria em um maior n&#250;mero de variantes de significado cl&#237;nico incerto;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>O <italic>estudo dirigido:</italic> atrav&#233;s de <italic>pain&#233;is de NGS,</italic> sendo constitu&#237;do por um determinado n&#250;mero de genes para o qual existe maior evid&#234;ncia de sua associa&#231;&#227;o causal com a MCD (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Aqui, o maior volume de casos j&#225; descritos com variantes patog&#234;nicas/possivelmente patog&#234;nicas nestes genes possibilita informa&#231;&#227;o mais embasada para a tomada de decis&#227;o cl&#237;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> &#201; importante enfatizar que a maioria das muta&#231;&#245;es descritas na MCD s&#227;o restritas a uma &#250;nica fam&#237;lia, o que dificulta a interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados gen&#233;ticos. Portanto, caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e integra&#231;&#227;o da hist&#243;ria familiar s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para aperfei&#231;oar a tomada de decis&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Existe em torno de uma centena de genes associados &#224; MCD, com diferentes n&#237;veis de evid&#234;ncia. Para muitas etiologias, &#233; importante mencionar que a presen&#231;a de uma variante gen&#233;tica nem sempre significa que a doen&#231;a ir&#225; se desenvolver. Existem diferen&#231;as na penetr&#226;ncia (porcentagem de portadores que desenvolver&#227;o o fen&#243;tipo) entre os diferentes genes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Os genes mais documentados s&#227;o listados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </p>
          <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, o aumento expressivo da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de pain&#233;is de <italic>NGS</italic> permitiu a identifica&#231;&#227;o de um n&#250;mero significativo de indiv&#237;duos portadores com variantes em um mesmo gene. Essa amostra populacional vem possibilitando descri&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas relevantes na MCD, como nos estudos mais recentes que abordaram diferentes genes (<italic>TTN</italic>, <italic>LMNA, FLNC</italic> ou <italic>BAG3</italic>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Nestes genes, a cosegrega&#231;&#227;o de variantes gen&#233;ticas como causa de MCD em m&#250;ltiplas fam&#237;lias foi demonstrada, assim como o crescente n&#250;mero de portadores identificados viabilizou an&#225;lises de correla&#231;&#227;o gen&#243;tipo-fen&#243;tipo sobre o progn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
					</p>
          <p>De forma sucinta, o estudo gen&#233;tico, atrav&#233;s das diferentes t&#233;cnicas, pode auxiliar o cardiologista em tr&#234;s situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas importantes:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>No manejo familiar;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Na defini&#231;&#227;o etiol&#243;gica;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Import&#226;ncia do rastreamento familiar na miocardiopatia dilatada</title>
          <p>Ao se estudar uma coorte de pacientes em est&#225;gio avan&#231;ado de IC encaminhados para TxC, se identificou que o diagn&#243;stico da MCD familiar (MCDF) vinha sendo sistematicamente negligenciado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> O simples emprego do heredograma aumentou de 4,1% para 26% tal diagn&#243;stico. Por sinal, em coortes prospectivas foi demonstrado que de 25 a 40% dos casos de MCD n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica eram de fato de car&#225;ter familiar,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> chamando a aten&#231;&#227;o para o componente heredit&#225;rio da s&#237;ndrome, assim como para a import&#226;ncia da detec&#231;&#227;o precoce e tratamento dos familiares afetados. Neste contexto, a realiza&#231;&#227;o do heredograma com no m&#237;nimo tr&#234;s gera&#231;&#245;es, assim como a solicita&#231;&#227;o do teste gen&#233;tico na MCD, &#233; fortemente recomendado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma variante patog&#234;nica/provavelmente patog&#234;nica em um caso &#237;ndice (probando) permite que toda a fam&#237;lia do paciente possa ser potencialmente beneficiada atrav&#233;s do rastreamento gen&#233;tico em cascata (<italic>screening</italic> gen&#233;tico familiar).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Isto &#233; &#250;til em casos onde somente a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica n&#227;o foi capaz de estabelecer o diagn&#243;stico em um parente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce de um familiar portador assintom&#225;tico, ou em fase subcl&#237;nica da doen&#231;a, pode ser particularmente relevante quando o teste gen&#233;tico revela etiologias com maior potencial arritmog&#234;nico ou de evolu&#231;&#227;o reconhecidamente mais c&#233;lere.