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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">BrKHbCx3XmWWCY59BpTLDvC</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2019000400383</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2019005004103</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20190032</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>A Proposed Inflammatory Score of Circulating Cytokines/Adipokines Associated with Resistant Hypertension, but Dependent on Obesity Parameters</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8585-7238</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Faria</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4434-4791</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ritter</surname>
            <given-names>Alessandra Mileni Versuti</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0160-5776</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gasparetti</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina Souza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4668-966X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Corr&#234;a</surname>
            <given-names>Nath&#225;lia Batista</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9612-8241</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Brunelli</surname>
            <given-names>Veridiana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6579-9456</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Aur&#233;lio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1819-6219</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>Nayara Fraccari</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0047-7859</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Modolo</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6330-697X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moreno</surname>
            <given-names>Heitor</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Farmacologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Campinas</city>
          <state>SP</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Farmacologia da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Campinas</city>
          <state>SP</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas (PUC-Campinas), Campinas, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Medicina Interna</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Campinas</city>
          <state>SP</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina Interna - Disciplina de Cardiologia da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Medicina Interna</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Campinas</city>
          <state>SP</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina Interna da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Ana Paula de Faria,</bold> Rua Tess&#225;lia Vieira de Camargo, 126. FCM 10. Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP). Postal Code 13093-970, Bar&#227;o Geraldo, Campinas, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>aninha_cfaria@hotmail.com</email>, <email>ana.cabralfaria@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and writing of the manuscript: de Faria AP; acquisition of data: de Faria AP, Ritter AMV; analysis and interpretation of the data and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: de Faria AP, Ritter AMV, Gasparetti CS, Corr&#234;a NB, Brunelli V, Almeida A, Pires NF, Modolo R, Moreno Junior H; statistical analysis: de Faria AP, Modolo R; obtaining funding: de Faria AP, Ritter AMV, Moreno Junior H.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2019</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>112</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>383</fpage>
      <lpage>389</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>There is evidence that subclinical systemic inflammation is present in resistant hypertension (RHTN).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>The aim of the study was to develop an integrated measure of circulating cytokines/adipokines involved in the pathophysiology of RHTN.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>RHTN (n = 112) and mild to moderate hypertensive (HTN) subjects (n=112) were studied in a cross-sectional design. Plasma cytokines/adipokines (TNF-alpha, interleukins [IL]-6, -8, -10, leptin and adiponectin) values were divided into tertiles, to which a score ranging from 1 (lowest tertile) to 3 (highest tertile) was assigned. The inflammatory score (IS) of each subject was the sum of each pro-inflammatory cytokine scores from which anti-inflammatory cytokines (adiponectin and IL-10) scores were subtracted. The level of significance accepted was alpha = 0.05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>IS was higher in RHTN subjects compared with HTN subjects [4 (2-6) vs. 3 (2-5); p = 0.02, respectively]. IS positively correlated with body fat parameters, such as body mass index (r = 0.40; p &lt; 0.001), waist circumference (r = 0.30; p &lt; 0.001) and fat mass assessed by bioelectrical impedance analysis (r = 0.31; p &lt; 0.001) in all hypertensive subjects. Logistic regression analyses revealed that IS was an independent predictor of RHTN (OR = 1.20; p = 0.02), independent of age, gender and race, although it did not remain significant after adjustment for body fat parameters.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>A state of subclinical inflammation defined by an IS including TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, leptin and adiponectin is associated with obese RHTN. In addition, this score correlates with obesity parameters, independently of hypertensive status. The IS may be used for the evaluation of conditions involving low-grade inflammation, such as obesity-related RHTN. Indeed, it also highlights the strong relationship between obesity and inflammatory process.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Hypertension/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesity</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflammation</kwd>
        <kwd>Cytokines</kwd>
        <kwd>Adipokines</kwd>
        <kwd>Probability</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Inflammation is an important pathophysiological factor underlying hypertension, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Overweight and obese status include a higher prevalence of hypertension and maladaptive consequences including cardiorenal and metabolic disorders. Excess visceral fat is a source of cytokines, that creates an inflammatory-oxidative stress cascade contributing to insulin resistance (IR), endothelial dysfunction, vascular stiffening, and sodium retention in the kidney.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> The combined presence of obesity and IR also contributes to overactivation of both sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Ultimately, these disarrangements can lead to the occurrence of resistance to antihypertensive treatment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Our research group have explored inflammatory cytokines - the anti-inflammatory adiponectin and interleukin 10 and the pro-inflammatory leptin, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-&#945;), and interleukins 6 (IL-6) - in resistant hypertension (RHTN) associating them to the lack of blood pressure (BP) control and vascular-renal damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> In addition, low-grade chronic inflammation, estimated by high C-reactive protein levels, was able to predict major fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular outcomes, and cardiac remodeling in this high-risk population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Adiponectin has an anti-inflammatory role and directly stimulates the production of nitric oxide (NO) in endothelial cells via phosphorylation of endothelial NO synthase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> It down regulates TNF-&#945; production from macrophage by inhibiting nuclear transcription factor NF-kappa B.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> On the other hand, IL-6 inhibits adiponectin expression and secretion in 3T3-L1 adipocytes <italic>in vitro</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Additionally TNF-&#945; increases the secretion of leptin,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> which in turn stimulates the SNS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Since cytokines and adipokines have interconnected roles, we aimed with this study (1) to develop an integrated measure of several circulating cytokines/adipokines among subjects with RHTN and mild to moderate hypertension (HTN), and (2) to assess the potential impact of this inflammatory score (IS) on resistance to antihypertensive treatment.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Population and methods</title>
      <p>A convenience sample of 112 subjects diagnosed with RHTN attending the Specialized Outpatient Clinic in RHTN of the University of Campinas (UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil) and 112 HTN attending the Hypertension Clinic of Valinhos (Valinhos, Brazil) were consecutively enrolled in this cross-sectional study. RHTN was defined according to American Heart Association Statement as either (1) the subjects whose BP levels remain above goal (&#8805; 140/90 mmHg) despite concurrent use of three or more antihypertensive drugs of different classes, or (2) those with controlled BP levels using four or more antihypertensive medication. Ideally, one of the agents should be a diuretic, and all agents should be prescribed at optimal doses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Patients with controlled BP using three or less antihypertensive drugs, or not yet controlled using two or less of these medications were classified as having HTN (grade 1 and grade 2 hypertension).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
