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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">CnT3TVf3jB8sbTQcW43PKKb</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2019000400453</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2019005004101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20190029</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>PCSK9 Inhibitors: Clinical Relevance, Molecular Mechanisms, and Safety in Clinical Practice</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6929-8392</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferrari</surname>
            <given-names>Filipe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2357-5176</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stein</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">6</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4785-3687</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Motta</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Trotte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">5</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2681-0936</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moriguchi</surname>
            <given-names>Emilio Hideyuki</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">6</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">7</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA) - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Grupo de Pesquisa em Cardiologia do Exerc&#237;cio</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo de Pesquisa em Cardiologia do Exerc&#237;cio (CardioEx) - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA) - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Vitta Centro de Bem-Estar F&#237;sico</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Vitta Centro de Bem-Estar F&#237;sico, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Feira de Santana</city>
          <state>BA</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Divis&#227;o de Medicina Interna</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Divis&#227;o de Medicina Interna - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Medicina Interna</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Porto Alegre</city>
          <state>RS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina Interna - Escola de Medicina - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Emilio Hideyuki Moriguchi</bold>, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Av. Paulo Gama, 110. Postal Code 90040-060, Farroupilha, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil. E-mail: <email>emoriguchi@hcpa.edu.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Ferrari F, Moriguchi EH; acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation of the data and writing of the manuscript: Ferrari F, Stein R, Motta MT, Moriguchi EH; critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Stein R, Moriguchi EH.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>112</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>453</fpage>
      <lpage>460</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>01</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Coronary artery disease (CAD) is one of the leading causes of mortality. High circulating levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in the blood are associated with cardiovascular mortality, whether through an etiological role or through its association with the progression of CAD per se. Randomized clinical trials have shown that, when LDL levels are reduced, cardiovascular risk is also reduced, which reinforces this association. The first major trial involving a hypolipidemic agent of the statin family, the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S), was published in 1994 and found a significant reduction in mortality in patients at high cardiovascular risk. However, even in subsequent studies with different statins, a residual risk persisted, and this seems not to have changed over time; it is speculated that this risk may be due to statin intolerance. In this scenario, the potential exists for novel hypolipidemic agents to drive a true revolution in the therapy of dyslipidemia. The recent discovery of PCSK9 inhibitors (PCSK9i), a class of hypolipidemic monoclonal antibodies, is extremely promising. PCSK9 inhibition is capable of promoting a mean LDL reduction of up to 60%, with potential for very significant clinical repercussions, as every 38 mg/dL reduction in LDL appears to be associated with a 22% reduction in cardiovascular risk. This review addresses a brief history of PCSK9i, major trials of these drugs, cardiovascular outcomes, and aspects related to their efficacy and safety. Finally, the molecular mechanisms and possible pleiotropic effects of PCSK9i are also discussed.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Coronary Artery Disease/mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>Proprotein Convertase 9</kwd>
        <kwd>Cholesterol, LDL</kwd>
        <kwd>Lipoproteins</kwd>
        <kwd>Anticholesteromic Agents</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Worldwide, cardiovascular diseases account for almost half of all deaths in people under 70. In Brazil, they were responsible for almost 30% of deaths in 2013.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> In recent decades, mounting evidence has shown a close link between low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels and incidence of coronary artery disease (CAD).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Inadequate hepatic uptake of LDL results in increased levels of circulating LDL, and consequent incidence of premature CAD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The treatment of dyslipidemias involves a number of factors, and lifestyle changes should be part of all medical prescriptions for this purpose. Non-pharmacological interventions, such as starting a regular exercise program, not smoking or quitting smoking, and adopting a healthy diet can have a significant impact on lipid profile. However, a substantial number of patients need to add hypolipidemic drugs (e.g., statins, ezetimibe, fibrates) to the aforementioned measures to achieve recommended LDL goals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Substantial advances in lipid-lowering drugs have been achieved in recent years.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> When used appropriately, these agents play a preponderant role in preventing adverse cardiovascular (CV) outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Hypolipidemic therapy with statins has been shown to have an impact both for primary prevention of atherosclerosis in patients at high CV risk<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> and for secondary prevention. However, some patients do not reach desired LDL levels even at maximal doses of statins (whether as monotherapy or up to triple therapy) or even when ezetimibe is added to statin therapy; this results in an important residual risk of CV events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Thus, the search for therapeutic alternatives that can reduce LDL more aggressively, aiming to achieve better outcomes, continues.</p>
      <p>Among recent developments, perhaps the most outstanding class of novel lipid-lowering agents are the proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibitors (PCSK9i).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> PCSK9 is a protein that ultimately promotes the degradation of hepatic LDL receptors, leading to hypercholesterolemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> The PCSK9i are monoclonal antibodies that increase the availability of LDL receptors. When PCSK9 is inhibited, there is greater uptake of LDL by their respective receptors present in hepatocytes, with reduction of serum and plasma levels of LDL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
			</p>
      <p>An important point about the causal relationship between LDL levels and CV outcomes is the dose-response behavior observed. To the extent that high LDL levels increase CV risk, when LDL levels are reduced, so is the rate of adverse CV outcomes. For example, the JUPITER study demonstrated that use of a statin (rosuvastatin) for 2 years was able to protect patients substantially, especially in those with LDL levels were below 45 mg/dL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Clinical relevance</title>
        <p>CV risk can be significantly mitigated by aggressive LDL reductions; the higher the risk, the lower the target LDL level. No class of hypolipidemic agents had given rise to such anticipation since the discovery of the statins,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> as the PCSK9i can promote an additional reduction of up to 60% in LDL levels when compared to statins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The FOURIER study,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> a randomized clinical trial (RCT) published in 2017, enrolled more than 27,000 patients with atherosclerotic CV disease and LDL levels &#8805; 70 mg/dL. Participants, all of whom were on statin therapy, were randomly allocated to receive add-on evolocumab or placebo for a mean period of 2.2 years. In the evolocumab group, there was a mean reduction in LDL levels of 30 mg/dL from baseline; in absolute terms, when compared to the placebo group, the mean LDL reduction was 56 mg/dL. Most importantly, a 15% reduction was found in the primary endpoint (nonfatal acute myocardial infarction [AMI], stroke, coronary revascularization, hospitalization for unstable angina, and CV mortality), as well as a 20% reduction in the composite secondary hard endpoint of CV death, nonfatal AMI, and nonfatal stroke. At the end of the study, there was an absolute risk reduction of 1.5% for both the primary and secondary endpoints, which translated into a number needed to treat (NNT) of approximately 67.</p>
