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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">6cnJtw5jVYHzNRGM7Bmz4rg</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2019000500588</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2019005005102</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20190041</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Viewpoint</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Resident Macrophages Orchestrating Heart Rate</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3508-9776</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Diego Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3450-5643</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barreto</surname>
            <given-names>Tatiane de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2121-1192</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santana</surname>
            <given-names>Michael Nadson Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7547-8979</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Menezes-Filho</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Evaldo Rodrigues</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1365-2318</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cruz</surname>
            <given-names>Jader Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7197-0261</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vasconcelos</surname>
            <given-names>Carla Maria Lins de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Sergipe</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>S&#227;o Crist&#243;v&#227;o</city>
          <state>SE</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Sergipe - Fisiologia, S&#227;o Crist&#243;v&#227;o, SE- Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Belo Horizonte</city>
          <state>MG</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - Bioqu&#237;mica e Imunologia, Belo Horizonte, MG - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Jader Santos Cruz,</bold> Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - Departamento de Bioqu&#237;mica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ci&#234;ncias Biol&#243;gicas, 4&#186; andar, Avenida Ant&#244;nio Carlos, 6627, Postal Code 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG - Brazil. E-mail: <email>jcruz@icb.ufmg.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Souza DS, Barreto TO, Cruz JS; Writing of the manuscript: Souza DS, Barreto TO, Santana MNS, Menezes-Filho JER, Cruz JS, Vasconcelos CML.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>112</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>588</fpage>
      <lpage>591</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Introduction</p>
    <p>The electrical conduction system of the heart is essential for maintaining normal heart rhythm and function. This is due to the presence of specialized cells that generate electrical impulses that propagate throughout the heart tissue, quickly and efficiently. This electrical impulse starts at the sinoatrial node (SAN) and propagates sequentially to atrioventricular node (AVN), subsequently being transmitted to the ventricles via specialized conduction pathways. The electrical signals are conducted from cell to cell through a cardiomyocyte permeability control system formed by proteins called connexins, and connexin-43 is the type found in the heart and is associated with the formation of so-called gap junctions. By providing the single electrical connection between the atria and the ventricles, AVN plays an essential role in the dynamics of cardiac contraction. Clinically, when the PR interval is observed in the electrocardiographic recordings, we can correlate the electrical impulse conduction time from its generation in the SAN to the delay in the AVN region, which is called "decremental conduction".<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> When prolongation of the PR interval or an AV block occurs, which delays excessively or even eliminates the conduction of the electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricles, will result in hemodynamic deterioration, syncope and death, in case the patient is not submitted to the brand heart.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
		</p>
    <p>Over the years, several studies have described the macrophages as cells of phagocytic functions that would exclusively act in the immune system protecting the organism against pathogens. However, more recently this paradigm was mainly questioned about the origin of macrophages. Several studies have provided evidence that a subpopulation of macrophages, which originated from embryonic development and do not come from the bloodstream, reside and proliferate in virtually all body tissues and apparently act specifically on each organ. For example, resident macrophages of adipose tissue contribute to the regulation of thermogenesis,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> iron recycling in the spleen and liver,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> and participate in the process of synaptic maturation in the healthy brain.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Such non-canonical activities emphasize the functional diversity of macrophages and their ability to perform specific tasks in the various tissues, in addition to host defence.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> In cardiac tissue, macrophages are intrinsic components of the myocardium in normal functioning, where they appear as spindle cells intercalated between cardiomyocytes, fibroblasts and endothelial cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
