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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">8DSdzvT5sd4tbTFM6N6PZCD</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2019000500577</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20190077</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Kidney Disease in Diabetes Mellitus: Cross-Linking between Hyperglycemia, Redox Imbalance and Inflammation</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0632-2890</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Amorim</surname>
            <given-names>Rayne Gomes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Guedes</surname>
            <given-names>Glaucevane da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vasconcelos</surname>
            <given-names>Sandra Mary Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana C&#233;lia de Farias</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Alagoas</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <city>Macei&#243;</city>
            <state>AL</state>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Alagoas - Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o, Macei&#243;, AL - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Juliana C&#233;lia de Farias Santos,</bold> Universidade Federal de Alagoas Ringgold standard institution - Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o - Avenida Lourival de Melo Mota, Km14, Postal Code 57072-970, Tabuleiro do Martins, Macei&#243;, AL - Brazil. E-mail: <email>jcfsnut@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Santos JCF, Amorim RG, Vasconcelos S; Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Santos JCF, Amorim RG, Guedes GS, Vasconcelos S.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>06</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>112</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>577</fpage>
      <lpage>587</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Chronic hyperglycemia is the key point of macro- and microvascular complications associated with diabetes mellitus. Excess glucose is responsible for inducing redox imbalance and both systemic and intrarenal inflammation, playing a critical role in the pathogenesis of diabetic kidney disease, which is currently the leading cause of dialysis in the world. The pathogenesis of the disease is complex, multifactorial and not fully elucidated; many factors and mechanisms are involved in the development, progression and clinical outcomes of the disease. Despite the disparate mechanisms involved in renal damage related to diabetes mellitus, the metabolic mechanisms involving oxidative/inflammatory pathways are widely accepted. The is clear evidence that a chronic hyperglycemic state triggers oxidative stress and inflammation mediated by altered metabolic pathways in a self-perpetuating cycle, promoting progression of cell injury and of end-stage renal disease. The present study presents an update on metabolic pathways that involve redox imbalance and inflammation induced by chronic exposure to hyperglycemia in the pathogenesis of diabetic kidney disease.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Diabetes Mellitus/complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Kidney, Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Oxidation-Reduction</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflammation</kwd>
        <kwd>Oxidative Stress</kwd>
        <kwd>Renal Dialysis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a devastating outcome of diabetes mellitus (DM), responsible for high morbidity and overall mortality. It is clinically characterized by persistent renal dysfunction for a period equal to or longer than three months, marked by urinary excretion of albumin &gt;30 mg/24 h or an albumin/creatinine ratio (ACR) &#8805; 30 mg/g or glomerular filtration rate (GFR) &lt; 60 mL/min/1.73 m after a hyperfiltration phase, in addition to structural abnormalities (e.g. diabetic glomerulosclerosis) in individuals with previous diagnosis of DM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
			</p>
      <p>It is estimated that approximately 425 million people have DM in the world, with a projected increase by 48% to the yar of 2045. Approximately 12.5 million people are diagnosed with DM in Brazil, which occupies the third position in number of individuals with DM in the world in 2017.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Nearly 90% of DM patients develop microvascular and macrovascular complications; DKD is considered one of the most severe clinical outcomes, affecting 20-40% of the patients, most of them type 2 DM patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> DKD is currently the main cause of dialysis in developed countries, the second main cause in Brazil.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
			</p>
      <p>DKD is a progressive and irreversible condition, whose pathogenesis has been associated with functional and structural changes of renal cells in response to metabolic stress induced by excessive glucose inflow, by means of activation of specific metabolic pathways linked to redox imbalance and inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Although many classical mechanisms involved in the development and progression of DKD have been described, new molecular and epigenetic pathways have been suggested to be responsible for the early kidney functional loss and DKD-related complications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In this review we discuss current knowledge of metabolic pathways involving redox imbalance and inflammation induced by chronic exposure to hyperglycemia in the pathogenesis of DKD, aiming to propose new paradigms.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Pathophysiology of DKD induced by hyperglycemia: new paradigms</title>
        <p>DKD is a chronic metabolic disease in which hyperglycemia causes dysfunction of renal and vascular cells. The pathophysiology of DKD and the consequent end-stage renal disease requiring dialysis is caused by a chronic hyperglycemic state that leads to activation and changes of metabolic pathways and hemodynamic dysfunction. Some of these changes occur in an integrated way, leading to several other changes. Although diabetic hyperglycemia is an important but not crucial factor for the development of glomerular lesions in DKD, we will describe metabolic changes induced by intermittent and chronic exposure to hyperglycemia. The following topics will be discussed: glucose auto-oxidation, polyol and hexamine pathways, formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), synthesis of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (NOX), protein kinase C (PKC) activation, and abnormal activity of angiotensin II (Ang II).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Glucose uptake by diabetic kidney cells</title>
        <p>Hyperglycemia is the main clinical manifestation of DM, the main driving force for the development of chronic complications of the disease, including DKD. It is caused by two main mechanisms: the first involves dysfunction and apoptosis of pancreatic beta cells caused by an autoimmune abnormality (type 1 DM), and the second results from an overstimulation of insulin synthesis and secretion in the presence of insulin resistance (IR), mostly associated with overweight/obesity, which characterizes type 2 DM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In the context of obesity, which is common in patients at risk of type 2 DM, IR results from increased levels of free fatty acids (FFAs), and the FFA by-products pro-inflammatory cytokines and diacylglycerols (DAG), that inhibit phosphorylation of the insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) in phosphorylation domains (serine/threonine), preventing the propagation of signals to the translocation of the glucose transporter-4 (GLUT4) translocation to the plasma membrane. This affects the interaction between insulin and its receptor, leading to decreased glucose uptake by insulin-dependent cells, and ultimately hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In additional, in obese diabetic individuals, excessive accumulation of fat causes stress of adipocytes by hyperplasia and hypertrophy, leading to hypoxia and subclinical inflammation, increased macrophage infiltration and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines - tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1 (IL-1) - which, in turn, aggravates IR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> TNF-&#945; stimulates the secretion of other cytokines and chemokines and directly activates the transcription factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B), thereby leading to maintenance of chronic hyperglycemia, by affecting glucose uptake and promoting IR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In attempt to reestablish homeostasis, glucose uptake occurs in cells not dependent on GLUT4, and hence, non-insulin-dependent, such as renal cells, that have GLUT 1 and GLU2 as glucose transporters. These glucose carriers do not regulate glucose entry into cells, leading to glucotoxicity. In this situation, there is elevated expression of these transporters, leading to increased entry of glucose into renal cells, as occurs with the high-affinity glucose transporter GLUT 2, stimulated by hyperglycemia, and the sodium-glucose co-transporter (SGLT) 1 and SGLT 2, responsible for tubular reabsorption.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Thus, in DM patients, glucose reabsorption in the proximal tubule is increased, contributing to hyperglycemia and, consequently, hyperfiltration.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) induced by hyperglycemia</title>
        <p>Glucotoxicity is caused by an inability of the cells to compensate for the increased glucose uptake in case of IR/hyperglycemia, as in DM. Increased stimulation of glucose oxidation pathways in non-insulin-dependent cells leads to the activation of alternative pathways, increased production of RONS and oxidative stress (OS) in hyperglycemic state.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Glucose auto-oxidation</title>
        <p>In glycemic homeostasis and in the absence of oxygen, glycolysis is the primary energy source in the cells. By-products of these reactions are coenzymes responsible for the uptake of high energy electrons, released during oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, that participate in additional energy pathways.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> The synthesis of substrates by glycolysis activates two other energy pathways: the tricarboxylic acid cycle (or the Krebs cycle) and the electron transport chain (ETC) (or the oxidative phosphorylation) in the mitochondria through protein complexes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In DM, the hyperglycemic state promotes the overactivation of the three main energy pathways previously described. The increased stimulation of glycolysis and Krebs cycle result in elevated production of reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2) and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), fed into the ETC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The ETC is a source of reactive oxygen species (ROS), especially in renal cells, which have a large number of mitochondria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> In diabetic kidney cells, highly stimulated, hyperpolarized mitochondria with high redox potential, produce increased levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and superoxide anion (O<sub>2</sub><sup>-&#8226;</sup>) through the complexes I and II. O2-&#8226; originates both radical and non-radical RONS, including hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), the hydroxyl radical (&#8226;OH) and the ONOO<sup>-</sup>, which may be involved in the genesis of the lesions (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Oxidative stress and enzymatic antioxidant defense system in diabetic renal cells. CAT: catalase; ROS: reactive oxygen species; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GSH: glutathione; GSSG: oxidized glutathione; RG: reduced glutathione; H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>: hydrogen peroxide; NRF2: nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2; O<sub>2</sub>: molecular oxygen; NOX: NADPH oxidase; O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;-</sup>: superoxide anion radical; <sup>&#8226;</sup>OH: hydroxyl radical; SOD: superoxide dismutase. Adapted from Bhargava.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-05-0577-90077-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>In the kidney of diabetic or diabetic/obese individuals, mitochondrial energy, altered by hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia, causes mitochondrial dysfunction and excess ROS, which are harmful to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) by inhibiting the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) and the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). These changes alter the activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1&#945;), and thereby affect mitochondrial biogenesis, by increasing mitochondrial fission and the synthesis of defective mitochondria. This can lead to impairment of the ECT functions, with reduced synthesis of ATP, leading to renal cell lesion and apoptosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In addition, increased glycolysis causes hyperactivation of polyol and hexosamine metabolic pathways, and increases the synthesis of AGEs and activation of PKC. This also result in decreased ATP levels, contributing to mitochondrial dysfunction and fragmentation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Polyol pathway</title>