        <p>More recently, the ODYSSEY Outcomes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> study compared alirocumab plus with statin versus statin alone at maximal tolerated dose in approximately 19,000 patients at very high CV risk for 2.8 years. LDL levels were 53.3 mg/dL in the alirocumab + statin group versus 101.4 mg/dL in the statin group, and an absolute reduction of 54.7% was observed. The primary outcome of major adverse CV events was also significantly lower in the combination therapy group. Furthermore, there was a surprising 15% reduction in deaths from any cause in this group (NNT of approximately 63). In the ODYSSEY Outcomes trial, LDL decreased 47 mg/dL after 1 year of follow-up, which, based on the Cholesterol Treatment Trialists (CTT) model,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> would represent a 24% reduction in the relative risk of major CV events. However, in practice, only a 15% reduction was observed. This divergence can be explained by the difference in follow-up time between ODYSSEY Outcomes (2.5 years) and the CCT analyses (5 years). In fact, CTT data showed a smaller magnitude of benefit regarding LDL reduction in the first year.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In an analysis of the FOURIER trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> the clinical benefits of evolocumab differed interestingly depending on the severity and extent of CAD. First, evolocumab reduced LDL levels by 61%. Second, patients with a greater risk profile, i.e., those with more recent AMI (&lt; 2 years), multiple anterior AMIs, and multivessel disease, were those who benefited most from the use of PCSK9i: they experienced relative risk reductions for the primary endpoint of 20%, 18%, and 21%, respectively, versus 5%, 8%, and 7% reductions respectively in low-risk comparators subgroups (i.e., participants without these complications). In the high-risk patient subgroups, the absolute risk reductions in 3 years exceeded 3% (3.4%, 3.7%, and 3.6% respectively), versus approximately 1% in the low-risk groups (0.8%, 1.3%, and 1.2% respectively). Thus, the NNT to avoid the primary outcome over a 3-year period was 27 to 30 in each of the high-risk groups versus 54 in all patients with a history of AMI and 79 to 130 in the low-risk subgroups.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> That is, in those patients who were more difficult to manage and had a higher risk of events, the reduction of CV risk with evolocumab was more substantial. In this context, it would be reasonable, then, to direct this type of therapy preferentially to those patients with more severe dyslipidemia, considering the more substantial reductions of LDL and, consequently, more encouraging benefits and greater cost-effectiveness.</p>
        <p>Another aspect to be considered relates to the regression of atheroma volume. Large reductions in LDL levels can promote such an effect, as was suggested by the GLAGOV trial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> In this experiment, 968 patients were included in 226 centers across 32 countries. Participants with symptomatic CAD were diagnosed by coronary computed tomography angiography and received monthly evolocumab (420 mg) vs. placebo for 76 weeks, in addition to statins. At the start of the study, the mean LDL level of the participants was 93 mg/dL; by the end, those randomized to evolocumab reached 29 mg/dL, versus 90 mg/dL in controls. In addition, greater regression of atherosclerotic plaque was observed in the evolocumab group (64.3% vs. 47.35%; p &lt; 0.0001), making GLAGOV the first study to demonstrate the benefits of PCSK9i on atherosclerotic plaque.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> These results appear to hold relevance to clinical practice, as well as external validity.</p>
        <p>Animal studies play a fundamental role in the development of new drugs. In experiments with mice, administration of alirocumab (3 or 10 mg/kg) for 18 weeks reduced plasma lipid levels, mitigated development of atherosclerosis and improved plaque morphology. When used in combination with atorvastatin (3.6 mg/kg/d), the severity of atherosclerotic lesions was reduced even further, in a dose-dependent manner.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> However, trials with larger samples - and, preferably, in humans - are lacking.</p>
        <p>It is estimated that 24 million patients in the U.S. alone could be eligible for PCSK9i therapy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Although there are no such data for the Brazilian population, the efficacy and safety of these agents have been recognized by regulatory agencies in the country, and two PCSK9i have been approved by the National Health Surveillance Agency (ANVISA) and are commercially available: Praluent&#174; (alirocumab) and Repatha&#8482; (evolocumab).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Their approved indications for use in Brazil, as well as dosages and the magnitude of LDL reduction achieved, are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">table 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Indications for PCSK9i use in Brazil, according to the Brazilian Guideline on Dyslipidemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
						</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="50%"/>
              <col width="50%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                <td align="center" colspan="2">
                  <bold>Patients at high risk of a CV event</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">On treatment with statins at the highest tolerated dose</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">Statin or statin + ezetimibe therapy</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">Statin-intolerant or has not met recommended LDL or non-HDL goals&#8595;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Evolocumab (Repatha&#8482;)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Alirocumab (Praluent&#174;)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">140 mg by subcutaneous injection every 2 weeks or 420 mg once a month<break/>Both doses reduce LDL by approximately 60%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">75 mg or 150 mg by subcutaneous injection every 2 weeks<break/>The 75-mg and 150-mg doses are associated with average LDL reductions of 45% and 60%, respectively.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>General recommendations for the use of PCSK9i in clinical guidelines</title>
        <p>Several guidelines, including those cited in subsequent paragraphs, are unanimous in indicating the therapeutic use of PCSK9i only for those patients considered to be at high or very high risk and who were unable to reach LDL targets even after lipid-lowering therapy (such as statins at maximum tolerated dose or statins plus ezetimibe).</p>
        <p>The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) does not recommend the use of PCSK9i for patients with primary non-familial hypercholesterolemia or mixed dyslipidemia without evidence of CV disease, regardless of LDL concentration. In patients at high CV risk, the use of PCSK9i is recommended only if the LDL concentration is persistently above 4.0 mmol/L (approximately 154 mg/dL). If the patient is considered to be at very high CV risk, PCSK9i therapy is recommended only if the LDL concentration is persistently above 3.5 mmol/L (approximately 135 mg/dL).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Mechanisms of PCSK9 involvement in LDL metabolism.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-04-0453-90029-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>In contrast, the updated Brazilian Guidelines for Dyslipidemias and Prevention of Atherosclerosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> adopted a much less conservative addendum. In those patients at high risk for CV disease, the therapeutic goal of LDL should be below 70 mg/dL, while in those considered at very high risk CV, the goal is to reach LDL levels below 50 mg/dL. Accordingly, the 2017 consensus of the American College of Cardiology states that, for patients at higher risk (such as those with acute coronary syndrome or with multivessel CAD), a target LDL level of &lt; 50 mg/dL can be considered.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> The <italic>American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists</italic>/American College of Endocrinology statement recommends a target LDL level &lt; 55 mg/dL for: a) patients with progressive atherosclerotic CV disease; b) patients with atherosclerotic CV disease in association with diabetes and/or stage 3 or 4 chronic kidney disease; c) patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HF); and d) those with premature atherosclerotic CV disease.</p>
        <p>In turn, the <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic>/<italic>European Atherosclerosis Society</italic> Task <italic>Force</italic> recommends PCSK9i therapy when LDL is &#8805; 140 mg/dL and the patient is already on combined statin and ezetimibe therapy; or when LDL is &#8805; 100 mg/dL in cases of rapid progression of atherosclerotic CV disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> In these individuals, PCSK9i therapy is recommended with a target LDL level &lt; 70 mg/DL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Patients with and without diabetes mellitus</title>
        <p>Preclinical and clinical epidemiological studies have revealed an association of PCSK9 levels with insulin resistance and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Although genetic study findings have been contradictory, there seems to be a positive association between levels of PCSK9 and the incidence of DM2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> The Dallas Heart Study found that PCSK9 levels were significantly higher in patients with DM2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Regular use of statins and fibrates may increase plasma levels of PCSK9,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> with the latter potentially raising levels by up to 25%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> This fact should be taken into account.</p>
        <p>Statins themselves may also increase the incidence of DM2. A meta-analysis including more than 91,000 patients followed up for 4 years found a 9% increase in the risk of DM2 with the use of statins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> In fact, data show that the gain in function in the LDL receptor gene is capable of impairing the insulin-secreting capacity of the pancreatic beta-cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Thus, it is only natural that upregulation of LDL receptors with the use of PCSK9i might induce a decline in insulin release, thus facilitating development of new-onset DM2. Following this reasoning, a meta-analysis that evaluated short-term therapy with PCSK9i (1.5 years) found a small, but significant increase in plasma glucose and glycated hemoglobin levels. Moreover, this increase was proportional to the reduction in LDL, but was not enough to cause an impact on the emergence of new cases of DM2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The safety of PCSK9i therapy has also been assessed. In a pre-specified meta-analysis of the FOURIER trial, the efficacy and safety of evolocumab was investigated in patients with and without DM2, in addition to the effect of evolocumab on blood glucose and on the risk of developing DM2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Of those individuals already living with DM2, 8,000 had available data and 25% were on insulin. Among patients without the disease, 38% had prediabetes and 22% were normoglycemic. Both groups were homogeneous in terms of statin therapy, with 70% on maximal doses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Evolocumab therapy significantly reduced CV risk in both groups, and did not increase the risk of recent-onset DM2; there was no worsening in blood glucose levels. These data suggest that evolocumab therapy is safe and effective in patients with atherosclerotic disease. Furthermore, the number needed to prevent a primary CV event over a 3-year period among DM2 patients was only 37. Therefore, the use of PCSK9i in patients with atherosclerotic CV disease and DM2 can be particularly attractive from the point of view of cost-benefit.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Possible anti-inflammatory mechanisms and pleiotropic effects</title>