      <p>A 6-month period follow-up for screening and exclusion of secondary causes of hypertension was performed to guarantee a precise diagnosis for HTN and &#8220;true&#8221; RHTN. The exclusion criteria were compounded with renal artery stenosis, coarctation of the aorta, pheochromocytoma, primary hyperaldosteronism (aldosterone to renin ratio &gt; 20 ng.dL<sup>-1</sup> per ng.mL<sup>-1</sup>.h<sup>-1</sup>), Cushing syndrome, obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (patients with previous polysomnographic diagnosis, or classified as high risk by the Berlin questionnaire). This period also included pill count to exclude the lack of BP control due to poor medication adherence,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> and ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) to exclude white coat hypertension. We also excluded patients with symptomatic ischemic heart disease, impaired renal function, chronic kidney disease (creatinine clearance &lt; 30 mL/min/1.73m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>) and liver disease (medical history, and platelet and transaminase levels). Inclusion criterion was age over 18 years old.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Blood pressure measurements</title>
        <p>Office systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP) were assessed by a trained health professional according to the European Society of Hypertension guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> We used a validated digital sphygmomanometer (HEM-907XL, OMRON Healthcare Inc., Bannockburn, IL, USA). Ambulatory BP measurement was performed using an automatic oscillometric monitor (Spacelabs90207, SpacelabsInc, Redmon, WA, USA). Patients were instructed to maintain normal daily activities and record their 24-hour activities in a personal diary.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Body composition</title>
        <p>The body composition was determined by the Bioimpedance Analyser 450 device (Biodynamics Corporation, Seattle, WA, USA) to assess fat-free mass and fat mass (FM). Briefly, the method is based on tetrapolar bioelectrical impedance (electrodes on feet and hands) to estimate mass and fluid compartments of the body. The measurements were performed after an 8-hour fast, and patients were instructed to avoid physical activity and smoking prior to the exam.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Biochemical tests</title>
        <p>Blood samples were collected at morning after an 8-hour fast from patients in the sitting position. Plasma levels of aldosterone and renin were measured by radioimmunoassay (Immunotech SAS, Marseille, France), while the cytokines and adipokines - TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, leptin and adiponectin - were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (R&amp;D Systems, Inc., Minneapolis, USA), according to the manufacturer&#8217;s instructions. Creatinine clearance was calculated from 24h-urine creatinine level, urine flow rate, and plasma creatinine concentration as the removal rate per minute divided by plasma creatinine concentration.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analyses</title>
        <p>Continuous variables were expressed as mean and standard deviation or median (1<sup>st</sup> and 3rd quartiles), according to data distribution assessed by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Unpaired Student&#8217;s t-test or the Mann Whitney test was applied to compare continuous data between the RHTN and HT. Categorical variables were presented in frequencies and percentages compared by chi-square or Fisher&#8217;s exact test. Pearson or Spearman tests was used to assess correlation of continuous data. Multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to evaluate the association of IS with resistance to antihypertensive treatment, adjusting for potential confounders.</p>
        <p>For IS calculation, the values of plasma cytokine/adipokine (TNF-alpha, IL-6, -8, -10, leptin and adiponectin) were divided into tertiles, and a score ranging from 1 (lowest tertile) to 3 (highest tertile) was assigned to them. The IS was considered as the sum of each pro-inflammatory cytokine score (TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-8 and leptin) from which adiponectin and IL-10 - both anti-inflammatory cytokines - scores were subtracted for each subject.</p>
        <p>The analyses were performed using the software SigmaPlot (version 12, Systat Software, Inc., San Jose, CA USA, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.systatsoftware.com">www.systatsoftware.com</ext-link>) and GraphPad Prism (version 7.00 for Windows, GraphPad Software, La Jolla, CA, USA, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.graphpad.com">www.graphpad.com</ext-link>). The level of significance accepted was alpha 0.05.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>General characteristics of both hypertensive groups are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>. Body fat parameters (body mass index - BMI, waist circumference - WC and FM) revealed to be increased in the RHTN subjects, as well as lipid profile, glycated hemoglobin and aldosterone levels compared to their counterparts. Compared with HTN, RHTN individuals used a greater number of antiplatelet drugs and almost all classes of antihypertensive agents, except for angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs). On the other hand, a greater number of HTN subjects were taking statins (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Clinical and biochemical characteristics of patients with mild-to-moderate hypertension (HTN) and patients with resistant hypertension (RHTN)</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">HTN (n = 112)</th>
              <th align="center">RHTN (n = 112)</th>
              <th align="center">p-value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Age (years)</td>
              <td align="center">66 &#177; 10</td>
              <td align="center">58 &#177; 10</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Female, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">63 (56)</td>
              <td align="center">78 (70)</td>
              <td align="center">0.27</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Black, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">13 (12)</td>
              <td align="center">55 (49)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">BMI (Kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">27(25-31)</td>
              <td align="center">31(27-35)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">WC (cm)</td>
              <td align="center">94 &#177; 12</td>
              <td align="center">101 &#177; 14</td>
              <td align="center">0.003</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">FFM (Kg)</td>
              <td align="center">53 (46-62)</td>
              <td align="center">55 (49-64)</td>
              <td align="center">0.11</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">FM (Kg)</td>
              <td align="center">20 (15-27)</td>
              <td align="center">26 (20-35)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Office SBP (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">139 (131-149)</td>
              <td align="center">149 (134-163)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Office DBP (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">82 (77-85)</td>
              <td align="center">85 (78-92)</td>
              <td align="center">0.03</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ABPM SBP (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">126 (118-134)</td>
              <td align="center">130 (118-144)</td>
              <td align="center">0.03</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ABPM DBP (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">75 (70-81)</td>
              <td align="center">75 (70-86)</td>
              <td align="center">0.22</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">HR (bpm)</td>
              <td align="center">67 (61-75)</td>
              <td align="center">67 (58-75)</td>
              <td align="center">0.35</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Glucose (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">97 (90-107)</td>
              <td align="center">101 (90-126)</td>
              <td align="center">0.09</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">HbA1C (%)</td>
              <td align="center">6.0 (5.7-6.4)</td>
              <td align="center">6.3 (5.9-7.3)</td>
              <td align="center">0.03</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Cholesterol (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">165 (136-187)</td>
              <td align="center">181 (150-209)</td>
              <td align="center">0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LDL-c (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">88 (64-109)</td>
              <td align="center">97 (77-125)</td>
              <td align="center">0.004</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">HDL-c (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">48 (41-56)</td>
              <td align="center">46 (38-54)</td>
              <td align="center">0.31</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Triglycerides (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">108 (80-150)</td>
              <td align="center">126 (93-185)</td>
              <td align="center">0.02</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Urea (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">34 (27-43)</td>