        <p>One of the consequences of the increased glucose uptake by the cells is the increment in the NADPH-dependent conversion of glucose into sorbitol by aldose reductase. Sorbitol is then converted to fructose, by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> NADPH is an important cofactor for regeneration of the antioxidant glutathione (GSH). Therefore, in light of increased aldose reductase activity, the low availability of NADPH affects the antioxidant defense, resulting in redox imbalance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The increase in O2&#8226;- inhibits the activity of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), which, in turn, inhibits glycolysis and activates alternative pathways. The increase in the NADH/NAD ratio increases the production of DAG, which activates PKC. Fructose, an end-product of the pathway, has been recently related to kidney injury markers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Protein kinase C (PKC)</title>
        <p>Both hyperglycemia and increased stimulation of glycolysis by-products increase the synthesis of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and its conversion into dihydroxyacetone, and thereby promote the synthesis of DAG, a PKC-activating factor (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Schematic representation of the pathways preceding glycolysis and induction of oxidative stress. ETC: electron transport chain; 1,3-BPG: bisphosphoglycerate; G6P: glucose 6-phosphate; G3P: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; F6P: fructose-6-phosphate; F-1,6-P: fructose-1,6-phosphate; PKC: protein kinase C; AGE; advanced glycation end-products</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-05-0577-90077-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>In renal cells, increased PKC stimulates several mechanisms involved in the development of kidney injury. The induction and activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) by PKC increases the availability of nitric oxide (NO) in diabetic kidney in the first stages of DKD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Increased NO contributes to elevation of prostaglandin E1 levels, Ang II activity, and activation of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), resulting in increased permeability, endothelial dysfunction, glomerular hyperfiltration and albuminuria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In prolonged diabetes, persistent hyperglycemia reduces the levels of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), an eNOS cofactor, with proportional reduction in NO synthesis in vascular endothelium, leading to vasoconstriction and glomerular and systemic hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Hyperglycemia-related endothelial damage is caused by a nitroso-redox imbalance, by increased RONs (resulting from the interaction between O2&#8226;- and NO, which leads to increased ONOO- and decreased vascular NO), leading to endothelial dysfunction and DKD progression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Increased expression of PKC leads to activation of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-&#946;) and the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), resulting in increased deposition of fibronectin, collagen types I and IV and extracellular matrix deposition, and consequently, renal hypertrophy, glomerulosclerosis and renal fibrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Hexosamines</title>
        <p>The hyperfunction of this pathway, stimulated by hyperglycemia, promotes the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate, and the synthesis of uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) as end product, which is <italic>O</italic>-glycosylated into N-acetylglucosamine (<italic>O</italic>-GlcNAc) by the <italic>O</italic>-GlcNAc transferase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The excess of <italic>O</italic>-GlcNAc is responsible for stimulating and modifying cell protein. In DKD, changes in genetic expression increase TNF-&#945; transcription, thereby inducing renal damage via OS, and overproduction of extracellular matrix proteins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Advanced glycation end products (AGEs)</title>
        <p>AGEs are uremic toxins and their involvement in the development of renal damage may be partially explained by increased endogenous synthesis resulting from hyperglycemia, diet and insufficient clearance of these products due to reduced GFR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
				</p>
        <p>AGEs are formed through non-enzymatic amino-carbonyl reactions, or Maillard reaction between the carbonyl group of glucose, fructose, galactose and ribose, or intermediates of glucose metabolism (glucose-6-phosphate, fructose-6-phosphate, ribose-5-phosphate, deoxyribose-5-phosphate and glyceraldehyde), with an amine group and other molecules, to form a reversible Schiff base, and subsequently, Amadori products, which are initial products of the Maillard reaction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Synthesis of the Amadori products is accelerated in hyperglycemic conditions, and these compounds are highly reactive with amine groups and metal ions through glycoxidation of biological molecules, forming glyoxal (GO), methylglyoxal (MGO), and malondialdehyde (MDA).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
        <p>After AGEs' metabolism and removal from the tissues, the low molecular weight, soluble peptides and the second generation AGEs need to be excreted in the urine. Second generation AGEs can be highly reactive products, but their effects are limited by renal excretion. However, in renal failure, AGEs excretion is impaired, contributing to the increased levels in serum and tissues.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Such increase in the endogenous pool of AGEs causes direct damage to the cells by interaction of extracellular proteins with cellular components (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleotides), affecting cellular structure and functions. These modified proteins have decreased enzymatic hydrolysis, resulting in excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins, glomerulosclerosis, and consequently, renal fibrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In addition to direct extra- and intracellular damage, AGEs interact with their transmembrane receptor - the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), which are expressed in many types of renal and inflammatory cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Following the substrate/receptor interaction, a cascade of reactions inside the cell is initiated. These reactions regulate the transcription of proteins, adhesion molecules and proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6 e TNF-&#945;, mediated by the activation of macrophages via NF-&#954;B, exacerbating subclinical tissue inflammation associated with DM in DKD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The AGEs/RAGEs interaction is associated with increased production of RONs; it contributes to the OS by direct activation of NOX (by mitochondrial activation through the RAGEs in renal cells and infiltrated immune cells). Also, AGs reduces the expression of eNOS and increases the expression of inducible NOS (iNOS), triggering OS by increased ONOO<sup>-</sup> production and reducing NO availability. Consequently endothelial dysfunction occurs by synthesis of vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) and TGF-&#946;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>NADPH-oxidases</title>
        <p>The NOX family of NADPH oxidases is an important source of ROS in DM. There are seven different NOX isoforms: NOX1, NOX2, NOX3, NOX4 (formerly known as "renox" due to its high expression in renal tissue), NOX5 and the dual oxidases 1 and 2 (DUOX1 and DUOX2, respectively).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> NADPH oxidases are transmembrane proteins responsible for transferring electrons from cytosolic NADPH to the O<sub>2</sub>, which is reduced to O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;</sup>, thereby perpetuating the oxidative stress state in renal cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>NOX-derived ROS regulate physiological processes in the kidneys. However, they are upregulated in hyperglycemic renal cells, and abnormally activated by AGEs, PKC, TGF&#946; and Ang II, resulting in O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;-</sup> overproduction and accumulation. O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;-</sup> acts as an important mediator of redox imbalance and damage to different kidney cell components.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Angiotensin II</title>
        <p>Chronic hyperglycemia in DM induces increased synthesis of Ang II and its receptors by glomerular and mesangial cells, and podocytes. It increases the expression of renin and angiotensinogen in mesangial cells, elevating intrarenal angiotensin levels. This mechanism is exacerbated by ROS accumulation in adipose tissue, where Ang II is produced.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Elevations of Ang II contribute to abnormal activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), aggravating mechanical damages induced by systemic and intraglomerular hypertension in the kidney. Additional effects of Ang II include direct mediation in RON production, early hyperplasia and late hypertrophy of renal cells, by stimulation of TGF-&#946;, IL-6 and MCP-1, and activation and upregulation of NF-&#954;B.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Hemodynamic changes in diabetic kidney damage</title>
        <p>Early DKD is marked by changes in renal hemodynamics caused by hyperglycemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> The initial hemodynamic events are characterized by glomerular hyperperfusion, hypertension and hyperfiltration, and responsible for functional and structural changes in the glomeruli, resulting in albuminuria, increase followed by decrease of GFR, glomerular hypertrophy, mesangial expansion, podocyte injury, glomerulosclerosis and renal fibrosis, and natural history DKD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Hypertension commonly precedes DKD, especially in DM2. However, persistent metabolic disturbances cause sustained hypertension, and dysregulation of pressure levels, inducing and/or aggravating diabetic kidney injury.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> The mechanism of hypertension in DKD is complex, multifactorial, and involves altered sodium regulation, such as renal tubular reabsorption of sodium, abnormal activation of the RAAS and of sympathetic nervous system (SNS), endothelial cell dysfunction, and increased OS. These processes mediate vasoconstriction and increase extracellular volume with consequent increase in blood pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Among hemodynamic factors that contribute to hypertension and renal hyperfiltration, RAAS has been the most widely accepted for the development of DKD, and its blockade has shown to delay the progression of the disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Mechanical stress on vascular wall induced by hypertension, hyperglycemia, inflammation and ROS considerably increase Ang II production in renal cells and contribute to RAAS hyperactivation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> This in turn, contributes to systemic and renal vascular vasoconstriction, and renal reabsorption of sodium via interaction with Ang II receptor type 1 (AT1) and aldosterone release, leading to elevations in blood pressure, intraglomerular pressure and renal damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The effects of Ang II on redox imbalance (additional effects of Ang II on inflammation and redox imbalance, and important factors in the pathophysiology of DKD are described above) via production of O2<sup>&#8226;-</sup> by local NOXs induce endothelial dysfunction (due to an imbalance between vasoconstrictor and vasodilator factors).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> In response to increased ROS, there is a reduction in the synthesis of NO, a potent vasodilator that interacts with the substrate BH4, reducing eNOS activity. Besides, there is a direct effect of the O2<sup>&#8226;-</sup> on reducing NO and ONOO<sup>-</sup>, and reducing NO availability, leading to sustained vasoconstriction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The actions of Ang II, in addition to endothelial dysfunction, vasoconstriction and vascular resistance, induced by the OS, result in elevations in the pressure of afferent arterioles, which, in turn, cause an increase in systemic blood pressure, glomerular hyperperfusion and hyperfiltration, and proteinuria, leading to progressive DKD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In addition, sodium-hydrogen exchangers (NHEs) play an important role on renal and systemic hemodynamics in DKD. NHEs are expressed in different types of renal cells and regulate sodium (Na<sup>+</sup>) and hydrogen (H<sup>+</sup>) transport, essential for different cell functions, including maintenance of intracellular pH, fluid volume and cell survival.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> In the kidneys, particularly in tubular cells and macula densa cells, NHE isoforms 1, 2 and 3 (NHE1, NHE2 and NHE3, respectively) play an important role in the pathogenesis of DKD, by inducing intraglomerular hypertension and mesangial proliferation, and by promoting of inhibiting programmed cell death (apoptotic factors), contributing to renal fibrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In macula densa cells, the NHE2 receptors are involved in the regulation of renin and salt sensors. The suggested mechanism is that cell shrinkage (induced by hypertonicity), together with Ang II, is the renin-release signal, leading to the overexpression of the RAAS and increase in intraglomerular pressure. This would activate the signaling pathway that results in increased expression of the NHE receptors in renal cells (promoting a vicious circle).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> Also, salt excess, induced by NHE in the macula densa, causes an increase in intracellular pH and cell depolarization, leading to activation of ROS synthesis by the NOX enzymes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>