        <p>The potential for anti-inflammatory action by PCSK9i is unclear. Unlike therapy with statins, there is no evidence of a potential role of PCSK9i in reducing C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, especially when measured by high-sensitivity methods (hsCRP). Two recent meta-analyses that evaluated approximately 7,000 patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> did not confirm this hypothesis.</p>
        <p>Although the relationship between PCSK9 and carotid intima-media thickness in healthy patients is controversial, it may play a direct role in the inflammatory process, contributing to atherosclerotic disease through LDL-independent mechanisms.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Whether these monoclonal antibodies interact with other pathways to induce an anti-inflammatory response is still unclear, and warrants further investigation.</p>
        <p>The relationship between serum levels of PCSK9 and atherosclerotic plaque characteristics has also been studied. <italic>Virtual</italic>-<italic>histology intravascular ultrasound</italic> (VH-<italic>IVUS</italic>) was used to analyze 581 patients with CAD,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> and higher levels of PCSK9 were found to be associated with a greater fraction and amount of central necrotic tissue in coronary atherosclerosis, independent of LDL levels and statin therapy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Therefore, PCSK9 seems to play a role that goes far beyond regulation of LDL.</p>
        <p>In another sub-analysis of the FOURIER trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> evolocumab acted effectively against initial inflammatory risk in 27,564 patients at high CV risk. It bears stressing that the relative benefit of therapy with this drug for the prevention of CV events was independent of baseline CRP levels. Although those patients with higher hsCRP levels exhibited greater susceptibility to CV events, they were also those who tended to derive the greatest absolute benefit from evolocumab therapy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Evidence suggests that vascular smooth muscle cells produce higher amounts of PCSK9 compared to endothelial cells, especially in an inflammatory microenvironment. In those regions where there is lower shear stress (i.e., force of blood friction against the arterial intima), PCSK9 expression is increased in smooth-muscle cells. Moreover, oxidized LDL appears to be implicated in the regulation of PCSK9 expression by modulating the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Corroborating these findings, Ricci et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> tested the hypothesis of a relationship between PCSK9 and pro-inflammatory effects in macrophages. The authors initially performed a series of experiments with macrophages derived from the human monocytes cell line THP-1, incubated with increasing concentrations of recombinant human PCSK9. A positive correlation was observed between levels of PCSK9 and inflammatory response in macrophages, inducing expression of TNF-&#945;, IL-1, IL-6, as well as chemokines such as <italic>monocyte chemoattractant protein</italic>-<italic>1</italic>(MCP-1). In addition, an inflammatory response was observed when THP-1 macrophages were co-cultured with HepG2 cells overexpressing PCSK9.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> This provides additional evidence of a pro-inflammatory effect of PCSK9.</p>
        <p>Recently, Bernelot Moens et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> evaluated the responses to PCSK9i in monocytes (key mediators of the inflammatory process) of patients with FH who were not on statins due to muscle pain. Several pro-inflammatory and migratory alterations were observed in these monocytes. After 6 months of treatment with PCSK9i, the migratory capacity of monocytes, their lipid content, and their inflammatory responsiveness decreased to levels observed in FH patients on stable statin therapy. The reduction in lipid content with the use of PCSK9i attenuated the pro-inflammatory phenotype of monocytes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> These findings are important, because they emphasize that other mediators beyond CRP are involved in inflammation.</p>
        <p>Finally, it should be emphasized that the PCSK9i agents have pleiotropic effects, and that their use may have other therapeutic actions, in addition to their already-established hypolipidemic activity.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Safety</title>
        <p>In 2012, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an alert on the potential adverse effects of statin treatment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> Two years later, the FDA asked PCSK9i developers to assess possible adverse events of these drugs in different studies, with special attention to the emergence of new cases of cognitive deficit.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> This recommendation was based on some reports that warned of a possible increase in the risk of neurocognitive events with the use of PCSK9i. Indeed, there is some biological plausibility to support the argument that a very sharp reduction in lipids can negatively impact cognitive function, regardless of the ability of the drug to cross the blood-brain barrier.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
				</p>
        <p>To date, the leading assessment of the risk of cognitive deficits with the use of a PCSK9i (evolocumab) plus statin as compared to placebo plus statin is the EBBINGHAUS trial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> which randomized 1,974 patients. The subjects had a mean age of 63 years and were followed up for approximately 19 months. All completed the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery at 6, 12, and 24 months. No difference was observed between the groups in terms of cognitive function, scores on the cognitive function battery, or in subjective self-assessment of daily cognitive ability.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In a pre-specified secondary analysis of the FOURIER study, Giugliano et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> analyzed approximately 26,000 patients, with special attention to the relationship between the LDL concentration reached at 4 weeks and subsequent CV outcomes. There was no reduction in safety with very low LDL concentrations over an average of 2 years.</p>
        <p>In the MENDEL-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> study, a large trial of evolocumab monotherapy, there was a rapid and marked decrease in levels of LDL and apolipoprotein B over 12 weeks in comparison with the placebo or ezetimibe group. LDL reductions in excess of 50% were reported in 72% of patients who received evolocumab. Severe adverse effects occurred at comparable rates across groups. In addition, injection-site reactions were infrequent with evolocumab and did not differ between groups. Biweekly and monthly evolocumab administration yielded comparable reductions in LDL levels, with good tolerability and safety.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The LAPLACE-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> study compared evolocumab versus ezetimibe versus placebo in patients with hypercholesterolemia who were receiving stable doses of statins. Adverse events were similar in the three groups (36% of patients treated with statin plus evolocumab, 40% of those who received statin plus ezetimibe, and 39% of those who received statin plus placebo); musculoskeletal symptoms and headache were the most common. Intolerable adverse events that resulted in discontinuation of treatment occurred in only 1.9%, 1.8%, and 2.2% of participants in the evolocumab, ezetimibe, and placebo groups, respectively. Severe adverse events were reported in 2.1% of the patients treated with evolocumab, 0.9% of those treated with ezetimibe, and 2.3% of those in the control group. Neurocognitive events were reported in only 1 patient treated with evolocumab, compared with 3 patients treated with ezetimibe and no patients in the control groups. It bears stressing that the study was conducted for a short period (3 months) and, despite some adverse events, the benefits seemed to outweigh the risk of PCSK9i therapy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The GAUSS-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> study evaluated evolocumab versus ezetimibe in statin-intolerant dyslipidemic patients over 3 months. The rate of adverse events leading to treatment discontinuation was 8% in the evolocumab group - lower than in the ezetimibe arm (13%). Muscle pain occurred in only 8% of patients treated with evolocumab, versus 18% of those treated with ezetimibe. Discontinuation due to musculoskeletal side effects occurred in 5% of patients the evolocumab group, again a rate numerically lower than in the ezetimibe group (6%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> In the GAUSS-3 study,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> patients who were intolerant to statins were treated with evolocumab 420 mg (with placebo ezetimibe) or ezetimibe 10 mg per day (with placebo evolocumab). Myalgia was reported by approximately 29% of patients treated with ezetimibe and 21% of those treated with evolocumab. However, muscular symptoms leading to discontinuation were very infrequent in the evolocumab group, occurring in only 1 out of 145 treated patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> This seems very relevant, as it suggests that PCSK9i therapy can be used successfully in people with statin intolerance.</p>