              <td align="center">35 (27-44)</td>
              <td align="center">0.52</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Creatinine (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">0.95 (0.79-1.10)</td>
              <td align="center">0.94 (0.80-1.18)</td>
              <td align="center">0.19</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Renin (pg/mL)</td>
              <td align="center">29 (14-73)</td>
              <td align="center">25 (12-72)</td>
              <td align="center">0.39</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Aldosterone (pg/mL)</td>
              <td align="center">68 (41-111)</td>
              <td align="center">92 (56-176)</td>
              <td align="center">0.006</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Creat. Clear (mL/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">75 (58-93)</td>
              <td align="center">81 (61-97)</td>
              <td align="center">0.89</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <p>Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation or median (1st, 3rd quartiles), according to data distribution. BMI: body mass index; WC: waist circumference; FFM: fat-free mass; FM: fat mass; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; ABPM: ambulatory blood pressure monitoring; HR: heart rate; HbA1C: glycated hemoglobin; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; Creat Clear: creatinine clearance.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t2">
        <label>Table 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Medications used by subjects with mild-to-moderate hypertension (HTN) and subjects with resistant hypertension (RHTN)</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">HTN (n = 112)</th>
              <th align="center">RHTN (n = 112)</th>
              <th align="center">p-value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Antihypertensive drugs</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Number of classes</td>
              <td align="center">2 (2-3)</td>
              <td align="center">4 (4-5)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Diuretics, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">70 (63)</td>
              <td align="center">108 (96)</td>
              <td align="center">0.02</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ACEIs, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">20 (18)</td>
              <td align="center">43 (38)</td>
              <td align="center">0.02</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ARBs, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">81 (72)</td>
              <td align="center">61 (54)</td>
              <td align="center">0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">CCBs, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">53 (47)</td>
              <td align="center">94 (84)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Beta-blockers, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">14 (13)</td>
              <td align="center">79 (71)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Central &#945;-agonists, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">01 (01)</td>
              <td align="center">31 (28)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Statins, n (%)</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">84 (75)</td>
              <td align="center">60 (54)</td>
              <td align="center">0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Glucose-lowering drugs, n (%)</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">42 (38)</td>
              <td align="center">57 (51)</td>
              <td align="center">0.06</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Antiplateletdrugs, n (%)</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">20 (18)</td>
              <td align="center">65 (58)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN2">
            <p>ACEIs: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; ARBs: angiotensin receptor blockers; CCBs: calcium channel blockers.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>IS was higher in the RHTN compared to HTN group [4 (2-6) <italic>vs.</italic> 3 (2-5); p = 0.02, respectively - <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>]. Curiously, IS positively correlated with BMI (r = 0.40; p &lt; 0.001), WC (r = 0.30; p &lt; 0.001) and FM (r = 0.31; p &lt; 0.001) in all hypertensive subjects.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Inflammatory score calculated between subjects with mild-to-moderate hypertension (HTN) and resistant hypertension (RHTN) (3 [2-5] vs. 4 [2-6], p = 0.02, respectively). IS of each subject was the sum of each pro-inflammatory cytokine score (TNF-alpha, interleukins (IL) -6, -8, -10) from which the scores of anti-inflammatory cytokines (adiponectin and IL-10) were subtracted; *p &lt; 0.05 vs. HTN</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-04-0383-90032-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Finally, the independent logistic regression models revealed that IS was associated with the presence of RHTN (Odds ratio (OR) = 1.20; p = 0.02), independently of age, gender and race, although it was no longer significant after the adjustments for the body fat parameters studied (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t3">
        <label>Table 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Independent multiple logistic regressions to evaluate the association of the inflammatory score with the presence of resistant hypertension</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="33%"/>
            <col width="33%"/>
            <col width="33%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">OR (95%CI)</th>
              <th align="center">p-value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Model 1</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">IS</td>
              <td align="center">1.20 (1.02-1.38)</td>
              <td align="center">0.02</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Model 2</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">IS</td>
              <td align="center">1.10 (0.92-1.28)</td>
              <td align="center">0.35</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">BMI (Kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">1.12 (1.05-1.20)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Model 3</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">IS</td>
              <td align="center">0.97 (0.80-1.18)</td>
              <td align="center">0.73</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">WC (cm)</td>
              <td align="center">1.04 (1.01-1.07)</td>
              <td align="center">0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Model 4</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">IS</td>
              <td align="center">1.00 (0.84-1.19)</td>
              <td align="center">0.96</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">FM (Kg)</td>
              <td align="center">1.08 (1.04-1.13)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt;0.01</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN3">
            <p>All models were adjusted for age, gender and race. IS: inflammatory score; BMI: body mass index; WC: waist circumference; FM: fat mass.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>Our study revealed that the integrated measure of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines/adipokines scores was associated with the occurrence of RHTN. The IS arises as a strong factor related to body fat parameters, suggesting the relevance of subclinical inflammation in obesity condition regardless of the hypertension degree.</p>
      <p>Recent findings from our group have suggested that inflammatory process underlies the pathophysiology of RHTN and its related comorbidities like diabetes, obesity and metabolic syndrome. Altered levels of cytokines and adipokines, such as IL-10, IL-1 beta, adiponectin and leptin, were found in RHTN subjects compared to their controls.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Hyperleptinemia and hypoadiponectinemia were associated with the lack of BP control,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> as well as target organ damage - arterial stiffness and microalbuminuria - in this high-risk population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Obese diabetic RHTN subjects showed lower levels of adiponectin combined with a greater autonomic dysfunction (characterized by a hyperactive sympathetic system and a hypoactive parasympathetic system) than non-diabetic patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Recently, we have found a huge prevalence of metabolic syndrome in these RHTN subjects (73%), which may explain the high IS. Interestingly, the HTN group also showed a considerable prevalence of the syndrome (60%),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> which might justify the worsening of their score in our present study. In addition, the HTN group was older than the RHTN group, and hence an increased IS could be attributed to age.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Experimental studies share similar findings of the role of inflammation on hypertension. Researchers have investigated changes in the systolic pressure of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) treated with infliximab - a TNF-alpha-neutralizing agent.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> This study revealed cardiovascular benefits of inhibiting this cytokine in SHR with the reduction of both systolic BP and cardiac remodeling. The authors suggested a vasodilation dependent-mechanism in which the infliximab effect is able to induce the NO synthesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Interestingly, a recent study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> described a new pathway of hypertension linked to an immune-inflammatory-oxidative stress cascade. Kirabo et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> demonstrated that an angiotensin II-infused mice model increased reactive oxygen species in dendritic cells releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1 beta, and IL-23), which in turn promoted T cell proliferation featuring a pro-inflammatory phenotype. Ultimately, these mechanisms led to hypertension, suggesting new potential targets to treat hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Our results revealed that the IS - already investigated in type 2 diabetes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> - was able to address in a single measure a great variety of mechanistically aligned cytokines/adipokines, involved in the pathophysiology of RHTN. Therefore, this approach could enhance estimation of the relation between the low-grade inflammation and high-risk populations such as the obese subjects with RHTN studied in this work.</p>