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Mais ainda, nesse cen&#225;rio seria poss&#237;vel instituir medidas para retardar a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a ou at&#233; mesmo de um desfecho s&#250;bito maligno. Por outro lado, o seguimento regular de familiares do caso &#237;ndice que s&#227;o identificados como n&#227;o portadores de uma variante patog&#234;nica n&#227;o &#233; recomendado,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> o que evita gastos desnecess&#225;rios de sa&#250;de, al&#233;m do estresse psicol&#243;gico do paciente/familiares.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Defini&#231;&#227;o etiol&#243;gica e progn&#243;stico associado</title>
          <p><bold>Truncamento na Titina</bold>: Um marco no conhecimento sobre a gen&#233;tica na MCD foi o estudo de Herman et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> publicado em 2012. Nele, foram identificadas variantes do tipo truncamento da titina (vtTTN) em 25% dos casos de MCDF e em 18% dos casos espor&#225;dicos. Estas preval&#234;ncias foram obtidas atrav&#233;s de tr&#234;s diferentes coortes, com frequ&#234;ncia de vtTTN entre 8 e 40%. Cabe salientar que frequ&#234;ncia mais elevada foram observadas em sujeitos submetidos &#224; TxC ou com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica grave.</p>
          <p>Desde ent&#227;o, outros estudos buscaram conhecer a hist&#243;ria natural da MCDF com base em portadores de pacientes com vtTTN.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> N&#227;o foi observada diferen&#231;a na incid&#234;ncia dos desfechos entre portadores afetados vs. n&#227;o portadores,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> assim como n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a na fibrose mesoc&#225;rdica entre estes grupos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> No entanto, homens afetados por vtTTN manifestaram a doen&#231;a em idades mais precoces (78% vs. 30% das mulheres aos 40 anos).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Outros autores identificaram que afetados por vtTTN teriam desfecho mais precoce do que os n&#227;o portadores, considerando morte por todas as causas, estar em lista de TxC e uso de dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Nessa mesma linha, os portadores do sexo masculino apresentaram uma menor sobrevida (28% dos homens tiveram um evento cardiovascular at&#233; os 50 anos de idade vs. 8% das mulheres), considerando os desfechos morte por IC, TxC ou uso de dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Em uma amostra robusta (n = 558) foi evidenciada uma elevada incid&#234;ncia de morte cardiovascular a partir dos 40 anos de idade em pacientes portadores de vtTTN.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Nestes pacientes foi maior a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares nos homens (1,25% vs. 0,75% ao ano; entre os 40-60 anos), sendo a morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca o desfecho mais frequente. Por sua vez, diferentes publica&#231;&#245;es descrevem alta incid&#234;ncia de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, assim como taquicardia ventricular sustentada e n&#227;o sustentada, nesses pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Muito embora, segundo a literatura, a presen&#231;a de vtTTN seja associada a um in&#237;cio precoce de manifesta&#231;&#245;es arr&#237;tmicas, ainda n&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel definir um fen&#243;tipo caracter&#237;stico para esses pacientes, diferentemente do que ocorre com portadores de outras muta&#231;&#245;es em genes relacionados &#224; MCD. Mais ainda, tem sido postulado que muta&#231;&#245;es do tipo vtTTN possam fazer parte de um substrato gen&#233;tico predisponente a diferentes tipos de MCPs (induzida por antraciclinas, periparto e alco&#243;lica).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Por fim, pacientes com MCD por vtTTN teriam um curso cl&#237;nico mais favor&#225;vel e responderiam melhor &#224; terapia medicamentosa quando comparados &#224;queles afetados por variantes na lamina (gene <italic>LMNA</italic>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>
					</p>