				</p>
        <p>NHEs are targets of many drug therapies, including inhibitors of the RAAS and of SGLTs, which are involved in NHE blockade in the kidneys, contributing to reduction of intraglomerular pressure, and of proliferative and fibrotic processes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Blockade of the RAAS and Ang II with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and Ang II receptor blockers (either combined or alone), have shown to be effective in reducing proteinuria and delaying the progression of DKD by their hemodynamic/anti-hypertensive, anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic effects, and hence could be used to improve the prognosis of DKD patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Redox imbalance in DKD</title>
        <p>OS is the first stage of DKD and activates pathological pathways in practically all types of renal cells, including endothelial, mesangial, epithelial, tubular cells and podocytes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> OS results from an imbalance in which the increase in RONs overwhelms the lower efficient (enzymatic and non-enzymatic) antioxidant system, leading to the redox imbalance between pro- and antioxidants.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The generation of RONs occurs in many types of cells in the kidneys and infiltrating cells, such as immune cells, neutrophils and macrophages. A substantial increase in glucose auto-oxidation, combined with greater ETC activation and mitochondrial stress, is accompanied by increased RON production, accounting for nearly 80% of all reactive species.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> In addition to these pathways, other enzymatic systems, such as uncoupled eNOS and NOXs, and non-enzymatic systems, such as Ang II, are involved in ROS generation in the kidney of diabetic patients and obese diabetic patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The overproduction of RON induced by hyperglycemia reduces the expression of antioxidant enzymes, including the superoxide dismutase (SOD) (particularly the manganese SOD subtype that acts in the mitochondria), thioredoxin reductase, and catalase (CAT), and decreases regeneration of reduced glutathione (GSH) by activation of the polyol pathway. In addition, spontaneous reduction of non-enzymatic antioxidants occurs in consequence of increased ROS in response to increased demand.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> The SOD is considered the main physiological defense against ROS, as it initiates the enzymatic antioxidant defense by reacting with O2<sup>-&#8226;</sup> to form H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, which will be degraded by CAT and GPx (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In low concentrations, RONs modulate transcription factors of antioxidant enzymes, essential for OS attenuation. Among these transcription factors, there is the nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2), which translocate to the nucleus to activate the transcription of genes responsible for codifying antioxidant enzymes like SOD, CAT and GPx, thereby suppressing the NF-kB activity. However, in ROS overproduction, as found in DM, these defenses are not effective in blocking or preventing the establishment of the redox imbalance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In diabetic kidney, RONs decreases the expression of sirtuins (SIRT), enzymes responsible or modulating the regeneration of antioxidants via acetylation of the ETC, essential for the stimulation of mitochondrial SOD and induction of transcription factors, (such as the PGC1-&#945;), attenuating mitochondrial stress and NRF2 activation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> Also, the O-GlcNAc, product of hexosamines, attenuates the SIRT activity, contributing to exacerbation of this process in DM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> In the kidney of diabetic rats, reduced expression of PGC-1&#945;, a regulator of oxidative metabolism and mitochondrial biogenesis, has been associated with higher production of RONs by aggravating mitochondrial dysfunction and fragmentation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A gradual decrease in the antioxidant defenses in chronic kidney disease has been described <italic>in vivo</italic>, opening a new field of treatment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> Recent studies have shown the efficacy of high antioxidant intake as an adjuvant in the treatment of DKD, by helping in both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense against harmful compounds.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In a recent meta-analysis, Bolignano et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> evaluated 14 studies (4,345 participants) for the effects of antioxidant supplementation (including vitamin C, vitamin E and zinc, either combined or alone) on DKD disease progression and markers of renal function. The authors concluded that the antioxidant therapy significantly decreased albuminuria, but apparently had no tangible effect on renal function in patients with diabetic kidney disease. Stronger evidence of benefits was found for vitamin E at doses varying from 480 mg to 1,200 mg/day.</p>
        <p>Experimental studies on vitamin and mineral supplementation, such as vitamin D, vitamin E and zinc, have shown favorable results in reducing renal failure, inflammation and OS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> Besides, phenolic compounds and flavonoids have shown beneficial effects as therapeutic agents in the treatment of DKD in cells and animals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Immunological disorders in DKD: the role of inflammation</title>
        <p>DKD has been associated with systemic and intrarenal inflammation. Persistent metabolic and hemodynamic stimuli in diabetic kidney result in cell lesion that releases molecules known DAMPs - danger-associated molecular pattern - including PGAs, ROS, FFAs. These compounds interact with pattern recognition receptors, including Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 and RAGE, positively regulated by hyperglycemia. In the presence of DAMPs/receptors interaction, the intrarenal innate immune response is activated.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The myeloid lineage of innate immune cells causes renal inflammation in diabetic conditions, with involvement of several immune cells in the pathogenesis and severity of renal damage. However, pro-inflammatory factors released in diabetic renal tissue include not only infiltrating inflammatory cells, but also cytokines and chemokines found in non-immune cells, such as in parenchymal cells (podocytes, and endothelial, epithelial, mesangial and tubular cells), exacerbating the inflammatory process that leads to progressive damages in DKD (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Chart 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
				</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Chart 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Inflammatory cytokines and their effects on renal function in diabetes mellitus</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="5%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="30%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="30%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="5%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Cytokines</th>
                <th align="center">Stimulated by</th>
                <th align="center">Specialized producing cells</th>
                <th align="center">Exerts positive effects on</th>
                <th align="center">Effects on DKD</th>
                <th align="center">Target cells in the kidneys</th>
                <th align="center">Ref.</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IL-1&#945;,<break/>IL-1&#946;</td>
                <td align="center">Inflammasome<break/>IL-18 and NF-&#954;B</td>
                <td align="center">Macrophages, Granulocytes<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>
									<break/>Tubular epithelial Endothelial, Mesangial<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">&#8224;</xref>
									<break/>Fibroblasts<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">&#8225;</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">&#8593; ICAM-1, &#8593; VCAM-1, &#8593; Prostaglandin E2</td>
                <td align="center">&#8593; Intraglomerular hemodynamic abnormality, &#8593; Synthesis of hyaluronic acid,<break/>&#8593; Proliferation of mesangial cells and fibroblasts,<break/>&#8593;ECM accumulation</td>
                <td align="center">Epithelial, Mesangial, Tubular</td>
                <td align="center">[77, 83]</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IL-6</td>
                <td align="center">Hyperglycemia, AGEs, TNF-&#945;, LPS, IL-1, IL-4</td>
                <td align="center">T lymphocytes, Macrophages, Neutrophils<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>
									<break/>Endothelial, Podocytes, Mesangial, Tubular epithelial<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">&#8224;</xref>
									<break/>Fibroblasts<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">&#8225;</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">&#8593; MCP-1, &#8593; expression of Ang II receptors, &#8593; ROS</td>
                <td align="center">&#8593; Recruitment of monocytes, &#8593; Differentiation of macrophages, &#8593; Synthesis of fibronectin, &#8593; Synthesis and accumulation of ECM, &#8593; Mesangial cell proliferation, &#8593; Endothelial dysfunction &#8593; Tubulointerstitial fibrosis</td>
                <td align="center">Mesangial, Podocytes, Endothelial, Tubular epithelial</td>
                <td align="center">[84, 85]</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IL-18</td>
                <td align="center">NF-&#954;B, Inflammasome, Caspase-1</td>
                <td align="center">T lymphocytes and Macrophages<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>
									<break/>Epithelial, Tubular<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">&#8224;</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">&#8593; IFN-&#947;, &#8593; IL-1, IL-6, TNF-&#945;, iNOS, ICAM-1, TGF-&#946;, MCP-1</td>
                <td align="center">&#8593; Apoptosis of endothelial cells, &#8593; infiltration off macrophages and neutrophils</td>
                <td align="center">Endothelial, Tubular epithelial</td>
                <td align="center">[30, 86, 87]</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">TNF-&#945;</td>
                <td align="center">NF-&#954;B</td>
                <td align="center">Dendritic, Monocytes, Macrophages, Tlymphocytes<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>
									<break/>Mesangial, Endothelial, Tubular<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">&#8224;</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">&#8593; Immune response &#8593; NF-&#954;B</td>
                <td align="center">&#8593; Inflammatory cells, cell infiltration &#8593; Citotoxicity, apoptosis, &#8593; Endothelial permeability, &#8595; Capillary wall barrier function, &#8593; PKC, &#8593;NOX, &#8593; ROS; &#8593; ECM</td>
                <td align="center">Mesangial, Podocytes, Endothelial, Glomerular; Tubular epithelial</td>
                <td align="center">[19, 78, 83]</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Infiltrating immune cells;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <label>&#8224;</label>
              <p>Renal cells;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <label>&#8225;</label>
