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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.8" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">gthbMhWgrQq7SKGSWqc893y</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2018001800764</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2018005016102</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20180194</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Elevation of Oxidized Lipoprotein of Low Density in Users of Combined Oral Contraceptives</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Alan Carlos Nery dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Petto</surname>
            <given-names>Jefferson</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Diogo</surname>
            <given-names>Diego Passos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Seixas</surname>
            <given-names>Candice Rocha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Lunara Horn de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ara&#250;jo</surname>
            <given-names>Wagner Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ladeia</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Marice Teixeira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Salvador</city>
          <state>BA</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica, Salvador, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Salvador</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Feira de Santana</city>
          <state>BA</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Salvador (UNIFACS), Feira de Santana, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade Adventista da Bahia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Cachoeira</city>
          <state>BA</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Adventista da Bahia (FADBA), Cachoeira, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade Social da Bahia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Salvador</city>
          <state>BA</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Social da Bahia (FSBA), Salvador, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Alan Carlos Nery dos Santos,</bold> Av. Dom Jo&#227;o VI, 275. CEP 40290-000, Brotas, Salvador, BA - Brazil. E-mail: <email>alansantos.pos@bahiana.edu.br</email>, <email>allannery.santos@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Santos ACN, Petto J, Ladeia AMT; Acquisition of data: Santos ACN, Diogo DP, Rocha CS, Souza LH, Ara&#250;jo WS; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Santos ACN, Petto J, Diogo DP, Ladeia AMT, Ara&#250;jo WS; Writing of the manuscript: Santos ACN, Petto J, Ara&#250;jo WS, Diogo DP, Souza LH, Rocha CS, Ladeia AMT; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Santos ACN, Petto J, Ara&#250;jo WS, Diogo DP, Ladeia AMT.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>11</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>111</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>764</fpage>
      <lpage>770</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>10</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2018</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>The use of combined oral contraceptive (COC) has been related to changes in glycemic, lipid metabolism, increased oxidative stress, and systemic blood pressure, which could suggest a higher oxidation of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-cholesterol) in women on use of COC.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>To test the hypothesis that there is a difference in the plasma values of oxidized LDL among women who use and do not use COC, as well as to evaluate the correlation between it and the lipid profile and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Forty-two women with ages between 18 and 35 years old, who were eutrophic, irregularly active, with triglycerides &lt; 150 mg/dL, blood glucose &lt; 100 mg/dL, and who used or did not use COC were selected. These women were allocated in the COC group, formed by 21 women on COC use for at least 1 year; and a control group (CG), consisting of 21 women who had not used any type of hormonal contraceptive for at least 1 year. A significance level of 5% was adopted for statistical analyses.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>It was observed that GCOC showed higher values of oxidized LDL than the CG, respectively 384 mU/mL versus 283 mU/mL (p &lt; 0.01). A positive correlation between oxidized LDL and LDL-cholesterol (r = 0.3, p &lt; 0.05), with total cholesterol (r = 0.47, p &lt; 0.01) and with triglycerides (r = 0.32, p &lt; 0.03) was observed, and there was no correlation with the hs-CRP. In the categorized analysis of oxidized LDL, 71.4% of GCOC women, and 28.6% of the CG remained above the established cutoff point.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Women who use COC have higher plasma levels of oxidized LDL, and there is a positive correlation between oxidized LDL and other lipid variables.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Contraceptives, Oral, Combined</kwd>
        <kwd>Lipid Metabolism Disorders</kwd>
        <kwd>Oxidative Stress</kwd>
        <kwd>Atherosclerosis</kwd>
        <kwd>C-Reactive Protein</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Studies have shown that women of reproductive age who use combined oral contraceptives (COCs) present changes in glycemic,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> lipid metabolism,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> oxidative stress,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> and chronic subclinical inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Also, an increase in the atherogenic subfractions of low-density lipoprotein (LDL-cholesterol)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> and elevated systemic blood pressure (SBP)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> were identified. Together, these alterations are associated with LDL-cholesterol oxidation, which has been strongly related to a more atherogenic lipid profile.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Once oxidized, LDL-cholesterol presents several actions in vascular physiology, among them, it inhibits the expression of the endothelial nitric oxide synthetase enzyme mRNA, resulting in a decrease in the production of nitric oxide and favoring the atherosclerotic process.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Furthermore, it also impairs cell proliferation, cell motility and endothelial stem cells action, which are key mechanisms in the endothelialization of damaged areas in the atherosclerotic process.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> It has also been suggested that higher oxidized LDL values, even within the limits of normal, are associated with an increased risk of future cardiovascular events and metabolic syndrome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In addition, in Brazil, 33.8% of women aged 18-49 years used oral contraceptives, and of these, more than 13% (95% CI, 10.9-15.7%) had risk factors, such as smoking, systemic arterial hypertension, dyslipidemias and obesity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> These factors, associated with the use of COCs, can significantly increase the risk of atherothrombotic events, even in women of reproductive age.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