          <p><bold>Lamina</bold>: Variantes patog&#234;nicas no gene <italic>LMNA</italic> produzem um fen&#243;tipo bem caracterizado de MCD associada a transtornos de condu&#231;&#227;o/arritmias malignas, denominado cardiolaminopatias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> A express&#227;o fenot&#237;pica se d&#225; por dist&#250;rbio progressivo da condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular, a qual geralmente precede a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e/ou as arritmias ventriculares, embora possam ser identificadas arritmias ventriculares ou supraventriculares (em especial fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial), como primeira manifesta&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> A idade de diagn&#243;stico ocorre, em geral, ap&#243;s os 20 anos de idade com alta penetr&#226;ncia ap&#243;s os 40 anos (&gt; 90%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Uma vez manifestado os primeiros sintomas, as cardiolaminopatias podem evoluir com maior rapidez para est&#225;gios avan&#231;ados de IC quando comparadas a outras etiologias de MCD prim&#225;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> A preval&#234;ncia de muta&#231;&#245;es no gene <italic>LMNA</italic> varia entre 5-10% em coortes de MCDF e em torno de 2-5% em casos espor&#225;dicos, perfazendo at&#233; 30% dos casos de MCD associada a transtornos de condu&#231;&#227;o/arritmias, sendo muito menos frequente em casos de MCD isolada (n&#227;o arr&#237;tmica).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Entre 2013 e 2015, Hasselberg et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> identificaram preval&#234;ncia de muta&#231;&#245;es no gene <italic>LMNA</italic> em torno de 6% em uma coorte de 79 jovens noruegueses com MCDF. Nestes, houve necessidade de TxC em uma alta propor&#231;&#227;o dos portadores (19%). Em outro estudo 122 afetados foram seguidos por 7 anos. Entre eles, 27 evolu&#237;ram para MCD terminal ou para &#243;bito. &#201; digno de nota citar que nesta mesma coorte, os portadores assintom&#225;ticos apresentaram incid&#234;ncia anual de 9% de um evento card&#237;aco documentado ao longo de 4 anos de seguimento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Estes dados sugerem um progn&#243;stico bastante desfavor&#225;vel e de evolu&#231;&#227;o mais c&#233;lere para TxC/&#243;bito do que em MCD de outras etiologias.</p>
          <p>Tais caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e epidemiol&#243;gicas corroboram com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para que o estudo gen&#233;tico seja realizado em pacientes com MCD n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, al&#233;m de se considerar o implante precoce de cardiodesfibrilador (CDI) caso seja identificada uma variante patog&#234;nica no gene <italic>LMNA</italic> (Classe de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o IIa, n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia B).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Neste contexto e, com base em um estudo publicado em 2012 que arrolou 269 pacientes com cardiolaminopatia, o risco de eventos ser&#225; maior quando no momento do diagn&#243;stico o paciente apresenta dois ou mais destes crit&#233;rios de risco: 1) taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada; 2) fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE &lt; 45%; 3) sexo masculino; 4) variante do tipo truncamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Desde ent&#227;o, outros autores j&#225; propuseram que n&#227;o apenas as variantes truncadas seriam relevantes, mas tamb&#233;m variantes gen&#233;ticas do tipo <italic>missense</italic>, as quais tamb&#233;m seriam potencialmente malignas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Por fim, ainda n&#227;o dispon&#237;vel, um escore de risco para pacientes com MCD afetados por variantes na <italic>LMNA</italic> dever&#225; ser publicado muito em breve. Nesse particular, esperamos que o mesmo aumente a precis&#227;o na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco destes indiv&#237;duos.</p>
          <p><bold>Outros Genes</bold>: Mais frequentemente associadas &#224; miocardiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (MCH), algumas muta&#231;&#245;es sarcom&#233;ricas tamb&#233;m podem causar MCD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Os genes sarcom&#233;ricos da cadeia pesada da beta miosina 7 (<italic>MYH7</italic>)<italic>, troponina T tipo 2 (TNNT2)</italic> e <italic>tropomiosina 1</italic> (<italic>TPM1</italic>) s&#227;o aqueles que apresentam informa&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica associada. Dependendo da localiza&#231;&#227;o da variante gen&#233;tica no gene <italic>MYH7</italic>, a evolu&#231;&#227;o pode ser particularmente grave, de forma similar ao que ocorre nos casos de MCD causadas pela <italic>TNNT2.