        <p>Interestingly, subjects with null mutation of the PCSK9 gene have been described. A U.S. woman inherited a mutation from her father and another from her mother which effectively eliminated PCSK9 function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> Her lifetime average LDL levels were only 14 mg/dL and, more importantly, she seems to lead a healthy life. In other words, even in a setting of marked reduction of LDL to extraordinarily low levels due to a genetic mutation, there is no evidence of any relevant harm to the overall health of the individual.</p>
        <p>Another factor that is worthy of note is measurement of vitamin E levels. It is known that lipoproteins are involved in vitamin E transport,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> and are necessary for steroidogenesis. Therefore, when levels of LDL are extremely low, vitamin E measurement - and, possibly, supplementation - seems necessary.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> In fact, data from the DESCARTES<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> study showed that the substantial reduction in LDL in patients treated with evolocumab also reduced their levels of vitamin E. Nevertheless, there was no alteration in tissue levels of vitamin E, and the reduction was not clinically significant. Furthermore, there is no evidence of compromised synthesis of steroid, adrenal, or gonadal hormones, even in patients with extremely low LDL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> Overall, these data support that even very low concentrations of LDL by inhibition of PCSK9 do not translate into increased risk. In addition to these results, preliminary data from an analysis of nearly 3,000 patients enrolled in the DESCARTES and OSLER-1 studies showed no increase in adverse events and no cases of hemorrhagic stroke among patients with LDL levels below 40 or 25 mg/dL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Two open-label extensions of the FOURIER study, designed to evaluate the long-term safety of evolocumab in approximately 6,600 patients, are underway.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> These results will certainly provide clearer evidence on the safety profile of PCSK9i.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cost-effectiveness</title>
        <p>Despite current evidence supporting the superiority of PCSK9i in the reduction of LDL concentrations in comparison to statins and ezetimibe, the cost-effectiveness ratio cannot be ignored. Estimates suggest that use of these agents is associated with significant expenditures for patients in different scenarios: a) &#8364;78,485.00 for those with a family history of hypercholesterolemia alone; b) &#8364;176,735.00 for those with 10-year CV risk &gt;30%; and c) &#8364;295,543.00 for patients with established CV disease and DM2, all per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> Additionally, the estimated annual cost of treatment is US$14,000.00.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> This becomes particularly important when considering the (implicit and estimated) willingness-to-pay threshold in Brazilian, which seems to fluctuate between R$25,000.00 and R$185,000.00 per QALY.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> Cost-effectiveness ratio and cost-utility ratio estimates indicate values much higher than the Brazilian thresholds, and, at least for the prospect of third-party payers, these drugs will have to spend some time on the market before their prices decline enough for consideration. According to Moore&#8217;s curve, when a new technology is incorporated, there is a non-negligible gap in time for a reduction in estimated price (e.g., 60% to 70% of the current value).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> Therefore, it is important to evaluate the cost-effectiveness and cost-utility of PCSK9i and their market prices before they can be recommended as a therapeutic option - at this time, still from the patient perspective alone.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Final considerations</title>
        <p>Since the discovery of their effect on LDL levels, PCSK9i have been an object of great research interest. The clear association between CV risk factors and the significant reduction in LDL obtained with their use are guiding the development of novel algorithms for the treatment of dyslipidemias and CV diseases as a whole.</p>
        <p>Major advances in the treatment of CAD have been achieved in recent decades. Among them, the greater understanding of the importance of LDL as a causal factor was particularly relevant. The results of the RCTs described in this paper have provided the evidence base for the use of PCSK9i and indications for the use of these drugs, as well as the LDL targets to be achieved. Each patient should have their risk adequately assessed, taking into account the cost-effectiveness of treatment and the most appropriate medications for their clinical condition. The inhibition of PCSK9 represents a novel approach to reducing LDL levels and preventing adverse CV outcomes in high-risk patients who have not achieved recommended levels of LDL despite the use of a maximally optimized therapeutic arsenal.</p>
        <p>Finally, it is important to stress that the use of PCSK9i should not be indiscriminate, and that it is up to physicians to determine which patients will actually benefit from their use. On the other hand, high-risk patients and those who are intolerant to statins - and who can afford this therapy - certainly have in PCSK9i a treatment option that has so far proven to be safe and attractive.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethical approval and informed consent</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article does not report on human or animal studies by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ack>
      <title>Acknowledgements</title>
      <p>Financial support was provided by the Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre Research and Event Incentive Fund (FIPE-HCPA).</p>
    </ack>
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              <given-names>RP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sever</surname>
              <given-names>PS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lindgren</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Cost-effectiveness of Evolocumab Therapy for reducing cardiovascular events in patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease</article-title>
          <source>JAMA Cardiol</source>
          <year>2017</year>
          <volume>2</volume>
          <issue>10</issue>
          <fpage>1069</fpage>
          <lpage>1078</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B63">
        <label>63</label>
        <mixed-citation>63 Arrieta A, Hong JC, Khera R, Virani SS, Krumholz HM, Nasir K. Updated cost-effectiveness assessments of PCSK9 inhibitors from the perspectives of the health system and private payers: insights derived from the FOURIER trial. JAMA Cardiol. 2017;2(12):1369-74.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Arrieta</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hong</surname>
              <given-names>JC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Khera</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Virani</surname>
              <given-names>SS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Krumholz</surname>
              <given-names>HM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nasir</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Updated cost-effectiveness assessments of PCSK9 inhibitors from the perspectives of the health system and private payers: insights derived from the FOURIER trial</article-title>
          <source>JAMA Cardiol</source>
          <year>2017</year>
          <volume>2</volume>
          <issue>12</issue>
          <fpage>1369</fpage>
          <lpage>1374</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Inibidores de PCSK9: Import&#226;ncia Cl&#237;nica, Mecanismos Moleculares, e Seguran&#231;a na Pr&#225;tica Cl&#237;nica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6929-8392</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferrari</surname>
            <given-names>Filipe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2357-5176</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stein</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">4</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">6</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4785-3687</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Motta</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Trotte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">5</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2681-0936</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moriguchi</surname>
            <given-names>Emilio Hideyuki</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">6</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">7</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA) - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo de Pesquisa em Cardiologia do Exerc&#237;cio (CardioEx) - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA) - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Vitta Centro de Bem-Estar F&#237;sico, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, BA - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Divis&#227;o de Medicina Interna - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina Interna - Escola de Medicina - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Emilio Hideyuki Moriguchi,</bold> Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Av. Paulo Gama, 110, CEP 90040-060, Farroupilha, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil. E-mail: <email>emoriguchi@hcpa.edu.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Ferrari F, Moriguchi EH; obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Ferrari F, Stein R, Motta MT, Moriguchi EH; revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Stein R, Moriguchi EH.