		</p>
    <sec>
      <title>Macrophages and the heartbeat</title>
      <p>Cardiac function depends on the appropriate moment of contraction in several distinct regions, as well as the heart rate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Hulsmans et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> observed that mice that had their macrophage fauna weakened, had bradycardia and irregular beats. It is known that connexin-43 is predominant in ventricles of humans and that its reduction promotes bradycardia and AV block,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> thus, in observing specialized cells in non-muscular electrical conduction, they found that macrophages are electrically coupled to cardiomyocytes and that these resident macrophages facilitate electrical conduction through the AV node.</p>
      <p>Such conducting cells interleave with macrophages expressing connexin-43 forming additional gap junctions between cardiomyocytes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). The investigators observed that the animals that had a reduction of resident macrophages, besides having bradycardia, had AV blockade of 2nd and 3rd degrees (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> whose cause in humans is still unknown.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Another intriguing point is that cardiac macrophages have a resting membrane potential of -35 mV on average and depolarize in synchrony with cardiomyocytes. This makes the membrane potential at the rest of the cardiomyocytes more positive and according to the results obtained by computational simulation, accelerate both depolarization and repolarization phases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> The cardioprotective role of cardiac resident macrophages can go beyond the modulation of the electrophysiological properties of the coupled cardiomyocytes. The perivascular localization of cardiac macrophages makes them uniquely positioned to interpret systemic signals in the bloodstream.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
			</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>The normal condition of macrophage-cardiomyocyte couplings. Communications between cardiomyocytes and macrophages through connexin-43 (A) promoting normal cardiac rhythm (B).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-05-0588-90041-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Reduction in the expression of connexins. The coupling between macrophages and cardiomyocytes is decreased due to the reduction of connexin-43 (A) expression promoting electrical conduction pathologies (atrioventricular block of 3&#186; degree - B).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-05-0588-90041-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Macrophages and cardiovascular diseases</title>
      <p>Monnerat et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> demonstrated that inflammation caused by type I diabetes causes resident macrophages to secrete interleukin 1&#946; (IL-1&#946;), acting in a paracrine manner, increasing oxidative stress in the surrounding cells and destabilizing the electrical activity of cardiomyocytes provoking lethal ventricular arrhythmias. Moreover, atherosclerotic lesions are currently understood as inducers of important inflammatory processes, which comprise components of the innate and acquired immune systems. Clinical data showed that increased leukocyte count, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and IL-1&#946; were at risk of more severe cardiovascular events.</p>
      <p>In fact, IL-6 is locally regulated during the coronary occlusion process in patients with acute myocardial infarction with ST-segment elevation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Thus, a possible bias is one in which macrophages contribute to the arrhythmic complications of infectious, atherosclerotic and septicemic diseases, in which their inflammatory responses may interfere with their role in modulating electrical conduction of the cardiomyocyte.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Research has shown that sepsis is associated with an increased risk of acute and fatal coronary disease, but its cause is still a matter of debate, and acute coronary disease prevention may be an important consideration in post-sepsis medical care.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Despite significant advances in prevention and treatment, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) continue to be the most common cause of death in the world. In fact, severe heart failure is more prevalent than cancer.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Several studies have demonstrated that pathological cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis in heart failure are accompanied by a systemic inflammatory response, infiltration and activation of cells of the immune system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> In view of this, immunotherapies for cardiovascular diseases are on the rise.</p>