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Muta&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas observadas na <italic>TPM1</italic> causam menos que 1% dos casos de MCD, mas correspondem a parcelas significativas dos casos pedi&#225;tricos desta doen&#231;a, nos quais o desfecho r&#225;pido para morte ou TxC n&#227;o &#233; incomum.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Uma metan&#225;lise composta por quase 8.100 pacientes avaliou a correla&#231;&#227;o gen&#243;tipo-fen&#243;tipo na MCD para os genes <italic>TTN</italic> e <italic>LMNA,</italic> assim como para prote&#237;nas sarcom&#233;ricas como a prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina (<italic>MYBPC3), MYH7, TNNT2</italic>, troponina T tipo I3 (<italic>TNNI3),</italic> prote&#237;na 20 ligada ao RNA <italic>(RBM20)</italic> e fosfolambano <italic>(PLN)</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Maior frequ&#234;ncia de TxC foi observado em portadores de muta&#231;&#245;es na <italic>LMNA</italic> (27%), percentual significativamente maior do que para muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes <italic>RBM20</italic> e <italic>MYBPC3</italic> (&#8776;10% cada). Afetados do sexo masculino foram predominantes nos diferentes genes (79% no gene <italic>MYBPC3</italic> e 69% nos genes <italic>LMNA</italic> e <italic>MYH7</italic>), com propor&#231;&#227;o significativamente menor entre os portadores do gene <italic>PLN</italic> (46% homens).</p>
          <p>Mais recentemente, os genes Filamina C (<italic>FLNC</italic>) e Chaperona Reguladora 3 (<italic>BAG3</italic>) tiveram sua hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a bem caracterizada em publica&#231;&#245;es de alto impacto.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> O primeiro deles apresentou um perfil mais arritmog&#234;nico e o segundo um maior n&#250;mero de eventos relacionados &#224; IC. Variantes tipo truncamento na <italic>FLNC</italic> foram identificadas cosegregando em 28 fam&#237;lias afetadas com uma forma particular de MCP arritmog&#234;nica/dilatada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Os achados cl&#237;nicos mais prevalentes foram dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular (68%), disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica (46%) e fibrose mioc&#225;rdica (67%). Arritmias ventriculares foram documentadas em 82% dos portadores e casos de morte s&#250;bita foram relatados em 21 das 28 fam&#237;lias. Em torno de 95% dos portadores j&#225; expressavam o fen&#243;tipo aos 40 anos de idade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Outro estudo identificou variantes truncadas na <italic>FLNC</italic> em 2,2% dos pacientes com MCD, os quais apresentavam arritmias ventriculares e/ou morte s&#250;bita em 85% dos casos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> O envolvimento adicional do cora&#231;&#227;o direito foi relatado em 38% dos casos. Sendo assim, o implante precoce de CDI passou a ser considerado nestes pacientes, mesmo que os mesmos n&#227;o preencham os crit&#233;rios estabelecidos nas atuais diretrizes de MCD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, diversos relatos isolados da identifica&#231;&#227;o de variantes gen&#233;ticas em <italic>BAG3</italic> foram descritos em fam&#237;lias com MCD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> De maior import&#226;ncia, o fen&#243;tipo associado ao gene foi melhor caracterizado com base em uma coorte de 129 portadores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Ap&#243;s seguimento m&#233;dio de 38 meses, o n&#250;mero de portadores afetados com MCD subiu de 57% para 68%, representando 26% dos portadores, os quais apresentavam inicialmente fen&#243;tipo negativo, mas que acabaram por manifestar a doen&#231;a. Considerando os portadores com idade acima dos 40 anos, 80% era fen&#243;tipo positivo. Nesta amostra, a incid&#234;ncia de eventos card&#237;acos nos portadores de variantes <italic>BAG3</italic> com MCD foi de 5,1% (desfechos: taquicardia ventricular sustentada, morte s&#250;bita, morte por IC, necessidade de dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular e TxC), com predom&#237;nio de eventos relacionados &#224; IC em rela&#231;&#227;o aos arr&#237;tmicos. Durante o seguimento, os pacientes do sexo masculino, aqueles com deteriora&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e com aumento do di&#226;metro ventricular, foram os que apresentaram maior incid&#234;ncia de eventos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Diferentemente de muta&#231;&#245;es no gene da <italic>FLNC</italic> e com base nestes achados, variantes no gene <italic>BAG3</italic> n&#227;o parecem estar relacionado a necessidade de implante precoce de CDI.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Heterogeneidade gen&#233;tica e sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de fen&#243;tipos</title>