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) &#233; uma das principais causas de mortalidade. N&#237;veis circulantes elevados de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL) no sangue est&#227;o associados com mortalidade cardiovascular, seja por um papel etiol&#243;gico ou por sua associa&#231;&#227;o com a progress&#227;o da DAC em si. Estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados mostram que, quando os n&#237;veis de LDL s&#227;o reduzidos, o risco cardiovascular tamb&#233;m &#233; reduzido, o que refor&#231;a tal associa&#231;&#227;o. O primeiro ensaio importante envolvendo um agente hipolipemiante da fam&#237;lia da estatina, o estudo <italic>Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study</italic> (4S), foi publicado em 1994 e encontrou uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na mortalidade de pacientes com risco cardiovascular elevado. Contudo, mesmo em estudos subsequentes com diferentes estatinas, observou-se um risco residual persistente, o qual aparentemente n&#227;o mudou ao longo dos anos. Especula-se que esse risco se deve &#224; intoler&#226;ncia &#224;s estatinas. Nesse cen&#225;rio, existe um potencial para novos agentes hipolipemiantes que levem a uma verdadeira revolu&#231;&#227;o no tratamento das dislipidemias. A descoberta recente dos inibidores de PCSK9 (PCSK9i), uma classe de anticorpos monoclonais, &#233; extremamente promissora. A inibi&#231;&#227;o da PCSK9 &#233; capaz de promover uma redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia nos n&#237;veis de LDL de at&#233; 60%, com potencial para repercuss&#245;es cl&#237;nicas muito significativas, j&#225; que para cada redu&#231;&#227;o de 38 mg/dL, parece haver uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 22% no risco cardiovascular. Esta revis&#227;o aborda uma breve hist&#243;ria dos PCSK9i, os principais ensaios envolvendo esses medicamentos, desfechos cardiovasculares, e aspectos relacionados a sua efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a. Finalmente, os mecanismos moleculares e poss&#237;veis efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos dos PCSK9i s&#227;o tamb&#233;m discutidos.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana/mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Pr&#243;-Prote&#237;na Convertase 9</kwd>
        <kwd>LDL-Colesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>Lipoprote&#237;nas Anticoleserol&#234;miantes</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por quase metade das mortes em pessoas com idade inferior a 70 anos em todo o mundo. No Brasil, foram respons&#225;veis por quase 30% das mortes em 2013.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, evid&#234;ncias crescentes mostraram uma forte liga&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL) e a incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> A capta&#231;&#227;o inadequada de LDL pelo f&#237;gado resulta em n&#237;veis aumentados de LDL e consequente incid&#234;ncia prematura de DAC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O tratamento de dislipidemias envolve muitos fatores e, nesse contexto, mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida deveriam fazer parte de todas as prescri&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas. Interven&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas, tais como exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico regular, n&#227;o fumar (ou parar de fumar), e uma dieta saud&#225;vel podem ter um impacto significativo no perfil lip&#237;dico. No entanto, uma parcela substancial de pacientes necessita de drogas hipolipemiantes (p.ex. estatinas, ezetimiba, fibratos) al&#233;m das mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida para alcan&#231;ar os n&#237;veis recomendados de LDL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, foram alcan&#231;ados avan&#231;os consider&#225;veis nos medicamentos hipolipemiantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Quando usados adequadamente, esses agentes exercem um papel preponderante na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares (CVs) adversos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> A terapia para a redu&#231;&#227;o de n&#237;veis de LDL usando estatinas parece ter um impacto tanto na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria como na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de aterosclerose em pacientes com alto risco CV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Contudo, alguns pacientes n&#227;o alcan&#231;am n&#237;veis desejados de LDL mesmo com m&#225;ximas doses de estatinas (como monoterapia ou at&#233; terapia tripla), ou mesmo quando a ezetimiba foi adicionada &#224; terapia com estatina. Tal fato resulta em um risco residual importante para eventos CVs.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Assim, a busca por alternativas terap&#234;uticas que possam reduzir os n&#237;veis de LDL de maneira mais agressiva, objetivando o alcance de melhores desfechos, continua.</p>
        <p>Entre os avan&#231;os recentes, talvez a classe de novos agentes hipolipemiantes que mais se destaca seja os de inibidores da pr&#243;-prote&#237;na convertase subtilisina/kexina tipo 9 (PCSK9).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> A PCSK9 &#233; uma prote&#237;na que promove a degrada&#231;&#227;o de receptores hep&#225;ticos de LDL, levando &#224; hipercolesterolemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Os inibidores dessa prote&#237;na consistem em anticorpos monoclonais que aumentam a disponibilidade dos receptores de LDL. Quando a PCSK9 &#233; inibida, ocorre uma maior capta&#231;&#227;o de LDL por seus respectivos receptores presentes nos hepat&#243;citos, com redu&#231;&#227;o de n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos e plasm&#225;ticos de LDL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Um ponto importante sobre a rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre os n&#237;veis de LDL e desfechos CVs &#233; o comportamento dose-resposta observado. Uma vez que altos n&#237;veis de LDL aumentam o risco CV, quando seus n&#237;veis s&#227;o reduzidos, a taxa de desfechos CVs adversos tamb&#233;m reduz. Por exemplo, o estudo JUPITER demonstrou que o uso de estatina (rosuvastatina) por dois anos promoveu importante prote&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes, especialmente &#224;queles com n&#237;veis de LDL abaixo de 45 mg/dL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Import&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica</title>
          <p>O risco CV pode ser significativamente diminu&#237;do por redu&#231;&#245;es substanciais nos n&#237;veis de LDL. Quanto maior o risco, mais baixo &#233; o n&#237;vel de LDL que se estabelece como alvo. Nenhuma outra classe de agentes hipolemiantes havia estabelecido tal rela&#231;&#227;o desde a descoberta das estatinas,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> uma vez que os inibidores de PCSK9 (PCSK9i) conseguem promover uma redu&#231;&#227;o adicional de at&#233; 60% nos n&#237;veis de LDL em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;s estatinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O estudo FOURIER,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> um ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado (ECR) publicado em 2017, incluiu mais de 27 mil pacientes com doen&#231;a CV ateroscler&#243;tica e n&#237;veis de LDL &#8805;70 mg/dL. Os participantes, todos em tratamento com estatina, foram alocados aleatoriamente para receber terapia adicional com evolocumabe ou placebo por um per&#237;odo m&#233;dio de 2,2 anos. No grupo que recebeu evolocumabe, houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia nos n&#237;veis de LDL de 30 mg/dL do basal; em valores absolutos, houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de 56 mg/dL em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo placebo. Mais importante, uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 15% foi encontrada para o desfecho prim&#225;rio - infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM), acidente vascular cerebral, hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por angina inst&#225;vel, e mortalidade CV - e uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 20% no desfecho duro composto secund&#225;rio - morte por doen&#231;a CV, IAM n&#227;o fatal e acidente vascular cerebral n&#227;o fatal. No final do estudo, observou-se uma redu&#231;&#227;o no risco de 1,5% para ambos os desfechos prim&#225;rio e secund&#225;rio, que se refletiu em uma redu&#231;&#227;o no n&#250;mero necess&#225;rio para tratar (NNT) de aproximadamente 67.</p>
          <p>Mais recentemente, o estudo ODYSSEY Outcomes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> comparou o uso de alirocumabe mais estatina com o uso de somente estatina, na dose m&#225;xima tolerada, em aproximadamente 19 mil pacientes com risco CV muito alto durante 2,8 anos. Os n&#237;veis de LDL foram 53,3 mg/dL no grupo que recebeu alirocumabe e estatina em compara&#231;&#227;o a 101,4 mg/dL no grupo estatina, com redu&#231;&#227;o de 54,7%. O desfecho prim&#225;rio foi ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos CV adversos importantes, o qual tamb&#233;m foi significativamente mais baixo no grupo que recebeu terapia combinada. Al&#233;m disso, ocorreu uma surpreendente redu&#231;&#227;o de 15% nas mortes por todas as causas nesse grupo (NNT de aproximadamente 63). No estudo ODYSSEY Outcomes,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> o LDL diminuiu 47 mg/dL ap&#243;s um ano de acompanhamento. Esse valor, com base nas an&#225;lises do CTT (<italic>Cholesterol Treatment Trialists</italic>),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> representaria uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 24% no risco relativo de eventos CV importantes. No entanto, na pr&#225;tica, observou-se uma redu&#231;&#227;o de somente 15%. Tal diverg&#234;ncia pode ser explicada pela diferen&#231;a no tempo de acompanhamento entre o estudo ODYSSEY Outcomes (2,5 anos) e nas an&#225;lises do CCT (5 anos). De fato, os dados dos CTT apresentaram menor magnitude do benef&#237;cio quanto &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o no LDL no primeiro ano.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Na an&#225;lise do estudo FOURIER,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> os benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos do evolocumabe variaram conforme a gravidade e a extens&#227;o da DAC. Primeiramente, o evolocumabe reduziu os n&#237;veis de LDL em 61%. Segundo, os pacientes com perfil para maior risco foram os que mais se beneficiaram do uso de PCSK9i: observaram-se redu&#231;&#245;es no risco relativo de 20%, 18% e 21% para aqueles com IAM mais recente, m&#250;ltiplos IAMs pr&#233;vios, e doen&#231;a de m&#250;ltiplos vasos, respectivamente, <italic>versus</italic> 5%, 8% e 7%, respectivamente, naqueles sem essas complica&#231;&#245;es. Nos subgrupos de pacientes com alto risco, as redu&#231;&#245;es no risco absoluto em tr&#234;s anos foram superiores a 3% (3,4%; 3,7% e 3,6%, respectivamente), <italic>versus</italic> aproximadamente 1% no grupo com baixo risco (0,8%; 1,3% e 1,2%, respectivamente). Portanto, o NNT para prevenir o desfecho prim&#225;rio em um per&#237;odo de 3 anos foi 27-30 em cada um dos grupos de alto risco versus 54 em todos os pacientes com hist&#243;ria de IAM, e 70-130 nos subgrupos de baixo risco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Assim, em pacientes de manejo mais dif&#237;cil e com maior risco de eventos, a redu&#231;&#227;o no risco CV com evolocumabe foi maior. Nesse contexto, seria razo&#225;vel, assim, direcionar esse tipo de terapia preferencialmente aos pacientes com dislipidemia mais grave, considerando as redu&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de LDL e, consequentemente, mais benef&#237;cios e melhor custo efetividade.</p>