      <p>It is well recognized that obesity, characterized by chronic activation of the immune system and inflammatory pathways, is a critical factor contributing to IR and type 2 diabetes, both comorbidities quite often presented in subjects with RHTN. In this context, many studies have supported this relationship. Esposito et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> found that weight loss and lifestyle changes decreased vascular inflammatory markers, such as IL-6, IL-18, and C-reactive protein, whereas adiponectin levels increased significantly in obese women. Similar effects of reducing levels of TNF-alpha were found in response to these interventions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Overweight and obesity have been suggested to cause microvascular dysfunction characterized by (1) impaired insulin sensitivity, (2) SNS activation and (3) increased vascular peripheral resistance. Along with this, changes in adipokines secretion leading to increased levels of free fatty acids and inflammatory mediators have also been suggested to be involved.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Interestingly, impaired microvascular function in obese subjects was normalized one year after a gastric bypass surgery, and it was also associated with BP reduction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Elevated levels of free fatty acids lead to endothelial dysfunction by reducing the production of NO, and increasing endothelin-1 vasoconstrictor tone and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> - which is an early hypertension-related factor associated with future cardiovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Our findings showed that the association of IS and RHTN was abolished when the influence of body fat parameters was considered. Moreover, the IS was no longer significant after exclusion of obese subjects from both groups (data not shown). Our proposed score revealed its high dependence on obesity in the RHTN population, although this is expected since it is well-known these subjects are predominantly obese/overweight, as we found in our study - prevalence of 88%. Accordingly, the IS may reflect the inflammatory process underlying RHTN in an obesity-dependent manner, with the potential to be a clinical prognosis tool providing cardiovascular risk stratification in these obese subjects. On the other hand, we recognized that the design of this study is not sufficient to infer a temporal or cause-effect relationships. We also suggest that once obesity is established and hypertension is manifested, high BP may also contribute to further activation of inflammatory process. Thus, a vicious circle is created with both conditions - hypertension and obesity - that reinforces each other through inflammatory pathways.</p>
      <p>Pharmacological or non-pharmacological treatments may affect inflammatory cytokines/adipokines. Studies have indicated that simvastatin reduces plasma levels of TNF-alpha and IL-6.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> Antihypertensive drugs such as candesartan,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> enalapril,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist have also been shown to reverse proinflammatory cytokines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Indeed, exercise and lifestyle modification reduced IL-8 levels in subjects with the metabolic syndrome,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> while significantly increased adiponectin levels in obese patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Nevertheless, although these potential sources of variability may be present, they probably did not affect our findings since RHTN subjects had a high IS even though they used a greater number of antihypertensive agents. The use of individualized care also justifies the lack of standard therapy, and due to ethical issues, our subjects could not be assessed withdrawing the drugs. Finally, in a perspective of therapy approach, anti-inflammatory drugs or anticytokine molecules targeting the immune system, such as minocycline, can be attractive and of great interest in clinical setting to treat hypertension and prevent its cardiovascular complications, as supported by previous works.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Some limitations should be mentioned. Since the population studied in this study is a convenience sample, with no sample size calculation, we recognize that our findings may not reflect the characteristics of the general population. Bias may also be present by comparing populations from different centers. It is worth mentioning that inflammatory process is quite complex and to measure its mediators is even more challenging since (i) it presents high costs, (ii) is still unavailable in clinical practice, and (iii) cutoff values may have heterogeneous profiles, which make the reproducibility more difficult. Even though, testing specificity and sensitivity in different populations are mandatory in order to guarantee a reliable score. Finally, this proposed score may change if the number of pro-inflammatory cytokines and/or anti-inflammatory cytokines changes.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>In conclusion, our findings suggest that the IS, addressing many circulating cytokines/adipokines, may provide clinically important information to complement cardiovascular risk stratification in obese RHTN subjects. Moreover, our proposed score seems to be highly dependent on obesity-related hypertension. It is necessary to validate this score in larger populations in order to allow its use safely in clinical practice.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was supported by the S&#227;o Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq); and Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), Brazil.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas under the protocol number 188.161/2013; CAAE: 11189712.8.0000.5404. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Proposta de um Escore Inflamat&#243;rio de Citocinas e Adipocinas Plasm&#225;ticas Associado &#224; Hipertens&#227;o Resistente, mas Dependente dos Par&#226;metros de Obesidade</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8585-7238</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Faria</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4434-4791</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ritter</surname>
            <given-names>Alessandra Mileni Versuti</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0160-5776</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gasparetti</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina Souza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4668-966X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Corr&#234;a</surname>
            <given-names>Nath&#225;lia Batista</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9612-8241</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Brunelli</surname>
            <given-names>Veridiana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6579-9456</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Aur&#233;lio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1819-6219</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>Nayara Fraccari</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0047-7859</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Modolo</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6330-697X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moreno</surname>