      <p>However, to our knowledge, there are still no studies that have investigated the oxidation of LDL-cholesterol in young women using COC, without other factors that justify their oxidation. Thus, the hypothesis that there is a difference in the plasma values of oxidized LDL among women who use and do not use COC was tested, and the correlation between oxidized LDL and the fasting lipid profile variables and C-reactive protein were evaluated.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Sample</title>
        <p>The research is characterized as a cross-sectional analytical study, which has as a predictor variable the use of COC, and as an outcome variable, the oxidized LDL.</p>
        <p>The study population consisted of 42 self-reported healthy, eutrophic, irregularly active women aged 19 to 30 years, nulliparous, with fasting values of triglycerides &lt; 150 mg/dL, blood glucose &lt; 100 mg/dL, and who used COC or not. All participants were students of a private college located in the city of Salvador, BA - Brazil.</p>
        <p>The sample was divided into two groups: COC group (GCOC) consisting of 21 women using COC of low dose of ethinylestradiol (15 to 30 mcg) for at least 1 year; and control group (CG), consisting of 21 women who had not used any type of hormonal contraceptive for at least 1 year.</p>
        <p>To determine if participants were irregularly active, the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (long version), developed by the World Health Organization and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention was used.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Women who reported familial dyslipidemia, hypo- or hyperthyroidism, history of alcoholism or smoking, polycystic ovarian syndrome, hypo- or hyperlipidic diet, use of dietary or anabolic supplements, hypolipidemic agents, corticosteroids, diuretics or beta blockers were excluded. Those who presented, on the physical evaluation, values of SBP &#8805; 140/90 mmHg, abdominal circumference &#8805; 80 cm or, in the laboratory examination, alteration of pyruvic (TGP) or oxidative (TGO) glutamic transaminase, or creatinine were also excluded. TGP and TGO were evaluated to identify pancreatic and hepatic diseases, and creatinine, to identify the presence of renal dysfunction.</p>
        <p>All the participants answered the semi-structured questionnaire, elaborated by the authors of the research and underwent physical examination. The latter consisted of resting blood pressure (BP), total body mass, height and waist circumference.</p>
        <p>Body mass index (BMI) was calculated with mass and height measurements, according to the Quetelet equation: mass (kg)/height<sup>2</sup> (cm). The BMI cutoff points adopted were those recommended by the IV Brazilian Guidelines on Dyslipidemias and Prevention of Atherosclerosis of the Department of Atherosclerosis of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (SBC),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> that is, low weight (BMI &lt; 18.5); eutrophy (BMI 18.5-24.9); overweight (BMI 25-29.9), and obesity (BMI &#8805; 30).</p>
        <p>The abdominal circumference was obtained with a Starrett<sup>&#174;</sup>metric and inelastic tape, with a measurement definition of 0.1 cm. It was measured at the lowest curvature located between the last rib and the iliac crest without compressing the tissues.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Laboratory Data Collection Protocol</title>
        <p>To collect the laboratory data, the volunteers were referred to the Laboratory of Clinical Pathology in the city of Salvador, state of Bahia - Brazil, where blood samples were collected. Following antecubital vein puncture, 10 mL of blood were collected for triglycerides (TG), oxidized LDL, high-density lipoprotein (HDL-cholesterol), total cholesterol (TC), blood glucose, pyruvic glutamic and oxidative transaminase. LDL-cholesterol and the very low density cholesterol (VLDL-cholesterol) were calculated by the Friedewald equation:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> TC = HDL-cholesterol + LDL-cholesterol + VLDL-cholesterol, with VLDL-cholesterol being equal to TG/5.</p>
        <p>The collections were performed with the volunteers fasting for 12 hours. All were instructed not to change their diet during the week of the test, not to perform any physical exertion other than usual, and not to drink alcoholic beverages 24 hours before the laboratory examination. For the CG, the collections were performed between the 5th and 10th day of the menstrual cycle, considering the lower hormonal fluctuations, as recommended by Casazza et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Blood samples were collected by a trained professional and in a laboratory environment suitable for this type of procedure.</p>
        <p>For determination of oxidized LDL in the serum samples, the ELISA kit was used. In this analysis, the oxidized LDL values considered normal were between 100 and 700 mU/mL. The triglycerides, HDL-cholesterol, total cholesterol and blood glucose values were obtained by the Trinder colorimetric enzyme method.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> TGP and TGO were measured by the Reitman-Frankel colorimetric method.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The sample adequacy calculation was performed in the GraphPad StatMate 2.0 for Windows software, which considered a difference between the means of 63 MU/mL and standard deviations of 119.5MU/mL (GCOC) and 43.6 MU/mL (CG), both extracted from a previous pilot study (n = 12). In order to eliminate the bias of the laboratory variation coefficient of oxidized LDL dosage, which was of 3%, a significant difference was considered between the groups, of 20% for alpha and beta of 0.05 (bidirectional) and 0.80, respectively. Thus, 20 women were needed in each group.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>Initially, symmetry and kurtosis tests and the Shapiro-Wilk test were applied to check data distribution. The variables values with normal behavior were described in mean and standard deviation and the values of nonparametric variables in median and interquartile range. Categorical variables were presented as absolute and relative frequencies.</p>