      <p>The first cardiovascular immunotherapy was developed for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia and its positive results paved the way for the clinical evaluation of anti-inflammatory immunotherapy directed to interleukin 1&#946;. CANTOS (Canakinumab Anti-Inflammatory Thrombosis Outcomes Study) has shown that subcutaneous injections of canakinumab (ACZ885), a human monoclonal antibody that selectively neutralizes IL-1&#946;, significantly reduced levels of systemic inflammatory biomarkers in patients after acute myocardial infarction, reducing risk cardiovascular disease in patients with previous heart attack and inflammatory atherosclerosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Another study using CANTOS reinforces this idea and provides strong evidence that the modulation of the IL-6-induced signaling pathway induced by IL-1&#945; is associated with reduced rates of cardiovascular changes and mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
			</p>
      <p>It is clear that further studies should be performed to address the actual involvement of resident macrophages in heart diseases. If alterations in macrophages' function are linked to these clinical conditions, immunotherapy with macrophage reprogramming <italic>in situ</italic> could be a reliable form of therapeutic strategy that could be applied to ensure normal cardiac rhythm in patients with signs of arrhythmia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> However, what we know so far is that resident macrophages act as "masters", orchestrating the heart rate.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by CNPq and CAPES.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Ponto de Vista</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Macr&#243;fagos Residentes Orquestrando o Ritmo Card&#237;aco</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3508-9776</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Diego Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3450-5643</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barreto</surname>
            <given-names>Tatiane de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2121-1192</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santana</surname>
            <given-names>Michael Nadson Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7547-8979</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Menezes-Filho</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Evaldo Rodrigues</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1365-2318</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cruz</surname>
            <given-names>Jader Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7197-0261</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vasconcelos</surname>
            <given-names>Carla Maria Lins de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Sergipe - Fisiologia, S&#227;o Crist&#243;v&#227;o, SE - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - Bioqu&#237;mica e Imunologia, Belo Horizonte, MG - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Jader Santos Cruz,</bold> Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - Departamento de Bioqu&#237;mica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ci&#234;ncias Biol&#243;gicas, 4&#186; andar, Avenida Ant&#244;nio Carlos, 6627, CEP 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG - Brasil. E-mail: <email>jcruz@icb.ufmg.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Souza DS, Barreto TO, Cruz JS; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Souza DS, Barreto TO, Santana MNS, Menezes-Filho JER, Cruz JS, Vasconcelos CML</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica do cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; essencial para manter o ritmo e a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca normal. Isso ocorre devido &#224; presen&#231;a de c&#233;lulas especializadas que geram impulsos el&#233;tricos que se propagam por todo o tecido card&#237;aco, de forma r&#225;pida e eficiente. Tal impulso inicia-se no n&#243; sinoatrial (NSA) e se propaga sequencialmente &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o dos &#225;trios at&#233; o n&#243; atrioventricular (NAV), posteriormente, sendo transmitido para os ventr&#237;culos passando por vias de condu&#231;&#227;o especializadas. Os sinais el&#233;tricos s&#227;o conduzidos de c&#233;lula a c&#233;lula atrav&#233;s de um sistema pr&#243;prio de controle da permeabilidade entre cardiomi&#243;citos formado por prote&#237;nas denominadas conexinas, sendo que a conexina 43 &#233; o tipo encontrado no cora&#231;&#227;o e que est&#225; associada &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o das chamadas jun&#231;&#245;es <italic>gap</italic>. Ao fornecer a &#250;nica conex&#227;o el&#233;trica entre os &#225;trios e os ventr&#237;culos, o NAV desempenha um papel essencial na din&#226;mica de contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Clinicamente, ao se observar o intervalo PR nas medidas eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas, podemos correlacionar o tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o do impulso el&#233;trico desde a sua gera&#231;&#227;o no NSA at&#233; o retardo na regi&#227;o do NAV o que &#233; denominada de "condu&#231;&#227;o decremental".