            <given-names>Heitor</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">4</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Farmacologia da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas (PUC-Campinas), Campinas, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina Interna - Disciplina de Cardiologia da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina Interna da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Ana Paula de Faria,</bold> Rua Tess&#225;lia Vieira de Camargo, 126. FCM 10. Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP). CEP 13093-970, Bar&#227;o Geraldo, Campinas, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>aninha_cfaria@hotmail.com</email>, <email>ana.cabralfaria@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: de Faria AP; obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: de Faria AP, Ritter AMV; an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: de Faria AP, Ritter AMV, Gasparetti CS, Corr&#234;a NB, Brunelli V, Almeida A, Pires NF, Modolo R, Moreno Junior H; an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: de Faria AP, Modolo R; obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: de Faria AP, Ritter AMV, Moreno Junior H.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Os autores declaram n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>Evid&#234;ncias indicam que a inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica subcl&#237;nica est&#225; presente na hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente (HAR).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Desenvolver uma medida que integra citocinas envolvidas na fisiopatologia da HAR.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Indiv&#237;duos com HAR (n = 112) e indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada (HT) (n = 112) foram estudados em delineamento transversal. Valores de citocinas/adipocinas plasm&#225;ticas [TNF-alfa, interleucinas (IL)-6, -8, -10, leptina e adiponectina] foram divididos em tercis, e lhes atribu&#237;do um escore variando de 1 (tercil mais baixo) a 3 (tercil mais alto). O escore inflamat&#243;rio (EI) de cada participante foi calculado como a soma do escore de cada citocina pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria da qual subtraiu-se o escore de cada citocina anti-inflamat&#243;ria (adiponectina e IL-10). O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia aceito foi alfa = 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>O EI foi mais alto nos indiv&#237;duos com HAR em compara&#231;&#227;o a indiv&#237;duos com HT [4 (2-6) <italic>vs.</italic> 3 (2-5); p = 0,02, respectivamente]. O EI correlacionou-se positivamente com par&#226;metros de gordura corporal, tais como &#237;ndice de massa corporal (r = 0,40; p &lt; 0,001), circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura (r = 0,30; p &lt; 0,001) e massa gorda avaliada por bioimped&#226;ncia (r = 0,31; p &lt; 0,001) em todos os indiv&#237;duos hipertensos. An&#225;lises de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica mostraram que o EI foi um preditor independente de HAR (OR = 1,20; p = 0,02), independentemente de idade, sexo e ra&#231;a; por&#233;m, o modelo perdeu signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica ap&#243;s ajuste para os par&#226;metros de gordura corporal.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Um estado de inflama&#231;&#227;o subcl&#237;nica definida pelo EI incluindo TNF-alfa, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, leptina e adiponectina est&#225; associado com indiv&#237;duos obesos com HAR. Al&#233;m disso, o escore correlaciona-se com par&#226;metros de obesidade, independentemente do grau de hipertens&#227;o. O EI pode ser usado na avalia&#231;&#227;o de condi&#231;&#245;es que envolvem inflama&#231;&#227;o subcl&#237;nica, tal como HAR relacionada &#224; obesidade. O estudo tamb&#233;m destaca a forte rela&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade e inflama&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflama&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Citocinas</kwd>
        <kwd>Probabilidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A inflama&#231;&#227;o &#233; um importante fator na fisiopatologia da hipertens&#227;o, da obesidade e da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica. O status de sobrepeso ou obesidade implica uma maior preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o e consequ&#234;ncias adversas, incluindo doen&#231;as metab&#243;licas e cardiorrenais. A gordura visceral, quando em excesso, &#233; fonte de citocinas que geram uma cascata de inflama&#231;&#227;o e estresse oxidativo, a qual contribui para resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, enrijecimento vascular, e reten&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio nos rins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> A presen&#231;a combinada de obesidade e de resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina tamb&#233;m contribui para a hiperativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico (SNS) e do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Todos esses mecanismos podem proporcionar resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Nosso grupo de pesquisa tem estudado citocinas inflamat&#243;rias - a adiponectina e interleucina-10 (anti-inflamat&#243;rias), e a leptina, o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;) e as interleucinas 6 (IL-6) (pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias) na hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente (HAR), associando-as &#224; aus&#234;ncia de controle da press&#227;o arterial (PA) e a danos vasculares e renais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Ainda, a inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica subcl&#237;nica, estimada por n&#237;veis elevados de prote&#237;na C-reativa, foi capaz de predizer desfechos fatais e n&#227;o fatais, bem como remodelamento card&#237;aco nessa popula&#231;&#227;o de alto risco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A adiponectina, por seu papel anti-inflamat&#243;rio, estimula diretamente a produ&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) nas c&#233;lulas endoteliais via fosforila&#231;&#227;o da NO sintase endotelial. A adiponectina diminui a produ&#231;&#227;o de TNF-&#945; pelos macr&#243;fagos pela inibi&#231;&#227;o do fator de transcri&#231;&#227;o nuclear kappa B (NF-kB).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Por outro lado, a IL-6 inibe a express&#227;o e a secre&#231;&#227;o de adiponectina <italic>in vitro</italic> em adip&#243;citos 3T3-L1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Ainda, o TNF-&#945; aumenta a secre&#231;&#227;o de leptina,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> a qual estimula o SNS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Uma vez que as citocinas e as adipocinas possuem papeis inter-relacionados, nosso objetivo com o presente estudo foi (1) desenvolver uma medida integrada de v&#225;rias citocinas/adipocinas circulantes em indiv&#237;duos com HAR e hipertens&#227;o leve &#224; moderada (HT), e (2) avaliar o potencial impacto desse escore inflamat&#243;rio (EI) sobre a resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Popula&#231;&#227;o e m&#233;todos</title>
        <p>Uma amostra de conveni&#234;ncia de 112 indiv&#237;duos com diagn&#243;stico de HAR atendidos no Ambulat&#243;rio Especializado em HAR da Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP, Campinas, Brasil), e 112 pacientes com HT atendidos na Cl&#237;nica de Hipertens&#227;o de Valinhos (Valinhos, Brasil) foram recrutados consecutivamente neste estudo transversal. A HAR foi definida segundo a <italic>American Heart Association</italic> como (1) indiv&#237;duos cujos n&#237;veis de PA permanecessem acima da meta (&#8805;140/90 mmHg) apesar de uso concomitante de tr&#234;s ou mais drogas anti-hipertensivas de classes distintas, ou (2) pacientes com n&#237;veis controlados de PA usando quatro ou mais drogas anti-hipertensivas. O ideal era que ao menos um dos medicamentes fosse um diur&#233;tico, e todos os demais deveriam ser prescritos em doses otimizadas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Pacientes com PA controlada utilizando tr&#234;s ou menos drogas anti-hipertensivas, ou com PA n&#227;o controlada, em uso de dois ou menos dessas medica&#231;&#245;es, foram classificados como apresentando HT (hipertens&#227;o est&#225;gios 1 e 2).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Realizou-se um per&#237;odo de seis meses de acompanhamento para o rastreamento e exclus&#227;o de causas secund&#225;rias da hipertens&#227;o, a fim de garantir um diagn&#243;stico preciso de HT e HAR. Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram estenose da art&#233;ria renal, coarcta&#231;&#227;o da aorta, feocromocitoma, hiperaldosteronismo prim&#225;rio (raz&#227;o aldosterona-renina &gt; 20 ng.dL<sup>-1</sup> por ng.mL<sup>-1</sup>.h<sup>-1</sup>), s&#237;ndrome de Cushing, s&#237;ndrome da apneia/hipopneia obstrutiva do sono (pacientes com diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio pela polissonografia, ou classificados como alto risco utilizando-se o question&#225;rio de Berlim). O per&#237;odo tamb&#233;m incluiu contagem de comprimidos para excluir a falta de controle press&#243;rico devido &#224; baixa ades&#227;o ao tratamento medicamentoso,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> e monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da PA (MAPA) a fim de excluir hipertens&#227;o do jaleco branco. Exclu&#237;mos pacientes com doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica sintom&#225;ticos, disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (<italic>clearance</italic> de creatinina &lt;30 mL/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup>) e doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica (hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica, n&#237;veis de plaquetas e de transaminases).O crit&#233;rio de inclus&#227;o foi idade superior a 18 anos.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Medidas de press&#227;o arterial</title>
          <p>A press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) e a press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica (PAD) de consult&#243;rio foram medidas por um profissional da sa&#250;de treinado segundo as diretrizes da Sociedade Europeia de Hipertens&#227;o para o manejo da hipertens&#227;o arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Utilizamos um esfigmoman&#244;metro digital validado (HEM-907XL, OMRON Healthcare Inc., Bannockburn, IL, EUA). A medida da PA ambulatorial foi realizada usando-se um monitor oscilom&#233;trico autom&#225;tico (Spacelabs90207, Spacelabs Inc, Redmon, WA, EUA). Os pacientes foram orientados a manterem suas atividades di&#225;rias normais e fazer um registro das atividades realizadas em 24 horas em um di&#225;rio pessoal.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Composi&#231;&#227;o corporal</title>