              <p>Other cell types. Ang II: angiotensin 2; ROS: reactive oxygen species; TNF-a: tumor necrosis factors alfa; NF-&#954;B: nuclear factor-kappa B; IFN-&#947;: interferon gamma; IL-1: interleukin 1; IL-1a: interleukin 1 alpha; IL-1b: interleukin 1 beta; IL-6: interleukin 6; IL-18: interleukin 18; IL-4:interleukin 4; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule 1; VCAM-1: vascular cell adhesion molecule; ECM: extracellular matrix; NOX: NADPH oxidase; AGE: advanced glycation end-products; MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein; PKC: protein kinase C; iNOS: nitric oxide synthase; TGF-b: transforming growth factor-beta</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In addition, the binding of DAMPs with their receptors has been associated with activation of molecular and transcription factors that promote activation of NF-&#954;B, facilitating the expression of many pro-inflammatory genes (cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, immune receptors and growth factors). Consequently, NF-&#954;B has been considered a master regulator of immune responses and inflammation in DKD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The main proinflammatory cytokines are IL-1, IL-6, IL18 and TNF-&#945;; all of them have autocrine, paracrine and juxtacrine mechanisms with pleiotropic effects that regulate the expression of cytokines, interleukins, TNF-&#945;, interferons, growth factors, adhesion molecules and nuclear transcription factors, promoting the increase and perpetuation of inflammation and OS in diabetic kidney (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Chart 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Intracellular metabolic changes with increased AGEs and ROS lead to increased release of MCP-1, which promotes the activation of monocytes and macrophages. These, in turn, are associated with increased expression of adhesion molecules and synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines, leading to hyperfiltration and glomerular lesions, typical of DKD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Due to its close relationship with obesity, kidney damage of patients with type 2 DM is associated with early activation of the immune system, which is related to chronic, low-grade systemic inflammation induced by adipose tissue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Redox imbalance and inflammation in DKD: a vicious circle</title>
        <p>Several hemodynamic and metabolic pathways are involved in the pathogenesis of DKD. In a common pathway, the interrelation between redox imbalance and inflammation induced by hyperglycemia occurs by mechanisms that involves cellular and molecular processes in a cascade of bioenergetic changes, promoting changes in extracellular, cellular and mitochondrial morphology, genetic expression modulation, induction of lesions, tissue hypertrophy, and renal fibrosis and necrosis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Mediators of kidney injury induced by chronic hyperglycemia via redox imbalance and inflammation in the pathogenesis of diabetic kidney disease. ROS: reactive oxygen species; ERK: extracellular signal-related kinases; TNF- &#945;: tumor necrosis factor alpha; NF-&#954;B: nuclear factor-kappa B; VEGF: the vascular endothelial growth factor; IL-1: interleukin 1; IL-6: interleukin 6; IL-18: interleukin 18; ECM: extracellular matrix; NOX: NADPH oxidase; -O-GLaNAc: O-glycosylated into N-acetylglucosamine; PAI-1: plasminogen activator inhibitor-1; AGE: advanced glycation end-products; PKC: protein kinase C; MCP-1: monocyte chemotactic protein-1; RPGA: receptor for advanced glycation end products; RAAS: renin-angiotensin aldosterone system; TGF-&#946;: transforming growth factor-beta.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-05-0577-90077-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Inflammation is mediated by the upregulation of NF-&#954;B expression by OS, AGEs and TNF-&#945;, which controls the immune response by stimulating genetic expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, adhesion molecules, NOS, cell proliferation and progression of the inflammatory cycle and OS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref> ROS and the AGE-RAGE interaction, stimulated by DM-related hyperglycemia, act as mediators of the multiprotein complex inflammasome Nlrp, which regulates the cleavage of pro-inflammatory cytokines from the mature, active forms into innate immune cells, renal endothelial cells, glomerular cells and podocytes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-18, IFN-&#947;), mediated by AGE/RAGE, TNF-&#945; and NF-&#954;B, causes an increase in RONs and transcription factors (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Chart 1</xref>), which lead to local and systemic inflammation, glomerular and tubular lesions, and ultimately, albuminuria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> Among the cytokines, TNF-&#945; is known to cause direct cytotoxicity and apoptosis of renal cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> A recent meta-analysis showed a statistically significant increase in serum concentrations of TNF-&#945; in type 2 DM patients, especially in those with DKD, suggesting that increased inflammatory load in DKD contributes to disease progression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The expression of profibrotic transcription factors, such as the TGF-&#946; and connective tissue growth factor, triggers the recruitment of extracellular matrix-producing cells, accelerating renal sclerotic and fibrotic processes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> TGF-&#946; plays pleiotropic effects, promoting hyperplasia and hypertrophy of renal cells. In the extracellular matrix, TGF-&#946; is found in a latent form, bound to proteins, requiring cleavage to release of its free, active form. This activation is performed by mediators produced under hyperglycemic condition, including AGEs, ROS, DAG, PKC, Ang II, among others. Once activated, TGF-&#946; binds to its cell receptor, and regulates the transcription of target genes, including collagen types I, III and IV, fibronectin, plasminogen, and PAI-I, with net effect of protein synthesis and expansion of the extracellular matrix, glomerulosclerosis and renal fibrosis. It also activates NF-&#954;B, contributing to the production of proinflammatory cytokines, exacerbating local inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Recently, there has been increasing evidence that redox imbalance and inflammation in response to intermittent or chronic exposure to hyperglycemia play an important role in initiation and perpetuation of DM complications, including DKD. They are now considered the main contributors to the development of DKD and end-stage kidney disease. New pathological pathways, associated with renal dysfunction in DM and that particularly exacerbate metabolic pathways, have been identified, such as the association between DKD and obesity. Therefore, metabolic, inflammatory and oxidative interference of DM and other risk factors for DKD should be continuously investigated and updated not only to improve the understanding of the mechanisms, but also to determine new therapeutic targets.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Rayne Gomes Amorim, from P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Nutri&#231;&#227;o da Universidade Federal de Alagoas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Erratum</bold>
        </p>
        <p>In review article &#8220;Kidney Disease in Diabetes Mellitus: Cross-Linking between Hyperglycemia, Redox Imbalance and Inflammation&#8221;, consider Sandra Mary Lima Vasconcelos as the correct form for the name of the author Sandra Mary de Lima Vasconcelos.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ack>
      <title>Acknowledgment</title>
      <p>The present work was carried out with the support of the Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aperfei&#231;oamento de Pessoal de N&#237;vel Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Financing Code 001.</p>
    </ack>
    <ref-list>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Doen&#231;a Renal do Diabetes: <italic>Cross-Linking</italic> entre Hiperglicemia, Desequil&#237;brio Redox e Inflama&#231;&#227;o</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0632-2890</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Amorim</surname>
            <given-names>Rayne Gomes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Guedes</surname>
            <given-names>Glaucevane da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vasconcelos</surname>
            <given-names>Sandra Mary Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana C&#233;lia de Farias</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Alagoas - Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o, Macei&#243;, AL - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Juliana C&#233;lia de Farias Santos,</bold> Universidade Federal de Alagoas Ringgold standard institution - Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o - Avenida Lourival de Melo Mota, Km14, CEP 57072-970, Tabuleiro do Martins, Macei&#243;, AL - Brasil. E-mail: <email>jcfsnut@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Santos JCF, Amorim RG, Vasconcelos S; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Santos JCF, Amorim RG, Guedes GS, Vasconcelos S</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A hiperglicemia cr&#244;nica &#233; o ponto-chave das complica&#231;&#245;es macro e microvasculares associadas ao diabetes mellitus. O excesso de glicose &#233; respons&#225;vel por induzir desequil&#237;brio redox e inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica e intra-renal, desempenhando um papel cr&#237;tico na patog&#234;nese da doen&#231;a renal do diabetes, configurada atualmente como a principal causa de doen&#231;a renal dial&#237;tica em todo o mundo. A patog&#234;nese da doen&#231;a &#233; complexa, multifatorial e, n&#227;o totalmente elucidada, estando v&#225;rios fatores e mecanismos associados ao seu desenvolvimento, progress&#227;o e desfechos cl&#237;nicos. Apesar dos mecanismos d&#237;spares envolvidos nos danos renais durante o diabetes, os caminhos metab&#243;licos pela via oxidativa/inflamat&#243;ria s&#227;o amplamente aceitos e discutidos. As evid&#234;ncias acentuam que o estado hiperglic&#234;mico cr&#244;nico desencadeia o estresse oxidativo e a inflama&#231;&#227;o mediada por diversas vias metab&#243;licas alteradas em um ciclo-vicioso de autoperpetua&#231;&#227;o, promovendo aumento da inj&#250;ria celular e progress&#227;o para a doen&#231;a renal dial&#237;tica. O presente artigo traz, portanto, uma atualiza&#231;&#227;o sobre os caminhos metab&#243;licos que envolvem o desequil&#237;brio redox e a inflama&#231;&#227;o induzidos pela exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica &#224; hiperglicemia na patog&#234;nese da doen&#231;a renal do diabetes.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Diabetes Mellitus/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Nefropatias</kwd>
        <kwd>Hiperglicemia</kwd>
        <kwd>Oxirredu&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflama&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Estresse Oxidativo</kwd>
        <kwd>Di&#225;lise Renal</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A doen&#231;a renal do diabetes (DRD) &#233; um desfecho devastador do diabetes mellitus (DM) sendo respons&#225;vel por altas taxas de morbidade e mortalidade global. Clinicamente, caracteriza-se por anormalidades renais persistentes por per&#237;odo igual ou superior a tr&#234;s meses, evidenciadas por excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de albumina (EUA) &gt;30 mg/24h ou rela&#231;&#227;o albumina-creatinina (RAC) &#8805;30 mg/g de creatinina ou taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular (TGF) &lt; 60 mL/min/1,73 m, ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o ou ainda anormalidades estruturais (glomeruloesclerose diab&#233;tica) presentes em indiv&#237;duos com diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de DM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Estima-se que aproximadamente 425 milh&#245;es de pessoas em todo o mundo apresentem DM, sendo projetado para 2045 um aumento de 48%. No Brasil o n&#250;mero de diagn&#243;sticos chega a 12,5 milh&#245;es, ocupando a quarta posi&#231;&#227;o no <italic>ranking</italic> mundial no ano de 2017.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Cerca de 90% dos portadores de DM desenvolvem complica&#231;&#245;es micro e macrovasculares, sendo a DRD considerada um dos mais graves desfechos cl&#237;nicos, acometendo 20 a 40% dos seus portadores, a maioria dos portadores de DRD s&#227;o diab&#233;ticos do tipo 2 (DMT2).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> A DRD constitui, atualmente, a principal causa de doen&#231;a renal dial&#237;tica em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, segunda maior no Brasil.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
				</p>
        <p>De car&#225;ter progressivo e irrevers&#237;vel, a patog&#234;nese da DRD est&#225; associada &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais e estruturais dos diferentes tipos de c&#233;lulas renais como resposta ao estresse metab&#243;lico induzido pelo influxo excessivo de glicose celular, atrav&#233;s da ativa&#231;&#227;o de vias metab&#243;licas espec&#237;ficas interligadas ao desequil&#237;brio redox e inflama&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Embora v&#225;rios caminhos cl&#225;ssicos que conduzam ao desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o da DRD tenham sido descritos, novos mecanismos moleculares e epigen&#233;ticos est&#227;o sendo discutidos e explicam o aceleramento da perda precoce das fun&#231;&#245;es renais e complica&#231;&#245;es/desfechos associadas &#224; DRD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Nesta revis&#227;o, discute-se numa perspectiva de atualiza&#231;&#227;o, os caminhos metab&#243;licos que envolvem o desequil&#237;brio redox e a inflama&#231;&#227;o induzidos pela exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica &#224; hiperglicemia na patog&#234;nese da DRD, com o objetivo de suscitar novos paradigmas.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Fisiopatologia da DRD induzida pela hiperglicemia: novos paradigmas</title>