          <p>Outro aspecto a ser considerado relaciona-se &#224; regress&#227;o do volume do ateroma. Redu&#231;&#245;es importantes nos n&#237;veis de LDL podem promover tal efeito, como sugerido pelo estudo GLAGOV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Nesse experimento, 968 pacientes foram inclu&#237;dos em 226 centros de 32 pa&#237;ses. Os participantes com DAC sintom&#225;tica foram diagnosticados por angiografia coron&#225;ria por tomografia computadorizada e receberam mensalmente evolocumabe (420 mg) ou placebo por 76 semanas, al&#233;m de estatinas. No in&#237;cio do estudo, o n&#237;vel m&#233;dio de LDL dos participantes foi 93 mg/dL; ao final, os pacientes alocados para receberem evolocumabe atingiram n&#237;veis de 29 mg/dL versus 90 mg/dL nos controles. Ainda, o grupo evolocumabe apresentou maior regress&#227;o das placas ateroscler&#243;ticas (64,3% vs. 47,3%; p &lt; 0,0001), fazendo com que o estudo GLAGOV tenha sido o primeiro a demonstrar os benef&#237;cios dos PCSK9i nas placas ateroscler&#243;ticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Esses resultados parecem ser relevantes para a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e ter validade externa.</p>
          <p>Estudos com animais t&#234;m papel fundamental no desenvolvimento de novas drogas. Em experimentos com camundongos, a administra&#231;&#227;o de alirocumabe (3 ou 10 mg/kg) por 18 semanas reduziu os n&#237;veis circulantes de lip&#237;dios, atenuou o desenvolvimento de aterosclerose e melhorou a morfologia da placa. Quando usado em combina&#231;&#227;o com atorvastatina (3,6 mg/k/dia), houve maior redu&#231;&#227;o da gravidade das les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas, de maneira dose dependente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Contudo, estudos envolvendo amostras maiores, especialmente com seres humanos, ainda s&#227;o escassos.</p>
          <p>Estima-se que 24 milh&#245;es de pacientes somente nos EUA s&#227;o considerados eleg&#237;veis para a terapia com PCSK9i.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Apesar de n&#227;o existirem esses dados para a popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira, a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a desses agentes foram reconhecidas por ag&#234;ncias reguladoras no pa&#237;s. Dois PCSK9i foram aprovados pela Ag&#234;ncia Nacional de Vigil&#226;ncia Sanit&#225;ria (ANVISA) e est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis comercialmente - o Praluent&#174; (alirocumabe) e o Repatha&#8482; (evolocumabe).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Suas indica&#231;&#245;es aprovadas no Brasil, dosagens e magnitude de redu&#231;&#227;o de LDL alcan&#231;ada est&#227;o resumidas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">tabela 1</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Indica&#231;&#245;es para o uso de inibidores da pr&#243;-prote&#237;na convertase subtilisina/kexina tipo 9 (PCSK9i) no Brasil, segundo a Diretriz Brasileira de Dislipidemias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
							</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="50%"/>
                <col width="50%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">
                    <bold>Pacientes em alto risco para evento cardiovascular</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Em tratamento com estatinas na maior dose tolerada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Terapia com estatina ou estatina + ezetimiba</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Intolerantes &#224; estatina ou que n&#227;o alcan&#231;aram as doses recomendadas de LDL ou n&#227;o-HDL&#8595;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>Evolocumabe (Repatha&#8482;)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>Alirocumabe (Praluent&#174;)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">140 mg por inje&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea a cada duas semanas ou 420 mg<break/> uma vez por m&#234;s<break/>Ambas as doses reduzem LDL em aproximadamente 60%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
									</td>
                  <td align="center">75 mg ou 150 mg por inje&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea a cada duas semanas<break/>As doses 75-mg e 150-mg est&#227;o associadas com redu&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dias no LDL de 45% e 60%, respectivamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
									</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es gerais para o uso de PCSK9i em diretrizes cl&#237;nicas</title>
          <p>Diversas diretrizes, incluindo as citadas nos par&#225;grafos subsequentes, s&#227;o un&#226;nimes em indicar o uso terap&#234;utico de PCSK9i para os pacientes considerados em risco alto ou muito alto, e aqueles que n&#227;o foram capazes de alcan&#231;arem os n&#237;veis desej&#225;veis de LDL mesmo ap&#243;s uso de terapia hipolipemiante (tal como estatina na dose m&#225;xima tolerada, ou estatina mais ezetimiba).</p>
          <p>O instituto nacional para a excel&#234;ncia em sa&#250;de do Reino Unido (NICE, <italic>National Institute for Health and Care Excellence</italic>) n&#227;o recomenda o uso de PCSK9i para pacientes com hipercolesterolemia n&#227;o familiar prim&#225;ria ou dislipidemia mista sem evid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a CV, independentemente da concentra&#231;&#227;o de LDL. Em pacientes com alto risco CV, esses medicamentos s&#227;o recomendados somente se a concentra&#231;&#227;o de LDL persistir acima de 4,0 mmol/L (aproximadamente 154 mg/dL). Se o paciente for considerado de risco CV muito alto, a terapia com PCSK9i &#233; recomendada somente se a concentra&#231;&#227;o de LDL persistir acima de 3,5 mmol/L (aproximadamente 135 mg/dL).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Por outro lado, a Atualiza&#231;&#227;o da Diretriz Brasileira de Dislipidemias e Preven&#231;&#227;o da Aterosclerose<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> adotou uma abordagem muito menos conservadora. Naqueles pacientes com alto risco para doen&#231;a CV, o objetivo terap&#234;utico deve ser n&#237;veis de LDL abaixo de 70 mg/dL, ao passo que naqueles considerados em risco muito alto, a meta s&#227;o n&#237;veis de LDL abaixo de 50 mg/dL. Corroborando essa medida, o consenso do <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic> de 2017 afirma que, para pacientes com risco mais elevado (tais como aqueles com s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda ou DAC de m&#250;ltiplos vasos), pode-se considerar como alvo um n&#237;vel de LDL menor que 50 mg/dL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Associa&#231;&#245;es americanas de endocrinologia (<italic>American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists</italic> e o <italic>American College of Endocrinology</italic>) recomendam um n&#237;vel de LDL &lt; 55 mg/dL como alo terap&#234;utico para: a) pacientes com doen&#231;a CV ateroscler&#243;tica progressiva; b) pacientes com doen&#231;a CV ateroscler&#243;tica em associa&#231;&#227;o com diabetes e/ou doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica em est&#225;gio 3 ou 4; c) pacientes com hipercolesterolemia familiar (HF) heterozig&#243;tica; e aqueles com d) doen&#231;a CV ateroscler&#243;tica prematura.</p>
          <p>O consenso das sociedades europeias de cardiologia e aterosclerose (<italic>European Society of Cardiology/European Atherosclerosis Society Task Force</italic>) recomenda a terapia com PCSK9i quando os n&#237;veis de LDL estiverem &#8805;140 mg/dL e o paciente j&#225; estiver em terapia combinada (estatina e ezetimiba); ou quando os n&#237;veis de LDL forem &#8805; 100 mg/dL nos casos de r&#225;pida progress&#227;o de doen&#231;a CV ateroscler&#243;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Nesses indiv&#237;duos, a terapia com PCSK9i &#233; recomendada, objetivando-se atingir n&#237;veis de LDL abaixo de 70 mg/dL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pacientes com e sem diabetes mellitus</title>
          <p>Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos cl&#237;nicos e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos mostraram uma associa&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de PCSK9 com resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e o risco de desenvolvimento de diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Apesar de estudos gen&#233;ticos apresentarem resultados contradit&#243;rios, parece existir uma associa&#231;&#227;o positiva entre os n&#237;veis de PCSK9 e a incid&#234;ncia de DM2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> No estudo Dallas Heart,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> os n&#237;veis de PCSK9 eram significativamente mais altos nos pacientes com DM2. O uso regular de estatinas e fibratos pode aumentar os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de PCSK9,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> sendo que os fibratos podem aumentar esses n&#237;veis em at&#233; 25%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Tal fato deve ser levado em considera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>As estatinas tamb&#233;m podem aumentar a incid&#234;ncia de DM2. Uma metan&#225;lise incluindo mais de 91 mil pacientes acompanhados por quatro anos relatou um aumento de 9% no risco de DM2 com o uso de estatinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> De fato, os dados mostram que o ganho de fun&#231;&#227;o no gene do receptor de LDL &#233; capaz de impedir a capacidade secretora de insulina das c&#233;lulas beta pancre&#225;ticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Portanto, &#233; natural que o aumento de LDL pela inibi&#231;&#227;o da PCSK9 possa induzir a um decl&#237;nio na libera&#231;&#227;o da insulina e, assim, facilite o desenvolvimento de DM2. Com base nessa hip&#243;tese, uma metan&#225;lise que avaliou a terapia com PCSK9i em curto prazo (1,5 ano) relatou um aumento pequeno, mas significativo nos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de glicose e hemoglobina glicada. Al&#233;m disso, tal aumento foi proporcional &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o no LDL, mas n&#227;o foi suficiente para causar um impacto no surgimento de novos casos de DM2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f2">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Mecanismos do envolvimento da pr&#243;-prote&#237;na convertase subtilisina/kexina tipo 9 no metabolismo de LDL.