          <p>A composi&#231;&#227;o corporal foi determinada pelo aparelho <italic>Bioimpedance Analyser</italic> 450 (Biodynamics Corporation, Seattle, WA, EUA) para avaliar a massa magra e a massa gorda (MG). Em resumo, o m&#233;todo baseia-se na imped&#226;ncia bioel&#233;trica tetrapolar (eletrodos posicionados nos p&#233;s e nas m&#227;os) para estimar a distribui&#231;&#227;o de massa e os compartimentos de &#225;gua corporais. As medidas foram realizadas ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de jejum de 8 horas, e os pacientes foram orientados a evitarem fazer atividade f&#237;sica e fumar antes do exame.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Testes bioqu&#237;micos</title>
          <p>As amostras de sangue foram coletadas pela manh&#227; ap&#243;s jejum de 8 horas dos pacientes na posi&#231;&#227;o sentada. Os n&#237;veis de aldosterona e de renina foram medidos por radioimunoensaio (Immunotech SAS, Marselha, Fran&#231;a), e as citocinas e adipocinas (TNF-alfa, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, leptina e adiponectina) medidas por ensaio imunoenzim&#225;tico (ELISA) (R&amp;D Systems, Inc., Minneapolis, EUA), seguindo as instru&#231;&#245;es do fabricante. O <italic>clearance</italic> de creatinina foi calculado a partir da concentra&#231;&#227;o de creatinina na urina 24 horas, e concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica, como a taxa de remo&#231;&#227;o por minuto dividida pela concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de creatinina.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram expressas em m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o ou mediana (1&#186; e 3&#186; quartis) de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados avaliada pelo teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. O teste t de Student n&#227;o pareado ou o teste de Mann-Whitney foi usado para compara&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas entre o grupo de indiv&#237;duos com HAR e o grupo de indiv&#237;duos com HT. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram apresentadas em frequ&#234;ncias e porcentagens, e comparadas pelo teste do qui-quadrado ou o teste exato de Fisher. O teste de Pearson ou o teste de Spearman foi usado para verificar correla&#231;&#227;o entre os dados cont&#237;nuos. An&#225;lises de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla foram realizadas para avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o do EI com resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo, ajustando-se aos potenciais fatores de confus&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Para o c&#225;lculo do EI, os valores plasm&#225;ticos das citocinas/adipocinas (TNF-alfa, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, leptina e adiponectina) foram divididos em tercis, e lhes foram atribu&#237;dos um escore de 1 (tercil mais baixo) a 3 (tercil mais alto). O EI foi considerado como a soma do escore de cada citocina pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria (TNF-alfa, IL-6, IL-8, e leptina), da qual foram subtra&#237;dos os escores da adiponectina e de IL-10 (ambas citocinas anti-inflamat&#243;rias). Calculou-se o EI de cada indiv&#237;duo.</p>
          <p>As an&#225;lises foram realizadas usando-se o programa SigmaPlot (vers&#227;o 12, Systat Software, Inc., San Jose, CA, EUA; e <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.systatsoftware.com">www.systatsoftware.com</ext-link>) e GraphPad Prism (vers&#227;o 7.00 para Windows, GraphPad Software, La Jolla, CA, EUA, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.graphpad.com">www.graphpad.com</ext-link>). O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia adotado foi alfa 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>As caracter&#237;sticas gerais de ambos os grupos (HAR e HT) est&#227;o descritas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref>. Os par&#226;metros da gordura corporal - &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC), circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura (CC), e MG encontravam-se elevados nos indiv&#237;duos HAR, bem como o perfil lip&#237;dico, n&#237;veis de hemoglobina glicada e aldosterona, em compara&#231;&#227;o aos indiv&#237;duos HT. Em compara&#231;&#227;o aos indiv&#237;duos HT, o grupo HAR utilizaram um maior n&#250;mero de drogas antiplaquet&#225;rias, e quase todas as classes de agentes anti-hipertensivos, com exce&#231;&#227;o de bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina II (BRAs). Por outro lado, um maior n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos HT utilizavam estatinas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e bioqu&#237;micas dos indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada (HT) e indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente (HAR)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">HT (n = 112)</th>
                <th align="center">HAR (n = 112)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Idade (anos)</td>
                <td align="center">66 &#177; 10</td>
                <td align="center">58 &#177; 10</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Mulheres, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">63 (56)</td>
                <td align="center">78 (70)</td>
                <td align="center">0,27</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Negros, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">13 (12)</td>
                <td align="center">55 (49)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IMC (Kg/m&#178;)</td>
                <td align="center">27(25-31)</td>
                <td align="center">31(27-35)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">CC (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">94 &#177; 12</td>
                <td align="center">101 &#177; 14</td>
                <td align="center">0,003</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MM (Kg)</td>
                <td align="center">53 (46-62)</td>
                <td align="center">55 (49-64)</td>
                <td align="center">0,11</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MG (Kg)</td>
                <td align="center">20 (15-27)</td>
                <td align="center">26 (20-35)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAS consult&#243;rio (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">139 (131-149)</td>
                <td align="center">149 (134-163)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAD consult&#243;rio (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">82 (77-85)</td>
                <td align="center">85 (78-92)</td>
                <td align="center">0,03</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAS MAPA (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">126 (118-134)</td>
                <td align="center">130 (118-144)</td>
                <td align="center">0,03</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAD MAPA (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">75 (70-81)</td>
                <td align="center">75 (70-86)</td>
                <td align="center">0,22</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FC (bpm)</td>
                <td align="center">67 (61-75)</td>
                <td align="center">67 (58-75)</td>
                <td align="center">0,35</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Glicose (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">97 (90-107)</td>
                <td align="center">101 (90-126)</td>
                <td align="center">0,09</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HbA1C (%)</td>
                <td align="center">6,0 (5,7-6,4)</td>
                <td align="center">6,3 (5,9-7,3)</td>
                <td align="center">0,03</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Colesterol (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">165 (136-187)</td>
                <td align="center">181 (150-209)</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDL-c (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">88 (64-109)</td>
                <td align="center">97 (77-125)</td>
                <td align="center">0,004</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HDL-c (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">48 (41-56)</td>
                <td align="center">46 (38-54)</td>
                <td align="center">0,31</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Triglicer&#237;deos (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">108 (80-150)</td>
                <td align="center">126 (93-185)</td>
                <td align="center">0,02</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Ureia (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">34 (27-43)</td>
                <td align="center">35 (27-44)</td>
                <td align="center">0,52</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Creatinina (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">0,95 (0,79-1,10)</td>
                <td align="center">0,94 (0,80-1,18)</td>
                <td align="center">0,19</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Renina (pg/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">29 (14-73)</td>
                <td align="center">25 (12-72)</td>
                <td align="center">0,39</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Aldosterona (pg/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">68 (41-111)</td>