          <p>A DRD &#233; uma doen&#231;a metab&#243;lica cr&#244;nica na qual a hiperglicemia provoca disfun&#231;&#227;o e les&#245;es em v&#225;rios tipos de c&#233;lulas renais e vasculares. A fisiopatologia que conduz seu desenvolvimento, bem como da doen&#231;a renal dial&#237;tica resultante &#233; decorrente do meio hiperglic&#234;mico cr&#244;nico que induz a ativa&#231;&#227;o e altera&#231;&#227;o de vias metab&#243;licas e disfun&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, algumas de forma combinada e integrada ativando diversas outras. A hiperglicemia diab&#233;tica &#233; um fator necess&#225;rio, mas n&#227;o crucial para o desenvolvimento das les&#245;es glomerulares observadas na DRD. Entretanto, descreveremos as altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas induzidas pela exposi&#231;&#227;o intermitente e cr&#244;nica ao excesso de glicose. Para esta discuss&#227;o abordaremos aqui a auto-oxida&#231;&#227;o da glicose, as vias do poliol e das hexosaminas, a forma&#231;&#227;o de produtos de glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada (PGAs), a produ&#231;&#227;o de nicotinamida adenina dinucleot&#237;deo fosfato (NADPH) oxidase (NOX), a ativa&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na quinase C (PKC) e a a&#231;&#227;o anormal da angiotensina II (Ang II).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Influxo de glicose nas c&#233;lulas renais diab&#233;ticas</title>
          <p>A hiperglicemia &#233; a principal manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do DM, &#233; a for&#231;a motriz para o desenvolvimento das complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas associadas &#224; doen&#231;a, dentre elas a DRD. Tal condi&#231;&#227;o ocorre por dois mecanismos principais: o primeiro envolve a disfun&#231;&#227;o e apoptose das c&#233;lulas &#946; pancre&#225;ticas por processo autoimune (DM tipo I (DMT1)) e o segundo ocorre por hiperestimula&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ntese e secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina na condi&#231;&#227;o de resist&#234;ncia &#224; a&#231;&#227;o deste horm&#244;nio (resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina (RI)), decorrente sobretudo do excesso de peso/obesidade, configurando o DMT2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					</p>
          <p>No contexto da obesidade, comum em pacientes com risco de desenvolver DMT2, a RI acontece por excesso de &#225;cidos graxos livres (AGLs), citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias e diacilglicerol (DAG), como subproduto dos AGLs extra-hep&#225;ticos, que em via comum, inibem a fosforila&#231;&#227;o do substrato 1 do receptor de insulina (IRS-1), em dom&#237;nios de fosforila&#231;&#227;o (serina/treonina), impedindo a propaga&#231;&#227;o do sinal para a transloca&#231;&#227;o do transportador de glicose tipo 4 (GLUT 4) para a membrana celular, o que compromete a intera&#231;&#227;o insulina/receptor e resultando em diminui&#231;&#227;o da capta&#231;&#227;o celular de glicose por c&#233;lulas dependentes de insulina, com consequente hiperglicemia e hiperinsulinemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Ainda no obeso, mecanismos adicionais est&#227;o envolvidos na perturba&#231;&#227;o do metabolismo da glicose. O ac&#250;mulo excessivo de tecido adiposo leva ao estresse das c&#233;lulas adiposas por hiperplasia e hipertrofia causando hip&#243;xia e consequente inflama&#231;&#227;o subcl&#237;nica, aumento da infiltra&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos e libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias [(fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;), interleucina 6 (IL-6) e interleucina (IL-1)], respons&#225;veis por exarcebar a RI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Dentre estas, o TNF-&#945; ganha destaque por estimular de forma c&#237;clica a secre&#231;&#227;o de outras citocinas e quimiocinas, al&#233;m de diretamente ativar o fator de transcri&#231;&#227;o kappa B (NF-kB), o que compromete ainda mais a capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose, promove a RI e mantem a hiperglicemia cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Na tentativa de retomar a homeostase, ocorre o influxo de glicose para as c&#233;lulas n&#227;o dependentes do GLUT 4 e, portanto, n&#227;o dependentes de insulina, a exemplo das c&#233;lulas renais, que possuem como transportador de glicose os tipos 1 (GLUT 1) e 2 (GLUT 2), incapazes de regular a entrada de glicose nas c&#233;lulas, que induz a glicotoxicidade intracelular. Nesta situa&#231;&#227;o, a express&#227;o desses transportadores ser&#227;o aumentadas, exacerbando a entrada de glicose nas c&#233;lulas renais, a exemplo do GLUT 2 que apresenta express&#227;o estimulada pela hiperglicemia (<italic>feedback</italic>) e possui alta afinidade com a glicose, e dos transportadores <italic>sodium glucose co-transporter</italic> (SGLT) 1 (SGLT1) e 2 (SGLT2), que s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pela reabsor&#231;&#227;o tubular de glicose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Portanto, em pacientes com DM a capacidade de reabsor&#231;&#227;o de glicose no t&#250;bulo proximal &#233; aumentada, contribuindo para a hiperglicemia e consequente hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sistemas de gera&#231;&#227;o de ERONs via hiperglicemia</title>
          <p>A glicotoxicidade ocorre pela incapacidade das c&#233;lulas de administrar o aumento excessivo do fluxo de glicose em situa&#231;&#227;o de RI/hiperglicemia como observados, por exemplo, no DM. A hiperestimula&#231;&#227;o das vias de oxida&#231;&#227;o de glicose em c&#233;lulas n&#227;o insulino dependentes contribuir&#225; adicionalmente para a ativa&#231;&#227;o de vias alternativas, contribuindo para o aumento da gera&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio e nitrog&#234;nio (ERONs) e indu&#231;&#227;o ao estresse oxidativo (EO) no estado hiperglic&#234;mico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Auto-oxida&#231;&#227;o da glicose</title>
          <p>Quando a homeostase glic&#234;mica &#233; mantida, a produ&#231;&#227;o de energia pelas c&#233;lulas, na aus&#234;ncia de oxig&#234;nio, ocorre prioritariamente pela glic&#243;lise. Os intermedi&#225;rios produzidos por estas rea&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o coenzimas respons&#225;veis por captar el&#233;trons de alta energia, liberados nas rea&#231;&#245;es de oxirredu&#231;&#227;o, que participam de vias energ&#233;ticas adicionais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> A produ&#231;&#227;o de substratos pela glic&#243;lise ir&#225; ativar duas vias energ&#233;ticas adicionais &#224; glic&#243;lise: o ciclo do &#225;cido tricarbox&#237;lico ou ciclo de Krebs e a cadeia de transporte de el&#233;trons (CTE) ou fosforila&#231;&#227;o oxidativa, nas mitoc&#244;ndrias, atrav&#233;s de complexos proteicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Durante o DM o meio hiperglic&#234;mico promover&#225; a superativa&#231;&#227;o das tr&#234;s principais vias celulares de produ&#231;&#227;o de energia, anteriormente descritas. A hiperestimula&#231;&#227;o da glic&#243;lise e do ciclo de Krebs, resultar&#225; na produ&#231;&#227;o exacerbada de dinucleot&#237;deo flavina adenina reduzida (FADH<sub>2</sub>) e nicotinamida adenina dinucleot&#237;deo reduzida (NADH), superalimentando a CTE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Esta cadeia &#233; uma fonte de gera&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ROS), sobretudo nas c&#233;lulas renais, haja vista o seu grande n&#250;mero de mitoc&#244;ndrias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Nas c&#233;lulas renais diab&#233;ticas a estimula&#231;&#227;o de mitoc&#244;ndrias hiperpolarizadas com alto potencial redox, produzem mais adenosina trifosfato (ATP) e liberam n&#237;veis superiores de &#226;nion radical super&#243;xido (O<sub>2</sub><sup>-&#8226;</sup>) atrav&#233;s dos complexos I e III. O O<sub>2</sub><sup>-&#8226;</sup> dar&#225; origem aos demais tipos de ERONs, radicalares e n&#227;o-radicalares, incluindo o per&#243;xido de hidrog&#234;nio (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>), radical hidroxila (OH<sup>&#8226;</sup>) e o peroxinitrito (ONOO<sup>-</sup>), que podem mediar &#224;s les&#245;es renais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Estresse oxidativo e sistema de defesa antioxidante enzim&#225;tico em c&#233;lulas renais diab&#233;ticas. CAT: catalase; EROs: esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio; GPx: glutationa peroxidase; GSH: glutationa; GSSG: glutationa oxidada; GR: glutationa reduzida; H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>: per&#243;xido de hidrog&#234;nio; NRF2: fator nuclear fator 2 relacionado ao eritr&#243;ide 2; O<sub>2</sub>: oxig&#234;nio molecular; NOX: NADPH oxidase; O2<sup>&#8226;-</sup>: &#226;nion radical super&#243;xido; <sup>&#8226;</sup>OH: radical hidroxila; SOD: super&#243;xido dismutase. Fonte: Autora. Adaptada de Bhargava.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
								</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-05-0577-90077-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Tanto no rim diab&#233;tico quanto no diab&#233;tico/obeso a energ&#233;tica mitocondrial alterada pela hiperglicemia e hiperlipidemia causa disfun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial e produ&#231;&#227;o excessiva de EROS, prejudicial ao DNA mitocondrial (mtDNA), por inibi&#231;&#227;o dos caminhos rapamicina complexo 1 (mTORC1) e prote&#237;na quinase ativada por AMP (AMPK). Devido a estas altera&#231;&#245;es a ativa&#231;&#227;o do co-ativador-1&#945; do receptor ativado por proliferador do peroxissoma (PGC1&#945;) ser&#225; prejudicada, comprometendo a biog&#234;nese mitocondrial, promovendo aumento da fiss&#227;o mitocondrial e contribuindo para a produ&#231;&#227;o de mitoc&#244;ndrias defeituosas, o que potencialmente leva &#224; defici&#234;ncia das fun&#231;&#245;es da CTE com s&#237;ntese reduzida de ATP e assim &#224; les&#227;o celular e apoptose das c&#233;lulas renais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Ademais, o aumento da glic&#243;lise hiperativa as vias metab&#243;licas do poliol, das hexosaminas, da produ&#231;&#227;o de PGAs e da ativa&#231;&#227;o da PKC, que tamb&#233;m resultam em diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de ATP e contribuem para a disfun&#231;&#227;o e fragmenta&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Via do poliol</title>
          <p>Diante do fluxo aumentado de glicose intracelular h&#225; um incremento na sua convers&#227;o a sorbitol pela enzima aldose redutase, dependente de NADPH, reduzindo a disponibilidade desta. O processo segue com o sorbitol convertido &#224; frutose, utilizando o dinucleot&#237;deo de nicotinamida e adenina (NAD).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> O NADPH &#233; um cofator importante para a regenera&#231;&#227;o do antioxidante glutationa peroxidase (GSH). Assim, na vig&#234;ncia de aumento da atividade de aldose redutase, a baixa disponibilidade de NADPH ir&#225; comprometer a defesa antioxidante, induzindo o desequil&#237;brio redox.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O aumento do O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;-</sup> inibe a atividade da enzima da via glicol&#237;tica gliceralde&#237;do-3-fosfato-desidrogenase (GAPDH) que inibe a glic&#243;lise e estimula as vias alternativas. O aumento da rela&#231;&#227;o NADH:NAD induz a produ&#231;&#227;o de DAG que, por sua vez, ativa a PKC. Como produto final da via, a frutose foi recentemente relacionada aos marcadores de les&#227;o renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prote&#237;na quinase C (PKC)</title>
          <p>Hiperglicemia e hiperestimula&#231;&#227;o dos intermedi&#225;rios glicol&#237;ticos induzem o aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de gliceralde&#237;do-3-fosfato e sua convers&#227;o em di-hideroxiacetona promovendo a s&#237;ntese de DAG, fator ativador da PKC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 2</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f5">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Representa&#231;&#227;o esquem&#225;tica das vias intermedi&#225;rias &#224; glic&#243;lise e indu&#231;&#227;o ao estresse oxidativo. CTE: cadeia de transporte de el&#233;trons; 1,3-B: 1,3-bifosfoglicerato; G-6-P: glicose6-fosfato; G-3-P: gliceralde&#237;do-3-fosfato; GAPDH: gliceralde&#237;do-3-fosfato-desidrogenase; F-6-P: frutose-6-fosfato; F-1,6-P: frutose-1,6-fosfato; PKC: prote&#237;na quinase C; PGA: produtos finais de glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada. Fonte: Autora.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-05-0577-90077-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Nas c&#233;lulas renais, o aumento de PKC estimula diversas vias de les&#227;o. A indu&#231;&#227;o e ativa&#231;&#227;o da enzima &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase endotelial (eNOS) pela PKC, num primeiro momento, ir&#225; aumentar a disponibilidade de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) no rim diab&#233;tico nos est&#225;gios iniciais da DRD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> O aumento de NO contribui para n&#237;veis aumentados de prostaglandinas E<sub>2,</sub> aumento da a&#231;&#227;o da Ang II e ativa&#231;&#227;o do fator vascular de crescimento (VEGF), aumentando a permeabilidade, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o glomerular e albumin&#250;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