<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Quando ocorre o prolongamento do intervalo PR ou um bloqueio AV, que atrasa excessivamente ou mesmo elimina a condu&#231;&#227;o do impulso el&#233;trico dos &#225;trios para os ventr&#237;culos, pode resultar na deteriora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, s&#237;ncope e morte, caso o paciente n&#227;o seja submetido ao implante de marca-passo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Ao longo dos anos, diversos estudos descreveram os macr&#243;fagos como c&#233;lulas de fun&#231;&#245;es fagoc&#237;ticas que atuariam exclusivamente no sistema imune protegendo o organismo contra pat&#243;genos. Contudo, recentemente esse paradigma foi questionado principalmente quanto a origem dos macr&#243;fagos. V&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m fornecido evid&#234;ncias de que uma subpopula&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos, que se originaram a partir do desenvolvimento embrion&#225;rio e que n&#227;o s&#227;o provenientes da circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, residem e proliferam em praticamente todos os tecidos corporais e, aparentemente, atuam de forma espec&#237;fica em cada &#243;rg&#227;o. Por exemplo, os macr&#243;fagos residentes do tecido adiposo contribuem para a regula&#231;&#227;o da termog&#234;nese,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> a reciclagem do ferro no ba&#231;o e no f&#237;gado,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> al&#233;m de participar no processo de matura&#231;&#227;o sin&#225;ptica no c&#233;rebro sadio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Tais atividades n&#227;o-can&#244;nicas destacam a diversidade funcional dos macr&#243;fagos e enfatizam sua capacidade de executar tarefas espec&#237;ficas nos diversos tecidos, al&#233;m da defesa do hospedeiro.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> No tecido card&#237;aco, os macr&#243;fagos s&#227;o componentes intr&#237;nsecos do mioc&#225;rdio em funcionamento normal, onde aparecem como c&#233;lulas fusiformes intercaladas entre os cardiomi&#243;citos, fibroblastos e as c&#233;lulas endoteliais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
				</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Macr&#243;fagos e o batimento card&#237;aco</title>
          <p>A fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca depende do momento adequado de contra&#231;&#227;o em v&#225;rias regi&#245;es distintas, bem como da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca adequada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Hulsmans et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> observaram que camundongos que tinham sua fauna de macr&#243;fagos debilitada, possu&#237;am bradicardia e batimentos irregulares. &#201; sabido que a conexina-43 &#233; predominante nos ventr&#237;culos em humanos e que a redu&#231;&#227;o desta, promove bradicardia e bloqueio AV,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> sendo assim, ao observar as c&#233;lulas especializadas em condu&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica n&#227;o muscular, descobriram que os macr&#243;fagos est&#227;o eletricamente acoplados aos cardiomi&#243;citos e que esses macr&#243;fagos residentes no tecido card&#237;aco facilitam a condu&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica atrav&#233;s do NAV.</p>
          <p>Tais c&#233;lulas condutoras se intercalam com macr&#243;fagos que expressam a conexina-43 formando jun&#231;&#245;es <italic>gap</italic> adicionais entre os cardiomi&#243;citos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>). Os pesquisadores observaram que os animais que tiveram redu&#231;&#227;o dos macr&#243;fagos residentes, al&#233;m de apresentarem bradicardia, tiveram bloqueios AV de 2&#186; e 3&#186; grau (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2</xref>),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> cuja causa em humanos &#233; desconhecida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Outro ponto intrigante &#233; que os macr&#243;fagos card&#237;acos possuem um potencial de membrana em repouso, em m&#233;dia de -35 mV e despolarizam em sincronia com os cardiomi&#243;citos. Tal aspecto torna o potencial de membrana em repouso dos cardiomi&#243;citos mais positivo e de acordo com a simula&#231;&#227;o computacional, aceleram tanto a despolariza&#231;&#227;o quanto a repolariza&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> O papel cardioprotetor dos macr&#243;fagos residentes card&#237;acos pode ir al&#233;m da modula&#231;&#227;o das propriedades eletrofisiol&#243;gicas dos cardiomi&#243;citos acoplados. A localiza&#231;&#227;o perivascular dos macr&#243;fagos card&#237;acos torna-os, singularmente, posicionados para interpretar sinais sist&#234;micos na corrente sangu&#237;nea.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f3">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Condi&#231;&#227;o normal dos acoplamentos macr&#243;fagos-cardiomi&#243;citos. Comunica&#231;&#245;es entre os cardiomi&#243;citos e os macr&#243;fagos atrav&#233;s da conexina 43(A) promovendo o ritmo card&#237;aco normal (B).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-05-0588-90041-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Redu&#231;&#227;o na express&#227;o das conexinas. O acoplamento entre os macr&#243;fagos e os cardiomi&#243;citos est&#225; diminu&#237;do devido a redu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o da conexina 43 (A) promovendo patologias de condu&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica (bloqueio atrioventricular do 3&#186; - B).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-05-0588-90041-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Macr&#243;fagos e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares</title>