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-04-0453-90029-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>A seguran&#231;a da terapia com PCSK9i tamb&#233;m foi avaliada. Em uma metan&#225;lise pr&#233;-definida do estudo FOURIER, a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a do evolocumabe foram investigadas em pacientes com e sem DM2, al&#233;m do efeito do evolocumabe sobre a glicemia e o risco de desenvolvimento de DM2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Entre os indiv&#237;duos j&#225; com DM2, oito mil apresentavam dados dispon&#237;veis, e 25% deles estavam em tratamento com insulina. Entre os pacientes sem a doen&#231;a, 38% tinham pr&#233;-diabetes e 22% eram normoglic&#234;micos. Ambos os grupos eram homog&#234;neos em termos de terapia com estatina, com 70% deles recebendo doses m&#225;ximas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> O tratamento com evolocumabe reduziu significativamente o risco CV em ambos os grupos, e n&#227;o aumentou o risco de desenvolvimento de DM2. N&#227;o houve piora nos n&#237;veis de glicose. Esses dados sugerem que a terapia com evolocumabe &#233; segura e efetiva em pacientes com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica. Ainda, o n&#250;mero necess&#225;rio para prevenir um evento CV prim&#225;rio em um per&#237;odo de tr&#234;s anos em paciente com DM2 foi de apenas 37. Assim, o uso de PCSK9i em pacientes com doen&#231;a CV ateroscler&#243;tica e DM2 pode ser particularmente atrativo do ponto de visa de custo-benef&#237;cio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Poss&#237;veis mecanismos anti-inflamat&#243;rios e efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos</title>
          <p>O potencial de a&#231;&#227;o anti-inflamat&#243;rio dos PCSK9i &#233; incerto. Diferente das estatinas, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias sobre um potencial papel dos PCSK9i na redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR), especialmente quando medidos por m&#233;todos ultrassens&#237;veis (PCR-us). Duas metan&#225;lises recentes que avaliaram aproximadamente sete mil pacientes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> n&#227;o confirmaram essa hip&#243;tese.</p>
          <p>Apesar de a rela&#231;&#227;o entre a PCSK9 e a espessura da camada &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da car&#243;tida em pacientes sadios ser controversa, ela pode ter um papel no processo inflamat&#243;rio, contribuindo para a doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica por mecanismos independentes do LDL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Ainda n&#227;o est&#225; definido se esses anticorpos monoclonais interagem com outras vias para induzir uma resposta anti-inflamat&#243;ria, sendo necess&#225;rias mais investiga&#231;&#245;es.</p>
          <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de PCSK9 com caracter&#237;sticas da placa ateroscler&#243;tica tamb&#233;m tem sido estudada. Em um estudo,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> 581 pacientes com DAC foram analisados utilizando ultrassonografia intravascular com t&#233;cnica de histologia virtual, e mostrou que que n&#237;veis mais elevados de PCSK9 esteve associado com uma maior fra&#231;&#227;o e quantidade de tecido necr&#243;tico central na aterosclerose coron&#225;ria, independente dos n&#237;veis de LDL e terapia com estatina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Assim, a PCSK9 parece exercer um papel al&#233;m da regula&#231;&#227;o do LDL.</p>
          <p>Em outra suban&#225;lise do estudo FOURIER,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> o evolocumabe foi eficaz em reduzir o risco inflamat&#243;rio inicial em 27 564 pacientes com alto risco CV. Vale a pena ressaltar que o benef&#237;cio relativo da terapia com essa droga para a preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos CVs foi independente dos n&#237;veis basais de PCR. Apesar de os pacientes com n&#237;veis mais elevados de PCRus terem apresentado maior susceptibilidade a eventos CVs, esses pacientes tamb&#233;m tenderam a obter maior benef&#237;cio absoluto da terapia com evolovumabe.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Evid&#234;ncias sugerem que as c&#233;lulas do m&#250;sculo liso vascular produzem maior quantidade de PCSK9 em compara&#231;&#227;o a c&#233;lulas endoteliais, principalmente em um microambiente inflamat&#243;rio. Nas regi&#245;es em que h&#225; menor estresse de cisalhamento (for&#231;a da fric&#231;&#227;o causada pelo sangue contra a &#237;ntima arterial), a express&#227;o de PCSK9 est&#225; aumentada nas c&#233;lulas musculares lisas. Al&#233;m disso, LDL oxidado parece estar envolvido na regula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de PCSK9 modulando-se a secre&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, tais como interleucina-1 (IL-1), interlecuina-6 (IL-6) e fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Corroborando esses achados, Ricci et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> testaram a hip&#243;tese de uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre a PCSK9 e os efeitos pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios em macr&#243;fagos. Os autores inicialmente realizaram uma s&#233;rie de experimentos com concentra&#231;&#245;es crescentes de PCSK9 humano recombinante. Observou-se uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre os n&#237;veis de PCSK9 e resposta inflamat&#243;ria em macr&#243;fagos, induzindo a express&#227;o de TNF-&#945;, IL-1, IL-6, bem como de quimiocinas tais como a prote&#237;na quimioatrativa de mon&#243;citos-1 (MCP-1). Ainda, observou-se uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria quando macr&#243;fagos THP-1 foram cocultivados com c&#233;lulas HepG2 que expressam PCSK9,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> o que fornece mais uma evid&#234;ncia de um efeito pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio da PCSK9.</p>
          <p>Recentemente, Berrnelot Moens et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> avaliaram as respostas a PCSK9i em mon&#243;citos (mediadores chaves desse processo inflamat&#243;rio) de pacientes com HF, que n&#227;o recebiam estatinas devido &#224; dor muscular. Foram observadas v&#225;rias altera&#231;&#245;es pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias e migrat&#243;rias nesses mon&#243;citos. Ap&#243;s seis meses de tratamento com PCSK9i, a capacidade migrat&#243;ria, o teor lip&#237;dico, e a capacidade de resposta inflamat&#243;ria dos mon&#243;citos reduziram a n&#237;veis observados em pacientes com HF em tratamento est&#225;vel com estatinas. A redu&#231;&#227;o no teor lip&#237;dico com PCSK9i atenuou o fen&#243;tipo pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio dos mon&#243;citos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> Esses achados s&#227;o importantes, uma vez que enfatizam que outros mediadores, al&#233;m da PCR, est&#227;o envolvidos na inflama&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Finalmente, deve-se destacar que os PCSK9i possuem efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos, podendo ser usados com outros fins terap&#234;uticos al&#233;m do j&#225; conhecido efeito hipolipid&#234;mico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Seguran&#231;a</title>
          <p>Em 2012, a ag&#234;ncia americana FDA (<italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic>) anunciou um alerta sobre os potenciais efeitos adversos do tratamento com estatinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> Dois anos depois, a ag&#234;ncia solicitou aos pesquisadores que atuavam no desenvolvimento de PCSK9i para avaliar poss&#237;veis eventos adversos desses medicamentos, especialmente quanto ao surgimento de novos casos de d&#233;ficit cognitivo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> Essa recomenda&#231;&#227;o foi baseada em relatos que alertavam um poss&#237;vel aumento no risco de eventos neurocognitivos com o uso de PCSK9i. De fato, existe certa plausibilidade biol&#243;gica em se afirmar que uma acentuada redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de lip&#237;dios pode afetar negativamente a fun&#231;&#227;o cognitiva, independentemente da capacidade do medicamento em atravessar a barreira hematoencef&#225;lica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
					</p>
          <p>At&#233; o presente momento, a principal avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de d&#233;ficits cognitivos com o uso de PCSK9i (evolocumabe) mais estatinas, em compara&#231;&#227;o a placebo mais estatinas, &#233; o estudo EBBINGHAUS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> Nesse estudo, 1974 pacientes, com idade m&#233;dia de 63 anos, foram randomizados e acompanhados por aproximadamente 19 meses. Todos os participantes realizaram todos os testes <italic>do Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery</italic> aos 6, 12 e 24 meses de tratamento. N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as entre os grupos quanto &#224; fun&#231;&#227;o cognitiva, escores nos testes de fun&#231;&#227;o cognitiva, ou na autoavalia&#231;&#227;o sobre a capacidade cognitiva di&#225;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Em uma an&#225;lise secund&#225;ria pr&#233;-definida do estudo FOURIER, Giugliano et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> analisaram aproximadamente 26 mil pacientes, com especial aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; rela&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de LDL alcan&#231;ados em quatro semanas e os desfechos CVs. N&#227;o houve redu&#231;&#227;o na seguran&#231;a em n&#237;veis muito baixos de LDL durante um per&#237;odo de dois anos.</p>