					</p>
          <p>No diabetes prolongado, a hiperglicemia constante reduz os n&#237;veis de tetrahidrobiopterina (BH<sub>4</sub>), cofator da eNOS, favorecendo a redu&#231;&#227;o da sua atividade com diminui&#231;&#227;o proporcional da s&#237;ntese de NO pelo endot&#233;lio vascular, promovendo vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e aumento da press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica e glomerular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As les&#245;es hiperglic&#234;micas endoteliais s&#227;o induzidas pelo desequil&#237;brio redox-nitroso, pelo aumento das ERONs atrav&#233;s da intera&#231;&#227;o do O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;-</sup> com o NO formando o ONOO- e reduzindo ainda mais a biodisponibilidade de NO vascular, levando a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e facilitando a progress&#227;o da DRD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A express&#227;o aumentada da PKC induz a ativa&#231;&#227;o do <italic>transforming growth factor-beta</italic> (TGF-&#946;) e do inibidor fibrinol&#237;tico ativador de plasminog&#234;nio-1 (PAI-1), contribuindo para o aumento da deposi&#231;&#227;o de fibronectina, col&#225;geno tipo I e IV, com ac&#250;mulo de matriz extracelular (MEC) e consequente hipertrofia renal, glomeruloesclerose e fibrose renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Hexosaminas</title>
          <p>A hiperfun&#231;&#227;o desta via, estimulada pela hiperglicemia, promove a convers&#227;o da frutose-6-fosfato em glucosamina-6-fosfato e, como produto final, a uridina difosfato-N-acetil glucosamina (UDP-GIcNAc), que sofre <italic>O</italic>-glicolisa&#231;&#227;o para o N-acetil-glucosamina (<italic>O</italic>-GlcNAc) atrav&#233;s da enzima <italic>O</italic>-GlcNAc transferase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O excesso da <italic>O</italic>-GlcNAc &#233; respons&#225;vel pelo est&#237;mulo e modifica&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas celulares e a altera&#231;&#227;o na express&#227;o g&#234;nica na DRD aumenta a transcri&#231;&#227;o de TNF-&#945; e TGF-&#946;, induzindo assim danos renais via EO e superprodu&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas de MEC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Produtos finais de glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada (PGAs)</title>
          <p>Os PGAs s&#227;o considerados uma classe de toxina ur&#234;mica e seu envolvimento com o dano renal pode ser parcialmente explicado por aumento da s&#237;ntese end&#243;gena via hiperglicemia, ingest&#227;o diet&#233;tica e atrav&#233;s do <italic>clearence</italic> insuficiente destes produtos, por redu&#231;&#227;o da TGF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Os PGAs s&#227;o formados atrav&#233;s de rea&#231;&#245;es aminocarbonilo n&#227;o-enzim&#225;ticas ou rea&#231;&#245;es de <italic>Maillard</italic>, que ocorrem entre o grupo carbonilo da glicose, frutose, galactose e ribose ou por intermedi&#225;rios da via glicol&#237;tica, como a glicose-6-fosfato, frutose-6-fosfato, ribose-5-fosfato, desoxirribose-5-fosfato e gliceralde&#237;do ou ainda atrav&#233;s do grupamento amina de prote&#237;nas e outras mol&#233;culas para formar uma base revers&#237;vel de <italic>Schiff</italic> e posteriormente os produtos <italic>Amadori</italic> que s&#227;o os produtos iniciais da rea&#231;&#227;o de Maillard.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A produ&#231;&#227;o de produtos <italic>Amadori</italic> ocorre aceleradamente sob condi&#231;&#245;es hiperglic&#234;micas e s&#227;o altamente reativos com os grupos amino e &#237;ons met&#225;licos por rea&#231;&#245;es de glicoxida&#231;&#227;o de mol&#233;culas biol&#243;gicas, formando compostos como o glyoxal (GO), metilglioxal (MGO) e malonalde&#237;do (MDA).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Ap&#243;s o metabolismo e a remo&#231;&#227;o dos PGAs dos tecidos, os pept&#237;deos sol&#250;veis de baixo peso molecular ou PGAs de segunda gera&#231;&#227;o, exigem excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria. Estes &#250;ltimos podem ser intermedi&#225;rios altamente reativos, mas seus efeitos s&#227;o limitados pela excre&#231;&#227;o renal. No entanto, na insufici&#234;ncia renal ocorre remo&#231;&#227;o defeituosa de PGAs, contribuindo para concentra&#231;&#245;es elevadas em soro e tecidos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o do <italic>pool</italic> end&#243;geno dos PAGs induzem danos celulares diretos por intera&#231;&#227;o as prote&#237;nas extracelulares e aos componentes celulares (prote&#237;nas, carboidratos, lip&#237;dios e nucleot&#237;deos), modificando suas estruturas e funcionalidades. Os PGAs extracelulares, formados a partir de prote&#237;nas de MEC, possuem hidr&#243;lise enzim&#225;tica diminu&#237;da por altera&#231;&#227;o nas estruturas proteicas, respons&#225;vel por ac&#250;mulo no espa&#231;o extracelular, aumento de MEC, glomeruoesclerose e, consequentemente, fibrose renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m dos danos extra/intracelulares diretos, os PAGs interagem com o seu receptor transmembranar (RPAGs), os quais s&#227;o expressos em v&#225;rios tipos de c&#233;lulas renais e inflamat&#243;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Ap&#243;s a intera&#231;&#227;o substrato/receptor &#233; iniciada uma cascata de rea&#231;&#245;es intracelulares que regulam a transcri&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas, mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o e citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, como IL-1, IL-6 e TNF-&#945;, mediada pela ativa&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos via NF-&#954;B, propagando e amplificando a inflama&#231;&#227;o subcl&#237;nica e tecidual associada ao DM na DRD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A intera&#231;&#227;o PAGs/RPAGs est&#225; associada ao aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de ERONs e sua contribui&#231;&#227;o para o EO implica na ativa&#231;&#227;o direta da enzima NOX atrav&#233;s do est&#237;mulo mitoc&#244;ndrial pelo RPAGs em c&#233;lulas renais e c&#233;lulas imunol&#243;gicas infiltradas. Ainda, os PGAs reduzem a express&#227;o da enzima eNOS e aumentam a &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase induz&#237;vel (iNOS), desencadeando EO por aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de ONOO<sup>-</sup> e contribuindo para a redu&#231;&#227;o da biodisponibilidade de NO, promovendo disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial direta e atrav&#233;s da s&#237;ntese de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o vascular (VCAM-1), mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o intercelular (ICAM-1), prote&#237;na quimiot&#225;tica de mon&#243;citos (MCP-1) e TGF-&#946;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>NADPH-oxidases</title>
          <p>A fam&#237;lia de NADPH oxidases (enzimas NOXs) &#233; uma importante fonte de ROS no DM. As NOXs possuem sete isoformas: NOX1, NOX2, NOX3, NOX4, (esta &#250;ltima anteriormente denominada renox por ser altamente expressa no tecido renal), NOX5 e dupla oxidases (DUOX) do tipo 1 e 2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> S&#227;o prote&#237;nas transmembranares que transferem el&#233;trons do NADPH citos&#243;lico para o O<sub>2</sub>, reduzindo-o O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;-</sup>, contribuindo para a perpetua&#231;&#227;o do EO nas c&#233;lulas renais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As EROS derivada das NOXs s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por regular alguns processos fisiol&#243;gicos nos rins; entretanto, ocorre regula&#231;&#227;o positiva nas c&#233;lulas renais hiperglic&#234;micas. Sua ativa&#231;&#227;o anormal &#233; induzida por AGEs, PKC, TGF&#946; e Ang II, resultando em superprodu&#231;&#227;o e ac&#250;mulo de O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;-</sup>, mediador importante do desequil&#237;brio redox de danos aos diversos tipos de componentes das c&#233;lulas renais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Angiotensina II</title>
          <p>A hiperglicemia cr&#244;nica do DM induz a s&#237;ntese aumentada de Ang II e seus receptores por c&#233;lulas glomerulares, mesangiais e podocit&#225;rias e aumenta a express&#227;o de renina e angiotensinog&#234;nio nas c&#233;lulas mesangiais, elevando a Ang II intra-renal, mecanismo exacerbado pelo ac&#250;mulo de EROS e de tecido adiposo, &#243;rg&#227;o sintetizador de Ang II.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o de Ang II contribui para a ativa&#231;&#227;o anormal do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA), acentuando os danos mec&#226;nicos induzidos pelo aumento da press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica e intraglomerular, exarcebando as les&#245;es renais mec&#226;nicas. Efeitos adicionais da Ang II ocorrem na media&#231;&#227;o direta da produ&#231;&#227;o de ERONs, hiperplasia precoce e hipertrofia tardia das c&#233;lulas renais, que ocorrem atrav&#233;s do est&#237;mulo de TGF-&#946;, IL-6 e prote&#237;na MCP-1, ativa&#231;&#227;o e <italic>upregulation</italic> do NF-&#954;B.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas na les&#227;o renal diab&#233;tica</title>
          <p>A DRD precoce &#233; evidenciada por altera&#231;&#245;es na hemodin&#226;mica renal secund&#225;ria a hiperglicemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> Os eventos hemodin&#226;micos iniciais s&#227;o caracterizados por hiperperfus&#227;o, hipertens&#227;o e hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o glomerular, respons&#225;veis pelas altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais e estruturais dos glom&#233;rulos que resultam em EUA, aumento da TGF com subsequente redu&#231;&#227;o, hipertrofia glomerular, expans&#227;o mesangial, les&#227;o podocit&#225;ria, glomeruloesclerose e fibrose renal, hist&#243;ria natural da DRD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Comumente a hipertens&#227;o existe antes da DRD, sobretudo no DMT2, entretanto os dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos persistentes resultam em eleva&#231;&#227;o sustentada da press&#227;o, descontrole dos n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos, induzindo e/ou agravando as les&#245;es renais diab&#233;ticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> O mecanismo da hipertens&#227;o na DRD &#233; complexo, multifatorial e envolve altera&#231;&#245;es no controle do s&#243;dio como a reabsor&#231;&#227;o tubular renal de s&#243;dio, ativa&#231;&#227;o anormal do SRAA e do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico (SNS), disfun&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas endoteliais e aumento do EO, mediando a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e aumento do volume extracelular com consequente eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Dentre os fatores hemodin&#226;micos que contribuem para a hipertens&#227;o e hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o renal, o SRAA tem sido o mais amplamente aceito como um importante contribuinte para o desenvolvimento da DRD e o seu bloqueio t&#234;m demostrado efeitos positivos em aumentar o tempo de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> A tens&#227;o mec&#226;nica via hipertens&#227;o, o excesso de glicose, a inflama&#231;&#227;o e as EROS aumentam substancialmente a produ&#231;&#227;o de Ang II em c&#233;lulas renais e contribuem para a hiperativa&#231;&#227;o do SRAA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> A ativa&#231;&#227;o anormal do SRAA contribui para vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o vascular sist&#234;mica e renal, e reabsor&#231;&#227;o renal de s&#243;dio atrav&#233;s da intera&#231;&#227;o com o receptor de angiotensina tipo 1 (AT1), via libera&#231;&#227;o de aldosterona, com consequente aumento da press&#227;o arterial, press&#227;o intraglomeular e les&#227;o renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As a&#231;&#245;es da Ang II sobre o desequil&#237;brio redox (efeitos adicionais da Ang II sobre a inflama&#231;&#227;o e desequil&#237;brio redox, fatores importantes na fisiopatogenia da DRD, foram detalhados no t&#243;pico acima), via indu&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o do O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;-</sup> pela ativa&#231;&#227;o das enzimas NOXs local, induzem a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial (decorrente do desbalan&#231;o entre fatores vasconstritores e vasodilatadores).