          <p>Muitos dos genes descritos como patog&#234;nicos em pacientes com MCD s&#227;o tamb&#233;m associados ao desenvolvimento de outras formas de MCPs (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>). Este fato pode acarretar a presen&#231;a de mais de um fen&#243;tipo no mesmo heredograma, ou de um fen&#243;tipo sobreposto em um mesmo indiv&#237;duo, como ocorre, por exemplo, entre a miocardiopatia n&#227;o compactada (MCNC) e a MCD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Em uma coorte de 95 pacientes com MCNC (68 indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o relacionados e 27 parentes, 23% dos casos eram de MCNC familiar), uma variante gen&#233;tica foi identificada em 38% dos casos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> Os genes mais frequentes foram <italic>TTN</italic>, <italic>LMNA</italic> e <italic>MYBPC3</italic>, incluindo uma fam&#237;lia afetada por muta&#231;&#227;o no gene <italic>RBM20</italic>. Nesta fam&#237;lia, o caso &#237;ndice foi transplantado aos 21 anos de idade (3 anos ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico), havendo tr&#234;s gera&#231;&#245;es afetadas no lado materno. O n&#250;mero de eventos cardiovasculares maiores nesta coorte foi significativamente mais elevado nos pacientes com MCNC do que naqueles pareados com MCD n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica de etiologia conhecida. Aproximadamente 10% dos pacientes afetados com MCNC evolu&#237;ram para TxC vs. 2,8% no grupo com MCD n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> Em uma das fam&#237;lias com MCNC desta coorte foi identificada uma variante no gene <italic>MYH7</italic>, a qual estava associada em diferentes estudos a uma forma de MCH de progn&#243;stico reservado. Neste caso, embora os indiv&#237;duos afetados n&#227;o preenchessem crit&#233;rios definitivos para tal doen&#231;a, foi detectado um aumento na espessura da parede mioc&#225;rdica em v&#225;rios deles.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> Tal fato deve chamar a aten&#231;&#227;o do cardiologista para a heterogeneidade fenot&#237;pica destas doen&#231;as, assim como a necessidade de se observar o que o diagn&#243;stico etiol&#243;gico pode representar para a hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a.</p>
          <p>Genes relacionados geralmente &#224; miocardiopatia arritmog&#234;nica (MCA) podem produzir quadros cl&#237;nicos indistingu&#237;veis daqueles de MCD. Pacientes afetados por truncamentos nos genes da desmoplaquina (<italic>DSP</italic>) e da <italic>FLNC</italic>, por exemplo, podem ser acometidos por uma forma de MCA com envolvimento exclusivo do VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Existe na literatura diversos relatos de pessoas com MCD afetadas por genes desmoss&#244;micos que n&#227;o preenchem nenhum (ou somente alguns) dos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para displasia arritmog&#234;nica do ventr&#237;culo direito.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Em estudo que contou com 89 pacientes n&#227;o relacionados, todos com MCD em fase terminal submetidos ao TxC, o <italic>screening</italic> gen&#233;tico dos cinco genes desmossomais mais comuns (<italic>PKP2, DSP, JUP, DSC2, DSG2</italic>) identificou variantes gen&#233;ticas em 18% deles.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> O estudo gen&#233;tico dos familiares identificou outros 38 portadores, incluindo casos de MCD ainda em fase subcl&#237;nica. A an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica dos cora&#231;&#245;es explantados mostrou infiltra&#231;&#227;o fibro-adiposa, a qual ocorreu em alguns casos no ventr&#237;culo direito, em outros no esquerdo, assim como situa&#231;&#245;es nas quais n&#227;o se observaram les&#245;es fibro-adiposas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais</title>
          <p>Diante do exposto, &#233; poss&#237;vel concluir que as MCPs, particularmente a forma dilatada, refletem uma s&#237;ndrome complexa e de alta heterogeneidade, o que imp&#245;e desafios quanto ao seu diagn&#243;stico, progn&#243;stico e tratamento. Neste cen&#225;rio, o diagn&#243;stico molecular atrav&#233;s do <italic>NGS</italic> torna-se uma ferramenta bastante &#250;til na pr&#225;tica do cardiologista. Embora ainda incipiente no Brasil, o uso da gen&#233;tica em servi&#231;os de MCD e TxC deve ser considerada, pois o diagn&#243;stico etiol&#243;gico permite, em muitos casos, um manejo cl&#237;nico e estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco mais assertivos. Mais ainda, o rastreamento cl&#237;nico e gen&#233;tico em familiares &#233; de certa forma negligenciado, apesar de ser uma conduta recomendada. Sendo assim, nos parece que os servi&#231;os de MCPs e de TxC no