                <td align="center">92 (56-176)</td>
                <td align="center">0,006</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Clear Creat (mL/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">75 (58-93)</td>
                <td align="center">81 (61-97)</td>
                <td align="center">0,89</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>Valores expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o ou mediana (1&#186;, 3&#186; quartis), de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados. IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; CC: circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura; MM: massa magra; MG: massa gorda; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; MAPA: monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; HbA1C: hemoglobina glicada; LDL: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade; HDL: lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; Clear Creat: clearance de creatinina.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Medicamentos usados pelos indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada (HT) e indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente (HAR)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">HT (n = 112)</th>
                <th align="center">HAR (n = 112)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Drogas anti-hipertensivas</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">N&#250;mero de classes</td>
                <td align="center">2 (2-3)</td>
                <td align="center">4 (4-5)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Diur&#233;ticos, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">70 (63)</td>
                <td align="center">108 (96)</td>
                <td align="center">0,02</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IECAs, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">20 (18)</td>
                <td align="center">43 (38)</td>
                <td align="center">0,02</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">BRAs, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">81 (72)</td>
                <td align="center">61 (54)</td>
                <td align="center">0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">BCCs, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">53 (47)</td>
                <td align="center">94 (84)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Beta-bloqueadores, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">14 (13)</td>
                <td align="center">79 (71)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Agonistas alfa-2 centrais, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">01 (01)</td>
                <td align="center">31 (28)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Estatinas, n (%)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">84 (75)</td>
                <td align="center">60 (54)</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Hipoglicemiantes, n (%)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">42 (38)</td>
                <td align="center">57 (51)</td>
                <td align="center">0,06</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Drogas antiplaquet&#225;rias, n (%)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">20 (18)</td>
                <td align="center">65 (58)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <p>IECAs: inibidores de enzima conversora de angiotensina; BRAs: bloqueadores de receptores de angiotensina; BCCs: bloqueadores de canais de c&#225;lcio.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>O EI foi mais alto no grupo HAR [4 (2-6)] em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo HT [3 (2-5); p = 0,02 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>). Curiosamente, o EI correlacionou-se positivamente com o IMC (r = 0,40; p &lt; 0,001), a CC (r = 0,30; p &lt; 0,001) e com a MG (r = 0,31; p &lt; 0,001) em todos os indiv&#237;duos hipertensos.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Escore inflamat&#243;rio calculado entre indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada (HT) e hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente (HAR) [3 (2-5) vs. 4 (2-6), p = 0,02, respectivamente]. O EI de cada participante foi calculado como a soma do escore de cada citocina pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria - TNF-alfa, interleucinas (IL) -6, -8, -10 - da qual subtraiu-se o escore de cada citocina anti-inflamat&#243;ria (adiponectina e IL-10). *p &lt; 0,05 vs. HT.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-112-04-0383-90032-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Finalmente, os modelos de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica independentes revelaram que o EI associou-se com a presen&#231;a de HAR (Odds ratio (OR) = 1,20; p = 0,02), independentemente de idade, sexo, e ra&#231;a, apesar de essa signific&#226;ncia deixar de existir ap&#243;s ajustes quanto aos par&#226;metros de gordura corporal analisados no estudo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t6">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Modelos de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica independentes para avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o do escore inflamat&#243;rio com a presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o resistente</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">OR (IC95%)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Modelo 1</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">EI</td>
                <td align="center">1,20 (1,02-1,38)</td>
                <td align="center">0,02</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Modelo 2</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">EI</td>
                <td align="center">1,10 (0,92-1,28)</td>
                <td align="center">0,35</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IMC (Kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">1,12 (1,05-1,20)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Modelo 3</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">EI</td>
                <td align="center">0,97 (0,80-1,18)</td>
                <td align="center">0,73</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">CC (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">1,04 (1,01-1,07)</td>
                <td align="center">0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Modelo 4</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">EI</td>
                <td align="center">1,00 (0,84-1,19)</td>
                <td align="center">0,96</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MG (Kg)</td>
                <td align="center">1,08 (1,04-1,13)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN6">
              <p>Todos os modelos foram ajustados quanto &#224; idade, sexo e ra&#231;a. EI: escore inflamat&#243;rio; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; CC: circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura: MG: massa gorda.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Nosso estudo revelou que a medida integrada dos escores de citocinas e adipocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias e anti-inflamat&#243;rias associou-se com a ocorr&#234;ncia de HAR. O EI surge como um potente fator relacionado com os par&#226;metros de gordura corporal, sugerindo a import&#226;ncia da inflama&#231;&#227;o subcl&#237;nica na obesidade, independentemente do grau de hipertens&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Achados recentes de nosso grupo sugeriram que a inflama&#231;&#227;o &#233; um dos fatores fisiopatol&#243;gicos da HAR e comorbidades relacionadas, tais como diabetes, obesidade e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica. N&#237;veis alterados de citocinas e adipocinas, tais como IL-10, IL-1 beta, adiponectina e leptina foram relatados em indiv&#237;duos com HAR em compara&#231;&#227;o a controles.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> A hiperleptinemia e a hipoadiponectinemia estavam associadas com a falta de controle da PA,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> e com danos em &#243;rg&#227;os alvo - enrijecimento arterial e microalbumin&#250;ria - nessa popula&#231;&#227;o de alto risco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Indiv&#237;duos obesos diab&#233;ticos com HAR apresentaram n&#237;veis mais baixos de adiponectina combinados com maior disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica (caracterizados por hiperativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema simp&#225;tico e hipoativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema parassimp&#225;tico) em compara&#231;&#227;o a indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Recentemente, encontramos uma enorme preval&#234;ncia (73%) de s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica nesses pacientes com HAR, o que pode explicar o alto EI. Interessante notar que o grupo com HT tamb&#233;m apresentou uma preval&#234;ncia importante da s&#237;ndrome (60%),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> o que pode justificar a piora de seu escore em nosso estudo. Al&#233;m disso, nosso grupo HT era mais velho que o grupo com HAR e, assim, um EI aumentado poderia ser atribu&#237;do ao fator idade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Estudos experimentais apresentam resultados similares do papel da inflama&#231;&#227;o sobre a hipertens&#227;o. Pesquisadores investigaram mudan&#231;as na press&#227;o sist&#243;lica de ratos espontaneamente hipertensos (SHR) tratados com infliximabe - um agente neutralizador de TNF-alfa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Esse