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> Redu&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ntese do NO, potente vasodilatador, ocorre pelo aumento das EROS, que interage com o substrato BH<sub>4</sub> que diminui a atividade da enzima eNOS. Al&#233;m disso, ocorre a&#231;&#227;o direta do O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;-</sup> reduzindo o NO em ONOO<sup>-</sup>, e diminuindo a disponibilidade do NO, o que resulta em vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> Ainda, a s&#237;ntese da endotelina 1 e o aumento da atividade do SNS, atrav&#233;s da neuropatia perif&#233;rica, complica&#231;&#227;o microvascular relacionada &#224; hiperglicemia, contribui para a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o sustentada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As a&#231;&#245;es da Ang II, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e resist&#234;ncia vascular, induzidas pelo EO, resultam em um aumento da press&#227;o nas arter&#237;olas aferentes que, por sua vez, causam aumento da press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, hiperperfus&#227;o e hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o glomerular com consequente protein&#250;ria, levando a DRD progressiva.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Efeitos adicionais sobre a hemodin&#226;mica renal e sist&#234;mica durante a DRD s&#227;o exercidos pelos trocadores i&#244;nicos <italic>sodium-hydrogen exchangers</italic> (NHE). Esses s&#227;o expressos em diversos tipos de c&#233;lulas renais e agem na regula&#231;&#227;o da transloca&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio (Na<sup>+</sup>) e hidrog&#234;nio (H<sup>+</sup>), fundamentais para diversas fun&#231;&#245;es celulares. Entre as quais, a manuten&#231;&#227;o do pH intracelular, volume de l&#237;quido e sobreviv&#234;ncia celular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> Nos rins, especificamente nas c&#233;lulas tubulares e nas c&#233;lulas da m&#225;cula densa, as isoformas 1 (NHE1), 2 (NHE2) e 3 (NHE3) desempenham um papel importante na patog&#234;nese da DRD por induzir hipertens&#227;o intraglomerular, indu&#231;&#227;o a prolifera&#231;&#227;o mesangial e induzir a promo&#231;&#227;o ou inibi&#231;&#227;o da morte celular programada (fatores apopt&#243;ticos), contribuindo para a fibrose renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Nas c&#233;lulas da m&#225;cula densa os receptores NHE2 est&#227;o envolvidos no controle da renina e do sensor de sal, o mecanismo sugerido &#233; que o encolhimento celular (desencadeado pela hipertonicidade) &#233; o prov&#225;vel sinal que ativa a sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de libera&#231;&#227;o de renina (juntamente com a a&#231;&#227;o da Ang II), induzindo a superativa&#231;&#227;o SRAA e aumento da press&#227;o intraglomerular, ativando a sinaliza&#231;&#227;o para o aumento da express&#227;o dos receptores NHE nas c&#233;lulas renais (ciclo vicioso).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> Ademais, o excesso de sal, induzido pelos NHE na m&#225;cula densa, resulta em aumento do pH intracelular e despolariza&#231;&#227;o celular e, consequentemente, ativa&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de EROS pelas enzimas Nox.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Os NHEs s&#227;o alvos de diversas terapias medicamentosas, dentre elas os inibidores do SRAA e do SGLT que est&#227;o envolvidos no bloqueio da atividade dos NHEs nos rins, contribuindo para a redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o intraglomerular e atenuando os processos proliferativos e fibr&#243;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O bloqueio terap&#234;utico do SRAA e da Ang II, obtidos atrav&#233;s dos medicamentos inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina e dos bloqueadores dos receptores da Ang II, isolados ou em diversas combina&#231;&#245;es, se mostraram eficazes na redu&#231;&#227;o da protein&#250;ria e retardo da progress&#227;o da DRD pelas a&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas/anti-hipertensivas, bem como por sua a&#231;&#227;o anti-inflamat&#243;ria/antifibr&#243;tica, terap&#234;utica preditiva para melhora do progn&#243;stico dos pacientes com DRD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Instala&#231;&#227;o do desequil&#237;brio redox na DRD</title>
          <p>O EO &#233; a parte inicial da DRD e ativa diversas vias patol&#243;gicas em praticamente todos os tipos de c&#233;lulas renais, como: c&#233;lulas endoteliais, mesangiais, epiteliais, c&#233;lulas tubulares e podocit&#225;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> O EO &#233; originado pelo desbalan&#231;o entre o aumento de ERONs em detrimento da menor efici&#234;ncia do sistema de defesa antioxidante, enzim&#225;tico e n&#227;o enzim&#225;tico, levando ao desequil&#237;brio redox entre os pr&#243;/antioxidantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A gera&#231;&#227;o de ERONs ocorre em diversos tipos celulares dos rins e c&#233;lulas infiltrantes, como as c&#233;lulas do sistema imunol&#243;gico, neutr&#243;filos e macr&#243;fagos. Ao passo em que ocorre um aumento substancial da auto-oxida&#231;&#227;o da glicose pela glic&#243;lise, associado a uma maior ativa&#231;&#227;o da CTE e estresse mitocondrial, a s&#237;ntese de ERONs &#233; exacerbada, contribuindo com aproximadamente 80% da produ&#231;&#227;o total de esp&#233;cies reativas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> Adicionalmente a essas vias, outros sistemas enzim&#225;ticos, como eNOS desacoplada e as NOXs, e n&#227;o enzim&#225;ticos, como a Ang II, est&#227;o implicados na gera&#231;&#227;o de EROS no rim diab&#233;tico e diab&#233;tico-obeso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A superprodu&#231;&#227;o de ERONs induzida por hiperglicemia reduz a express&#227;o das enzimas antioxidantes, dentre elas, a super&#243;xido dismutase (SOD), especificamente o subtipo SOD mangan&#234;s que tem a&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial, tireodoxina redutase, catalase (CAT) e menor regenera&#231;&#227;o da glutationa reduzida (GSH) pela indu&#231;&#227;o da via do poliol. Ademais, a redu&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea dos antioxidantes n&#227;o enzim&#225;ticos &#233; secund&#225;ria ao aumento das EROs por aumento expressivo da demanda.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> A SOD &#233; considerada a principal defesa fisiol&#243;gica contra as EROs, pois inicia o processo de defesa antioxidante enzim&#225;tico reagindo com o O<sub>2</sub><sup>-&#8226;</sup> para formar o H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, que posteriormente ser&#225; degradado por a&#231;&#227;o da CAT e GPx (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Em baixos n&#237;veis, as ERONs modulam os fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o de enzimas antioxidantes, fundamentais para a atenua&#231;&#227;o do EO. Dentre eles, o fator nuclear 2 relacionado ao eritroide (NRF2), que transloca-se ao n&#250;cleo para ativar a transcri&#231;&#227;o de genes que codificam enzimas antioxidantes como SOD, CAT e GPx, suprimindo a atividade de NF-kB. Entretanto, em condi&#231;&#227;o de superprodu&#231;&#227;o de EROs, como durante o DM, essas defesas n&#227;o s&#227;o suficientes para bloquear e impedir a instala&#231;&#227;o do desequil&#237;bio redox.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A atua&#231;&#227;o das ERONs no rim diab&#233;tico promove a diminui&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de sirtu&#237;nas (SIRT), enzimas respons&#225;veis por modular a regenera&#231;&#227;o de antioxidantes via acetila&#231;&#227;o da CTE, fundamental para estimular a SOD mitocondrial, al&#233;m de induzir fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o, tais como o PGC1-&#945;, atenuando o estresse mitocondrial e ativa&#231;&#227;o do NRF2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> Ainda, o O-GlcNAc, produto das hexosaminas, atenua a atividade de SIRT contribuindo para exarceba&#231;&#227;o deste processo durante o DM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>Em rins de ratos diab&#233;ticos, a express&#227;o reduzida do PGC-1&#945;, regulador do metabolismo oxidativo e biog&#234;nese mitocondrial, foram associados a maior produ&#231;&#227;o de ERONs por intensificar a disfun&#231;&#227;o e fragmenta&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Um decr&#233;scimo gradual das defesas antioxidantes na DRC foi encontrado, <italic>in vivo</italic>, surgindo um novo campo de poss&#237;vel tratamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> Estudos recentes demostram a efic&#225;cia da terapia nutricional rica em antioxidante como um adjuvante ao tratamento da DRD, esta terapia auxilia os sistemas antioxidantes enzim&#225;ticos e n&#227;o enzim&#225;ticos na defesa de esp&#233;cies nocivas ao organismo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Em uma recente metan&#225;lise Bolignano, et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> avaliou em 14 estudos (4.345 participantes) a efetividade da suplementa&#231;&#227;o de antioxidantes (incluindo vitamina C, vitamina E e zinco, isolados ou associados) utilizando como desfecho a progress&#227;o da DRD e as altera&#231;&#245;es nos marcadores de fun&#231;&#227;o renal, concluiu que o tratamento com antioxidantes diminuiu significativamente a albumin&#250;ria, mas aparentemente n&#227;o teve efeitos tang&#237;veis na fun&#231;&#227;o renal, a evid&#234;ncia mais forte foi para a vitamina E em doses variando de 480 mg a 1200 mg/dia.</p>
          <p>Em estudos experimentais a suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitaminas e minerais antioxidantes isolados, como a vitamina D, vitamina E e o zinco, apresentaram resultados favor&#225;veis na redu&#231;&#227;o dos marcadores de les&#227;o renal, inflama&#231;&#227;o e EO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a a&#231;&#227;o antioxidante dos compostos fen&#243;licos, flavonoides, demostraram possuir efeitos ben&#233;ficos como agentes terap&#234;uticos para o tratamento da DRD em estudos com c&#233;lulas e animais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Desordens imunol&#243;gicas na DRD: o papel da inflama&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>A DRD est&#225; associada &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o renal sist&#234;mica e intra-renal. Os est&#237;mulos metab&#243;licos e hemodin&#226;micos persistentes dos rins diab&#233;ticos resultam em les&#245;es celulares que liberam mol&#233;culas conhecidas como padr&#227;o molecular associado ao perigo (DAMPs [do ingl&#234;s: danger-associated molecular pattern]), dentre eles os PGAs, EROs, AGLs. Esses produtos interagem com receptores celulares de reconhecimento renal, dentre os quais: receptores <italic>Toll-likes</italic> (TLRs), especificamente dos tipos 2 e 4 e o receptor de produtos de glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada (RPGA), regulados positivamente pela hiperglicemia. Quando h&#225; intera&#231;&#227;o DAMPs/receptores ocorre ativa&#231;&#227;o da resposta imune inata intra-renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A linhagem mieloide das c&#233;lulas imunes inatas induz a inflama&#231;&#227;o renal em condi&#231;&#245;es diab&#233;ticas, na qual diversas c&#233;lulas imunol&#243;gicas est&#227;o envolvidas tanto na patog&#234;nese quanto na gravidade dos danos renais. Contudo, os fatores pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios sintetizados no tecido renal diab&#233;tico n&#227;o se limitam &#224;s c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias infiltradas, sendo a secre&#231;&#227;o de citocinas e quimiocinas encontradas em diversas c&#233;lulas n&#227;o imunes como os diversos tipos de c&#233;lulas do par&#234;nquimia renal (pod&#243;citos, c&#233;lulas endoteliais, c&#233;lulas epiteliais, c&#233;lulas mesangiais e tubulares), exacerbando o processo inflamat&#243;rio que induz aos danos progressivos da DRD (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Quadro 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
					</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Quadro 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Citocinas inflamatrias e implicaes renais relacionadas ao diabetes mellitus</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="5%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="30%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="30%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="5%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Citocinas</th>
                  <th align="center">Estmulos para sntese</th>
                  <th align="center">Clulas produtoras especializadas</th>
                  <th align="center">Estmulos para aproduo</th>
                  <th align="center">Efeitos na DRD</th>
                  <th align="center">Clulas-alvo renais</th>
                  <th align="center">Ref.</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">IL-1&#945;, IL-1&#946;</td>
                  <td align="center">Inflamassoma, IL-18 e NF-&#954;B</td>
                  <td align="center">Macrfagos, Granulcitos<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
										<break/>Epiteliais tubulares, Endoteliais, Mesangiais<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">&#8224;</xref>
										<break/>Fibroblastos<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">&#8225;</xref>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8593; ICAM-1, &#8593; VCAM-1, &#8593; Prostaglandina E2.</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8593; Anormalidade hemodinmica intraglomerular, &#8593; Sntese de hialurnios, &#8593; Proliferao de clulas mesangiais e fibroblastos, &#8593;Acmulo de MEC</td>