          <p>Monnerat et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> demonstraram que a inflama&#231;&#227;o causada pelo diabetes tipo I faz com que os macr&#243;fagos residentes secretem interleucina 1&#946; (IL-1&#946;), atuando de forma par&#225;crina, aumentando o estresse oxidativo nas c&#233;lulas da redondeza e desestabilizando a atividade el&#233;trica dos cardiomi&#243;citos de maneira a produzir arritmias ventriculares letais. Al&#233;m disso, les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas s&#227;o atualmente entendidas como indutoras de processos inflamat&#243;rios importantes, que abrangem componentes dos sistemas imunes inato e adquirido. Dados cl&#237;nicos demonstraram que o aumento na contagem de leuc&#243;citos, interleucina 6 (IL-6), fator de necrose tumoral &#945; (TNF-&#945;) e da IL-1&#946; apresentavam risco de eventos cardiovasculares mais graves.</p>
          <p>De fato, a IL-6 &#233; altamente regulada localmente durante o processo de oclus&#227;o coronariana em pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Ent&#227;o, um poss&#237;vel vi&#233;s &#233; aquele em que os macr&#243;fagos contribuem para as complica&#231;&#245;es arr&#237;tmicas de doen&#231;as infecciosas, ateroscler&#243;tica e na septicemia, em que suas respostas inflamat&#243;rias podem interferir no seu papel na modula&#231;&#227;o da condu&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica do cardiomi&#243;cito.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Pesquisas demonstraram que a sepse est&#225; associada ao aumento do risco de doen&#231;a coronariana aguda e fatal, por&#233;m a sua causa ainda &#233; incerta, sendo que a preven&#231;&#227;o aguda da doen&#231;a coronariana pode ser uma considera&#231;&#227;o importante nos cuidados p&#243;s-sepse.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Apesar dos avan&#231;os significativos na preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento, as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCVs) continuam sendo a causa mais comum de morte em todo o mundo. De fato, a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca grave &#233; mais prevalente do que o c&#226;ncer.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> V&#225;rios estudos tem demonstrado que a hipertrofia card&#237;aca patol&#243;gica e a fibrose na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca s&#227;o acompanhadas por uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica, infiltra&#231;&#227;o e ativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas do sistema imune.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Diante disso, as imunoterapias para DCVs est&#227;o em plena ascens&#227;o.</p>
          <p>A primeira imunoterapia cardiovascular desenvolvida foi para o tratamento da hipercolesterolemia e seus resultados positivos abriram caminho para a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de uma imunoterapia anti-inflamat&#243;ria direcionada &#224; IL-1&#946;. CANTOS (Canakinumab Anti-Inflammatory Thrombosis Outcomes Study) demonstrou que inje&#231;&#245;es subcut&#226;neas de canakinumab (ACZ885), um anticorpo monoclonal humano que neutraliza seletivamente IL-1&#946;, diminu&#237;ram significativamente os n&#237;veis de biomarcadores inflamat&#243;rios sist&#234;micos em pacientes ap&#243;s infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, reduzindo o risco cardiovascular em pacientes com ataque card&#237;aco pr&#233;vio e aterosclerose inflamat&#243;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Um outro estudo utilizando CANTOS refor&#231;a essa id&#233;ia e fornece fortes evid&#234;ncias de que a modula&#231;&#227;o da via de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da IL-6, que tem sua produ&#231;&#227;o induzida pela IL-1&#946;, se associa a taxas reduzidas de altera&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares e das taxas de mortalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Certamente, mais estudos devem ser realizados para sanarmos as d&#250;vidas quanto a real participa&#231;&#227;o dos macr&#243;fagos residentes nas doen&#231;as card&#237;acas. Se altera&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o dos macr&#243;fagos estiverem ligadas a essas condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, a imunoterapia com reprograma&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos <italic>in situ</italic> poderia ser uma forma vi&#225;vel de estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica que poderia ser aplicada para garantir o batimento card&#237;aco normal em pacientes com arritmia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Contudo, o que sabemos at&#233; o momento &#233; que os macr&#243;fagos residentes atuam como "maestros", orquestrando o ritmo card&#237;aco.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela CNPq e CAPES.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