estudo revelou benef&#237;cios cardiovasculares da inibi&#231;&#227;o dessa citocina em SHR com a redu&#231;&#227;o tanto da PA como do remodelamento card&#237;aco. Os autores sugeriram um mecanismo dependente de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o, no qual o efeito do infliximabe &#233; capaz de induzir a s&#237;ntese de NO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Em um estudo recente,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> os autores descreveram um novo mecanismo da hipertens&#227;o envolvendo sistema imune, processo inflamat&#243;rio e estresse oxidativo. Kirabo et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> demonstraram que um modelo com camundongos que receberam angiotensina II endovenosa aumentou os n&#237;veis de esp&#233;cies reativas a oxig&#234;nio em c&#233;lulas dendr&#237;ticas secretoras de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias (IL-6, IL-1 beta, e IL-23), as quais promoveram a prolifera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas T e um fen&#243;tipo pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio. Em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, esses mecanismos levaram &#224; hipertens&#227;o, sugerindo novos alvos potenciais para tratar a hipertens&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Nossos resultados mostraram que o EI - previamente investigado em diabetes tipo 2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> - foi capaz de abordar uma grande variedade de citocinas e adipocinas de mecanismos alinhados e envolvidas na fisiopatologia da HAR. Assim, essa abordagem poderia melhorar a estimativa da rela&#231;&#227;o entre a inflama&#231;&#227;o subcl&#237;nica e popula&#231;&#245;es em alto risco, tal como a popula&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos obesos com HAR estudados neste estudo.</p>
        <p>J&#225; est&#225; bem estabelecido que a obesidade, caracterizada por uma ativa&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica do sistema imune e de vias inflamat&#243;rias, &#233; um fator cr&#237;tico no desenvolvimento de resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e do diabetes tipo 2, ambos frequentemente presentes na HAR. De fato, muitos estudos corroboram essa rela&#231;&#227;o. Esposito et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> encontraram que a perda de peso e mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida reduziram os n&#237;veis de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios vasculares, tais como IL-6, IL-8 e prote&#237;na C-reativa, ao passo que os n&#237;veis de adiponectina aumentaram significativamente em mulheres obesas. Efeitos similares de redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de TNF-alfa foram encontrados em resposta a essas interven&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Existem evid&#234;ncias de que o sobrepeso e a obesidade possam causar disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular caracterizada por (1) sensibilidade &#224; insulina diminu&#237;da; (2) ativa&#231;&#227;o do SNS; e (3) resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica aumentada. Ainda, estudos sugerem que altera&#231;&#245;es na secre&#231;&#227;o de adipocinas que levam ao aumento dos n&#237;veis de &#225;cidos graxos livres e mediadores inflamat&#243;rios tamb&#233;m est&#227;o envolvidas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Um dado interessante &#233; que, em indiv&#237;duos obesos, a disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular foi normalizada um ano ap&#243;s cirurgia bari&#225;trica (<italic>bypass</italic> g&#225;strico), o que esteve associado &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da PA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> N&#237;veis elevados de &#225;cidos graxos livres proporcionam disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial pela redu&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de NO, e por aumento da vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o induzida por endotelina-1 e libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> o qual &#233; um fator precoce relacionado &#224; hipertens&#227;o associado a eventos cardiovasculares futuros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Nossos achados mostraram que a associa&#231;&#227;o do EI com a HAR foi abolida quando a influ&#234;ncia dos par&#226;metros de gordura corporal foi considerada. Al&#233;m disso, o EI deixou de ser significativo ap&#243;s a exclus&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos obesos em ambos os grupos (dados n&#227;o apresentados). Mostramos que o escore aqui proposto &#233; altamente dependente da obesidade no grupo HAR, resultado de certa forma j&#225; esperado, dada &#224; elevada preval&#234;ncia de sobrepeso/obesidade nessa popula&#231;&#227;o (88% em nosso estudo). Ainda, o EI pode ser um reflexo do processo inflamat&#243;rio subjacente &#224; HAR, de maneira dependente da obesidade, com o potencial de ser usado como uma ferramenta progn&#243;stica, permitindo a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular nesses indiv&#237;duos obesos. Por outro lado, n&#243;s reconhecemos que o delineamento deste estudo n&#227;o &#233; suficiente para inferirmos uma rela&#231;&#227;o temporal ou de causa e efeito. Tamb&#233;m sugerimos que, uma vez que a obesidade esteja estabelecida, com manifesta&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o, a PA elevada tamb&#233;m contribua para a ativa&#231;&#227;o do processo inflamat&#243;rio. Assim, &#233; criado um ciclo vicioso com ambas as condi&#231;&#245;es - hipertens&#227;o e obesidade - que se refor&#231;am por meio de vias inflamat&#243;rias.</p>
        <p>Tratamentos farmacol&#243;gicos e n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicos podem afetar citocinas/adipocinas inflamat&#243;rias. Estudos indicaram que a sinvastatina reduz n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de TNF-alfa e IL-6.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> Estudos mostraram que drogas anti-hipertensivas tais como candesartana,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> enalapril,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> e antagonistas de receptores de mineralocorticoides s&#227;o capazes de reverter o aumento de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> De fato, a pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cio e a mudan&#231;a no estilo de vida reduziram os n&#237;veis de IL-8 em indiv&#237;duos com s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> o que aumentou significativamente os n&#237;veis de adiponectina em pacientes obesos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Contudo, apesar de essas fontes potenciais de variabilidade possam estar presentes, provavelmente n&#227;o afetaram nossos resultados, uma vez que os indiv&#237;duos com HAR apresentaram EI elevado apesar do uso de um maior n&#250;mero de drogas anti-hipertensivas. O tratamento individualizado tamb&#233;m justifica a falta de uma terapia padronizada, e devido a aspectos &#233;ticos, nossos pacientes n&#227;o puderam ser avaliados retirando-se seus medicamentos. Por fim, do ponto de vista terap&#234;utico, drogas anti-inflamat&#243;rias ou mol&#233;culas anti-citocinas direcionadas ao sistema imune, tais como a minociclina, podem ser atrativas e de grande interesse na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica para o tratamento de hipertens&#227;o e preven&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, de acordo com o apresentado em estudos anteriores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Algumas limita&#231;&#245;es devem ser mencionadas. Uma vez que a popula&#231;&#227;o estudada consiste em uma amostra de conveni&#234;ncia, sem c&#225;lculo amostral, nossos achados podem n&#227;o refletir as caracter&#237;sticas da popula&#231;&#227;o geral. Ainda, podem existir vieses ao se comparar popula&#231;&#245;es de diferentes centros. Vale mencionar que o processo inflamat&#243;rio &#233; muito complexo e medir seus mediadores &#233; ainda mais desafiador, uma vez que (i) apresenta alto custo, (ii) n&#227;o est&#225; dispon&#237;vel na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, e (iii) os valores de corte podem ter perfis heterog&#234;neos, o que dificulta ainda mais a reprodutibilidade. Ainda assim, testar a especificidade e a sensibilidade em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es &#233; mandat&#243;rio para garantir um escore confi&#225;vel. Por fim, o valor do escore proposto pode sofrer altera&#231;&#245;es caso haja mudan&#231;a no n&#250;mero de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias e/ou citocinas anti-inflamat&#243;rias.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Nossos achados sugerem que o EI, que abrange muitas citocinas e adipocinas circulantes, pode fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas importantes para complementar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular em indiv&#237;duos obesos com HAR. Ainda, o escore proposto parece ser altamente dependente da hipertens&#227;o relacionada &#224; obesidade. &#201; necess&#225;rio validar esse escore em popula&#231;&#245;es maiores para permitir seu uso de maneira segura na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado por Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (FAPESP), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient&#237;fico e Tecnol&#243;gico (CNPq) e Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aperfei&#231;oamento de Pessoal de N&#237;vel Superior (CAPES), Brasil.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 188.161/2013; CAAE: 11189712.8.0000.5404. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