                  <td align="center">Epiteliais, mesangiais, Tubulares</td>
                  <td align="center">[77,83]]</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">IL-6</td>
                  <td align="center">Hiperglicemia, PGAs, TNF-&#945;, LPS, IL-1, IL-4</td>
                  <td align="center">Linfcitos T, Macrfagos, Neutrfilos<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
										<break/>Endoteliais, Podcitos, Mesangiais, Epiteliais tubulares<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">&#8224;</xref>
										<break/>Fibroblastos <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">&#8225;</xref>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8593; MCP-1, &#8593; Expresso do receptor de Ang II, &#8593; EROs</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8593; Recrutamento de moncitos, &#8593; Diferenciao de macrfagos, &#8593; Sntese de fibronectina, &#8593; Sntese e acmulo de MEC, &#8593; Proliferao de clulasmesangiais, &#8593; Disfuno endotelial, &#8593; Fibrose tubulointersticial</td>
                  <td align="center">Mesangiais, Podcitos, Endoteliais, Epitelias tubulares</td>
                  <td align="center">[84, 85]</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">IL-18</td>
                  <td align="center">NF-&#954;B, Inflamassoma, Caspase-1</td>
                  <td align="center">Linfcitos T e Macrfagos<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
										<break/>Epiteliais, Tubulares<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">&#8224;</xref>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8593; IFN-&#947;, &#8593; Sntese de IL-1, IL-6, TNF-&#945;, iNOS, ICAM-1, TGF-&#946;, MCP-1</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8593; Apoptose de clulas endoteliais, &#8593; infiltrao de macrfagos eneutrfilos</td>
                  <td align="center">Endoteliais, Epiteliais tubulares</td>
                  <td align="center">[30, 86,87]</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">TNF-&#945;</td>
                  <td align="center">NF-&#954;B</td>
                  <td align="center">Dendrticas, Moncitos, Macrfagos, Linfcitos T<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
										<break/>Mesangiais, Endoteliais, Tubulares renais<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">&#8224;</xref>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8593; Resposta imunolgica &#8593; NF-&#954;B</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8593; Infiltrao de clulas, inflamatrias, &#8593; Citotoxidade direta, apoptose, &#8593; Permeabilidade endotelial, &#8595; Funo de barreira da parede capilar, glomerular, &#8593; PKC, &#8593;NOX, &#8593; EROs; &#8593; MEC</td>
                  <td align="center">Mesangiais, Podcitos, Endoteliais, Glomerulares; Epiteliais tubulares</td>
                  <td align="center">[19, 78, 83]</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Clulas imunolgicas (infiltrantes);</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN5">
                <label>&#8224;</label>
                <p>Clulas renais;</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN6">
                <label>&#8225;</label>
                <p>Outros tipos celulares. Ang II: angiotensina 2; EROs: espcies reativas de oxignio; TNF-&#945;: fator de necrose tumoral alfa; NF-&#954;B: fator de transcrio kappa B; IFN-&#947;: interferon gama; IL-1: interleucina 1; IL-1&#945;: interleucina 1 alfa; IL-1&#946;: interleucina 1 beta; IL-6: interleucina 6; IL-18: interleucina 18; IL-4: interleucina 4; LPS: lipopolissacardeos; ICAM-1: molculas de adeso intercelular; VCAM-1: molculas de adeso vascular; MEC: matriz extracelular; NOX: NADPH oxidase; PGAs: produtos de glicao avanada; MCP-1: protena quimiottica de moncitos; PKC: protena quinase C; iNOS: xido ntrico sintase; TGF-&#946;: transforming growth factor-beta.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Ademais, as liga&#231;&#245;es dos DAMPs com seus receptores est&#227;o associadas &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o de fatores moleculares e de transcri&#231;&#227;o que promovem a ativa&#231;&#227;o do NF-&#954;B, que facilita a express&#227;o de uma gama de genes pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios (citocinas, quimiocinas, mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, receptores imunes e fatores de crescimento). Consequentemente, o NF-&#954;B tem sido referido como um regulador mestre de processos imunes e inflamat&#243;rios durante a DRD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As principais citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias s&#227;o IL-1, IL-6, IL18 e TNF-&#945;. Todas possuem efeitos aut&#243;crinos, par&#225;crinos e just&#225;crinos de a&#231;&#245;es pleiotr&#243;picas que promovem aumento e perpetua&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o e do EO no rim diab&#233;tico, por regula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de citocinas, interleucinas, TNF-&#945;, interferons, fatores de crescimento, mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o e fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o nuclear, desencadeando v&#225;rias respostas lesivas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Quadro 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas observadas dentro das c&#233;lulas, por exemplo, PGAs e EROS, aumentam a secre&#231;&#227;o de MCP-1 que promove a ativa&#231;&#227;o de mon&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos que, por sua vez, est&#227;o ligados ao aumento da express&#227;o de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o e da s&#237;ntese de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, levando a hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o e les&#245;es glomerulares, t&#237;picas da DRD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Devido &#224; &#237;ntima liga&#231;&#227;o com a obesidade, os danos renais dos pacientes com DMT2, est&#227;o associados &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o precoce do sistema imunol&#243;gico, ligada &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica cr&#244;nica e de baixo grau induzida pelo tecido adiposo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Desequil&#237;brio redox e inflama&#231;&#227;o na DRD: um ciclo vicioso</title>
          <p>Diversos caminhos hemodin&#226;micos e metab&#243;licos est&#227;o envolvidos na patog&#234;nese da DRD. Em via comum, a inter-rela&#231;&#227;o entre o desequil&#237;brio redox e a inflama&#231;&#227;o a partir da hiperglicemia processa-se atrav&#233;s de mecanismos-chave que unem processos celulares-moleculares em uma cascata de altera&#231;&#245;es na bioenerg&#233;tica das c&#233;lulas renais, causando altera&#231;&#245;es na morfologia extracelular, celular e mitocondrial, modulando a express&#227;o gen&#233;tica, induzindo les&#245;es, hipertrofia tecidual, fibrose e necrose renal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 3</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f6">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Mediadores de les&#227;o renal induzidos por hiperglicemia cr&#244;nica via desequil&#237;brio redox e inflama&#231;&#227;o na patog&#234;nese da DRD. ERK: extracellular signal-related kinases; TNF- &#945;: fator de necrose tumoral alfa; NF-&#954;B: fator de transcri&#231;&#227;o kappa B; VEGF: fator vascular de crescimento; IL-1: interleucina 1; IL-6: interleucina 6; IL-18: interleucina 18; MEC: matriz extracelular; NOX: NADPH oxidase; -O-GLaNAc: O-glicosila&#231;&#227;o com N-acetil-glucosamina; PAI-1: plasminogen activator inhibitor-1; PGA: produtos de glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada; PKC: prote&#237;na quinase C; MCP-1: prote&#237;na quimiot&#225;tica de mon&#243;citos; RPGA: receptor de produtos de glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada; SRAA: sistema renina angiotensina aldosterona; TGF-&#946;: transforming growth factor-beta.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-05-0577-90077-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>A media&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o ocorre por est&#237;mulo da express&#227;o do NF-&#954;B "<italic>up-regulation"</italic> pelo EO, AGEs e TNF-&#945;, que controla a resposta imunol&#243;gica atrav&#233;s do est&#237;mulo &#224; express&#227;o gen&#233;tica de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, NOS, prolifera&#231;&#227;o celular e progress&#227;o do ciclo de inflama&#231;&#227;o e EO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref> Enquanto as EROs e a intera&#231;&#227;o PGA-RPGA, estimuladas pela hiperglicemia do DM, agem como mediadores da ativa&#231;&#227;o do complexo multiproteico inflamassoma, o Nlrp, que regula a clivagem de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias para suas formas maduras e ativas em c&#233;lulas imunes inatas, c&#233;lulas endoteliais renais, c&#233;lulas glomerulares e pod&#243;citos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A "<italic>up-regulation"</italic> de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias (IL-1, IL-6, IL-18, IFN-&#947;), mediada por PGA/RPAG, TNF-&#945; e NF-&#954;B, promove o aumento de ERONs e fatores transcricionais (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Quadro 1</xref>) que induzem a microinflama&#231;&#227;o local e sist&#234;mica, les&#245;es glomerulares e tubulares, cursando com albumin&#250;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> Dentre as citocinas, o TNF-&#945; ganha destaque por causar citotoxicidade direta, induzindo apoptose de c&#233;lulas renais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Uma recente metan&#225;lise mostrou um aumento estatisticamente significativo das concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de TNF-&#945; em pacientes DMT2, sendo substancialmente maiores em DMT2 com DRD, sugerindo que um aumento da carga inflamat&#243;ria na DRD contribui para a maior progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Interligado &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o e o desequil&#237;brio redox, via hiperglicemia, a express&#227;o de fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o pr&#243;-fibr&#243;ticos, como o TGF-&#946; e o fator de crescimento de tecido conjuntivo, induzem o recrutamento de c&#233;lulas produtoras de MEC, impulsionando a esclerose e fibrose renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> O TGF-&#946; exerce efeitos pleotr&#243;picos induzindo a hiperplasia e hipertrofia das c&#233;lulas renais. Na MEC, o TGF-&#946; existe em uma forma latente ligado &#224;s prote&#237;nas, necessita ser clivado para a sua forma livre e ativa. A ativa&#231;&#227;o do TGF-&#946; ocorre por v&#225;rios mediadores gerados sob alta glicose, tais como PGAs, EROs, DAG, PKC, Ang II, entre outros; uma vez ativado, o TGF-&#946; liga-se ao seu receptor celular que, regula a transcri&#231;&#227;o de genes-alvos, tais como col&#225;geno tipo I, III e IV, fibronectina, plasminog&#234;nio e PAI-1, com efeito l&#237;quido de s&#237;ntese de prote&#237;nas e expans&#227;o de MEC, glomeruloesclerose e est&#237;mulo &#224; fibrose renal; ainda, ativa o NF-&#954;B contribuindo com a produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias exacerbando o process inflamat&#243;rio local (KANWAR, 2011; DURAN-SALGADO, 2014; RATLIFF, 2016).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos tornou-se evidente o papel do desequil&#237;brio redox e inflama&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-exposi&#231;&#227;o intermitente e cr&#244;nica &#224; hiperglicemia do DM como importante para a inicia&#231;&#227;o e perpetua&#231;&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es diab&#233;ticas, incluindo a DRD. Hoje apontados como os principais contribuintes para o desenvolvimento da DRD e progress&#227;o para doen&#231;a renal dial&#237;tica. Novas vias patol&#243;gicas est&#227;o sendo estabelecidas, associadas &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o renal durante o diabetes, especialmente as que exacerbam essas vias metab&#243;licas, como por exemplo, a associa&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a com a obesidade. Assim, os pontos de interfer&#234;ncia metab&#243;lica, inflamat&#243;ria e oxidativa relacionados ao DM e demais fatores de risco que desencadeiam e sustentam os eventos patol&#243;gicos na DRD precisam ser constantemente estudados e atualizados tanto para melhorar a compreens&#227;o dos mecanismos quanto para o estabelecimento de alvos terap&#234;uticos.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Rayne Gomes Amorim pelo Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Nutri&#231;&#227;o da Universidade Federal de Alagoas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Errata</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No artigo de revis&#227;o &#8220;Doen&#231;a Renal do Diabetes: Cross-Linking entre Hiperglicemia, Desequil&#237;brio Redox e Inflama&#231;&#227;o&#8221;, considerar como correta a grafia Sandra Mary Lima Vasconcelos para o nome da autora Sandra Mary de Lima Vasconcelos.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <ack>
        <title>Agradecimentos</title>
        <p>O presente trabalho foi realizado com apoio da Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aperfei&#231;oamento de Pessoal de N&#237;vel Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - C&#243;digo de Financiamento 001.</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