          <p>No estudo MENDEL-2,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> um grande ensaio com monoterapia com evolocumabe, observou-se um r&#225;pido e marcante decr&#233;scimo nos n&#237;veis de LDL e apolipoprote&#237;na B em 12 semanas, em compara&#231;&#227;o a placebo ou ezetimiba. Redu&#231;&#245;es no LDL superiores a 50% foram relatadas em 72% dos pacientes que receberam evolocumabe. Efeitos adversos graves ocorreram em taxas similares entre os grupos. Al&#233;m disso, rea&#231;&#245;es no local de inje&#231;&#227;o foram pouco frequentes com evolocumabe e tamb&#233;m n&#227;o foram diferentes entre os grupos. A administra&#231;&#227;o quinzenal e mensal de evolocumabe levou a redu&#231;&#245;es compar&#225;veis nos n&#237;veis de LDL, com boa toler&#226;ncia e seguran&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O estudo LAPLACE-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> comparou evolocumabe versus ezetimiba versus placebo em pacientes com hipercolesterolemia recebendo doses est&#225;veis de estatina. Eventos adversos foram similares nos tr&#234;s grupos (36% nos pacientes tratados com estatina mais evolocumabe, 40% nos tratados com estatina mais ezetimiba, e 39% nos tratados com estatina mais placebo). Sintomas musculoesquel&#233;ticos e cefaleia foram os eventos mais comuns. Eventos adversos relativos &#224; intoler&#226;ncia ao medicamento, que resultaram em interrup&#231;&#227;o do tratamento ocorreram em 1,9%, 1,8% e 2,2% dos participantes dos grupos evolocumabe, ezetimiba e placebo, respectivamente. Eventos adversos graves foram relatados em 2,1% dos pacientes com evolocumabe, 0,9% dos tratados com ezetimiba, e 2,3% do grupo controle. Eventos neurocognitivos foram relatados em um paciente tratado com evolocumabe, em compara&#231;&#227;o a tr&#234;s pacientes tratados com ezetimiba e nenhum paciente do grupo controle. Vale ressaltar que o estudo foi conduzido por um curto per&#237;odo (tr&#234;s meses) e que, apesar de alguns eventos adversos, os benef&#237;cios parecem ter superado o risco da terapia com PCSK9i.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O estudo GAUSS-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> avaliou evolocumabe versus ezetimiba em pacientes dislipid&#234;micos intolerantes a estatinas durante um per&#237;odo de tr&#234;s meses. A taxa de eventos adversos que levou &#224; descontinua&#231;&#227;o do tratamento foi 8% no grupo evolocumabe - menor que no grupo ezetimiba (13%). Dor muscular ocorreu somente em 8% dos pacientes tratados com evolocumabe, versus 18% daqueles tratados com ezetimiba. A descontinua&#231;&#227;o por efeitos colaterais musculoesquel&#233;ticos ocorreu em 5% dos pacientes do grupo evolocumabe, taxa tamb&#233;m inferior ao grupo ezetimiba (6%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> No estudo GAUSS-3,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> pacientes intolerantes a estatinas foram tratados com evolocumabe 420 mg (com placebo ezetimiba) ou ezetimiba 10 mg por dia (com placebo evolocumabe). Mialgia foi relatada por aproximadamente 29% dos pacientes tratados com ezetimiba, e 21% dos tratados com evolocumabe. No entanto, sintomas musculares que levaram &#224; interrup&#231;&#227;o do tratamento foi muito pouco frequente no grupo evolocumabe, ocorrendo somente em 1 dos 145 pacientes tratados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> Tal fato parece ser muito relevante, uma vez que sugere que a terapia com PCSK9i pode ser usada com sucesso em indiv&#237;duos com intoler&#226;ncia &#224; estatina.</p>
          <p>Um dado interessante &#233; o relato de indiv&#237;duos com muta&#231;&#227;o nula do gene PCSK9. Uma mulher americana herdou uma muta&#231;&#227;o de seu pai e outra de sua m&#227;e que culminou na elimina&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o da PCSK9.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> A m&#233;dia dos n&#237;veis de LDL durante sua vida era de apenas 14 mg/dL e, mais importante, parece levar uma vida saud&#225;vel. Em outras palavras, mesmo em condi&#231;&#245;es em que ocorrem redu&#231;&#245;es do LDL a n&#237;veis extremamente baixos, nesse caso, devido a uma muta&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de nenhum efeito negativo importante &#224; sa&#250;de do indiv&#237;duo.</p>
          <p>Outro fator que vale a pena mencionar &#233; a medida dos n&#237;veis de vitamina E. Sabe-se que as lipoprote&#237;nas est&#227;o envolvidas no transporte de vitamina E,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> e que s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para a esteroidog&#234;nese. Portanto, quando n&#237;veis de LDL s&#227;o extremamente baixos, devem-se dosar os n&#237;veis vitamina E para avaliar a necessidade de suplementa&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> De fato, os dados do estudo DESCARTES<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> mostraram que a redu&#231;&#227;o substancial no LDL em pacientes tratados com evolocumabe tamb&#233;m levou &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de vitamina E. No entanto, n&#227;o houve altera&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis tissulares de vitamina E, e a redu&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o foi clinicamente significativa. Ainda, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia de comprometimento da s&#237;ntese de horm&#244;nios esteroidais, adrenais ou gonadais, mesmo em pacientes com n&#237;veis de LDL extremamente baixos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> Em geral, esses dados corroboram o fato de que mesmo concentra&#231;&#245;es muito baixas de LDL causadas pela inibi&#231;&#227;o da PCSK9 n&#227;o leva a um risco aumentado. Al&#233;m desses resultados, dados preliminares de uma an&#225;lise com aproximadamente tr&#234;s mil pacientes inclu&#237;dos nos estudos DESCARTES e OSLER-1 n&#227;o indicaram aumento de ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos adversos e nenhum caso de acidente vascular hemorr&#225;gico em pacientes com n&#237;veis de LDL abaixo de 40 mg/dL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Duas extens&#245;es aberta (<italic>open-label</italic>) do estudo FOURIER, delineadas para avaliar a seguran&#231;a em longo prazo do evolocumabe em aproximadamente 6600 pacientes, est&#227;o em andamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> Esses resultados certamente fornecer&#227;o uma evid&#234;ncia mais clara sobre a seguran&#231;a dos PCSK9i.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Custo-efetividade</title>
          <p>Apesar das atuais evid&#234;ncias em favor da superioridade dos PCSK9i na redu&#231;&#227;o das concentra&#231;&#245;es de LDL em compara&#231;&#227;o a estatinas e ezetimiba, n&#227;o se pode ignorar sua raz&#227;o custo-efetividade. Estimativas sugerem que o uso desses agentes esteja associado com gasto significativos em pacientes de diferentes cen&#225;rios: a) &#8364;78 485,00 para pacientes com hist&#243;ria familiar de hipercolesterolemia; b) &#8364;176 735,00 para pacientes com risco CV de dez anos superior a 30%; e c) &#8364;295 543,00 para pacientes com doen&#231;a CV e DM2, todos por anos de vida ajustados pela qualidade (<italic>quality-adjusted life-years</italic> - QALY).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> Ainda, o custo anual estimado do tratamento &#233; de 14 mil d&#243;lares americanos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> Isso torna-se de particular import&#226;ncia ao considerar a disposi&#231;&#227;o a pagar (impl&#237;cita e estimada) no Brasil, que parece flutuar entre 25 e 185 mil reais por QALY.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> As raz&#245;es custo-efetividade e custo-utilidade indicam valores muito mais altos que os limiares estimados no Brasil e, pelo menos, do ponto de vista dos terceiros pagadores, essas drogas dever&#227;o permanecer algum tempo no mercado para seus pre&#231;os ca&#237;rem o suficiente para serem consideradas. Segundo a curva de Moore, quando uma nova tecnologia &#233; incorporada, existe um gap no tempo para a redu&#231;&#227;o no pre&#231;o estimado que n&#227;o pode ser desconsiderado (por exemplo, de 60 a 70% do valor atual).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> Assim, &#233; importante avaliar o custo-efetividade e o custo-utilidade dos PCSK9i e seus pre&#231;os de mercado antes de serem recomendados como op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica - nesse momento, ainda sob a perspectiva somente do paciente.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais</title>
          <p>Desde a descoberta dos efeitos dos PCSK9i sobre os n&#237;veis de LDL, esses agentes t&#234;m sido objeto de grande interesse na pesquisa. A clara associa&#231;&#227;o entre fatores de risco CVs e a redu&#231;&#227;o significativa no LDL obtida com seu uso tem direcionado o desenvolvimento de novos algoritmos para o tratamento de dislipidemias e doen&#231;as CVs.</p>
          <p>Avan&#231;os importantes no tratamento da DAC foram alcan&#231;ados nas d&#233;cadas recentes. Entre eles, o maior entendimento da import&#226;ncia do LDL como fator causal tem sido particularmente relevante. Os resultados dos ECRs descritos neste artigo forneceram a base de evid&#234;ncia para o uso de PCSK9i, bem como os n&#237;veis de LDL a serem alcan&#231;ados. Cada paciente deve ter seu risco avaliado adequadamente, considerando-se o custo efetividade do tratamento e as medica&#231;&#245;es mais apropriadas para sua condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica. A inibi&#231;&#227;o da PCSK9 representa uma nova abordagem na redu&#231;&#227;o de LDL e preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos CVs adversos em pacientes de alto risco que n&#227;o alcan&#231;aram n&#237;veis de LDL recomendados apesar do uso de um arsenal terap&#234;utico efetivo.</p>
          <p>Finalmente, &#233; importante frisar que o uso de PCSK9i n&#227;o deve ser indiscriminado, e a decis&#227;o de quais pacientes realmente se beneficiariam de seu uso deve ficar a crit&#233;rio dos m&#233;dicos. Por outro lado, aos pacientes em alto risco e &#224;queles intolerantes a estatinas - al&#233;m daqueles que podem pagar pela terapia - certamente os PCSK9i s&#227;o uma op&#231;&#227;o de tratamento que se mostrou segura e atrativa at&#233; o momento.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m nenhum estudo com seres humanos ou animais realizados pelos autores.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <ack>
        <title>Agradecimentos</title>
        <p>Apoio financeiro foi concedido pelo Fundo de Incentivo &#224; Pesquisa e Eventos (FIPE) do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre.</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