Brasil, assim como os grupos de pesquisa relacionados, discutam o tema de forma mais incisiva, com o intuito de divulgar o conhecimento atual, tanto aos profissionais de sa&#250;de quanto &#224; sociedade. Apesar dos potenciais benef&#237;cios, as limita&#231;&#245;es dos testes gen&#233;ticos n&#227;o devem ser omitidas. O teste gen&#233;tico deve ser preferencialmente empregado em um contexto de aconselhamento gen&#233;tico multidisciplinar, com orienta&#231;&#227;o pr&#233; e p&#243;s-teste sobre caracter&#237;sticas do m&#233;todo empregado e poss&#237;veis repercuss&#245;es do resultado gen&#233;tico sobre o paciente e sua fam&#237;lia. &#201; fundamental discutir quest&#245;es associadas &#224; penetr&#226;ncia associada a cada variante gen&#233;tica e aspectos relacionados &#224; expressividade cl&#237;nica vari&#225;vel, o que pode determinar que a doen&#231;a n&#227;o se manifeste da mesma forma em todos os portadores da fam&#237;lia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Por fim, ilustramos o presente artigo com um caso cl&#237;nico ocorrido no Brasil, nos quais a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do teste gen&#233;tico fez parte da proped&#234;utica cl&#237;nica:</p>
          <p><bold>Caso cl&#237;nico</bold>: Paciente de 30 anos, sexo masculino, hospitalizado devido IC descompensada (classe funcional NYHA III). Diagn&#243;stico de MCD h&#225; um ano ap&#243;s quadro de palpita&#231;&#245;es eventuais. Depois de ampla investiga&#231;&#227;o proped&#234;utica &#224; &#233;poca, realizou resson&#226;ncia card&#237;aca que evidenciou hipocinesia difusa, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda (fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE de 46%), al&#233;m de fibrose meso-epic&#225;rdica de forma difusa (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>). A evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica r&#225;pida foi sugerida a partir de ecocardiograma normal realizado h&#225; dois anos, quando comparado a um ecocardiograma desta interna&#231;&#227;o (fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE de 32%), di&#226;metros sist&#243;lico e diast&#243;lico de 49 e 58 mm, respectivamente, com &#225;trio esquerdo apresentando di&#226;metro de 44 mm. O paciente apresentava fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e realizou ineangiocoronariografia que n&#227;o evidenciou coronariopatia de qualquer natureza. Considerando a gravidade do caso e uma hist&#243;ria familiar positiva de morte s&#250;bita (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2</xref>), foi solicitado estudo gen&#233;tico atrav&#233;s de um painel para MCD (NGS), tendo sido identificada a variante p.Leu176Pro no gene <italic>LMNA</italic>, esclarecendo a etiologia da doen&#231;a nesta fam&#237;lia. Diante do hist&#243;rico familiar e da muta&#231;&#227;o encontrada foi implantado um CDI para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria, apesar da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o &gt; 30%. Conforme descrito na literatura, a cardiolaminopatia n&#227;o respondeu adequadamente ao tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado e mostrou evolu&#231;&#227;o c&#233;lere para TxC. Ap&#243;s um ano o paciente evoluiu com anasarca. Uma nova interna&#231;&#227;o foi necess&#225;ria e o uso de drogas inotr&#243;picas positivas intravenosas foi institu&#237;do. TxC foi realizado dois meses ap&#243;s. Os filhos do paciente eram duas crian&#231;as aparentemente saud&#225;veis, menores de 10 anos de idade. Como a idade m&#233;dia de diagn&#243;stico nos portadores do gene <italic>LMNA</italic> &#233; mais tardia (a partir da terceira d&#233;cada de vida), a conduta seguiu recomenda&#231;&#245;es &#233;ticas para o teste gen&#233;tico em menores, sendo respeitada a idade apropriada para aconselhamento gen&#233;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> Entretanto, &#233; importante mencionar que j&#225; foi relatado casos de crian&#231;as afetadas por variantes no gene <italic>LMNA</italic>, fato esse que poderia questionar a conduta vigente que &#233; expectante em filhos pequenos de pacientes com cardiolaminopatias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f3">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica do cora&#231;&#227;o mostrando extensa e difusa &#225;rea de fibrose no mesoc&#225;rdio.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-02-0274-90144-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Heredograma do caso &#237;ndice, mostrando acometimento em parentes de primeiro, segundo e terceiro grau. FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-113-02-0274-90144-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Filipe Ferrari pelo Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