        <p>For the intergroup comparison of the parametric variables, we used the unpaired bidirectional Student t test, and for the non-parametric variables, the Mann-Whitney test. The correlation between the oxidized LDL values and all variables of the lipid profile - triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol, and CRP was also verified. In the correlation analysis, the Spearman correlation coefficient was used.</p>
        <p>In addition to the inter-group comparisons of oxidized LDL, the sample was categorized based on the median of oxidized LDL in women with LDL-oxidized values above and below the median. After the categorization, Fisher's exact test was used. All analyzes were performed in the BioStat 5.0 statistical package, adopting a significance level of 5%.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Ethical aspects</title>
        <p>Throughout the study the guidelines on human research in the Declaration of Helsinki and Resolution 466/12 of the National Health Council were followed. This study was submitted and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ci&#234;ncia de Salvador - BA with number 3.390/2011.</p>
        <p>All participants received detailed information about the study objectives, risks and benefits involved in the procedures and signed the informed consent form. Two copies were filled, one being kept with the participants, and the other with the researchers.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> presents the clinical and anthropometric characteristics of the sample. Homogeneity between the groups is observed, and the difference between the values of the SBP (p &lt; 0.02) and the CRP (p &lt; 0.01) are highlighted, which are higher in the GCOC.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Clinical and anthropometric characteristics of women using and not using combined oral contraceptives (n = 42)</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Variables</th>
              <th align="center">GCOC (n = 21)</th>
              <th align="center">CG (n = 21)</th>
              <th align="center">p value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Age (years)</td>
              <td align="center">23 &#177; 3.1</td>
              <td align="center">23 &#177; 3.4</td>
              <td align="center">0.98<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Body mass index (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">20 &#177; 2.1</td>
              <td align="center">19 &#177; 2.8</td>
              <td align="center">0.07<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Waist circumference (cm)</td>
              <td align="center">73 &#177; 7.8</td>
              <td align="center">70 &#177; 5.9</td>
              <td align="center">0.32<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">118 &#177; 8.8</td>
              <td align="center">111 &#177; 9.7</td>
              <td align="center">0.02<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">77 (74 &#8211; 80)</td>
              <td align="center">70 (70 &#8211; 80)</td>
              <td align="center">0.18<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">**</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">C-reactive protein (mg/L)</td>
              <td align="center">2.7 (1.8 &#8211; 6.4)</td>
              <td align="center">0.9 (0.5 &#8211; 1.1)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">**</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Blood glucose (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">82 &#177; 6.9</td>
              <td align="center">83 &#177; 5.7</td>
              <td align="center">0.57<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Pyruvic glutamic Transaminase (U/L)</td>
              <td align="center">15 &#177; 4.2</td>
              <td align="center">14 &#177; 3.4</td>
              <td align="center">0.16<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Time of use of COC (years)</td>
              <td align="center">3.7 &#177; 2.3</td>
              <td align="center">&#8211;</td>
              <td align="center">&#8211;</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <p>GCOC: combined oral contraceptive group; CG: control group; COC: combined oral contraceptive;</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN2">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Bidirectional Student&#8217;s t test for independent samples;</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN3">
            <label>**</label>
            <p>Bidirectional Mann-Whitney test.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>When comparing the lipid fasting variables, and the TG/HDL-cholesterol ratio (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>), it is observed that the GCOC presents values of plasma triglycerides (p &lt; 0,01), total cholesterol (p &lt; 0,01), HDL-cholesterol (p &lt; 0,04), VLDL-cholesterol (p &lt; 0,01) and TG/HDL-cholesterol ratio (p &lt; 0,01) higher than the GC.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t2">
        <label>Table 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Comparison of fasting lipids (mg/dL) among the groups studied</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Variables</th>
              <th align="center">GCOC (n = 21)</th>
              <th align="center">CG (n = 21)</th>
              <th align="center">p value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Triglycerides</td>
              <td align="center">95 (73 &#8211; 112)</td>
              <td align="center">49 (40 &#8211; 64)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">**</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Total cholesterol</td>
              <td align="center">210 &#177; 38.6</td>
              <td align="center">183 &#177; 29.7</td>
              <td align="center">0.01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">HDL-c</td>
              <td align="center">58 &#177; 19.3</td>
              <td align="center">48 &#177; 11.5</td>
              <td align="center">0.04<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LDL-c</td>
              <td align="center">134 &#177; 35.1</td>
              <td align="center">126 &#177; 27.7</td>
              <td align="center">0.42<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">VLDL-c</td>
              <td align="center">19 (15 &#8211; 22)</td>
              <td align="center">10 (8 &#8211; 13)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">**</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">TG/HDL-c ratio</td>
              <td align="center">1.7 &#177; 0.5</td>
              <td align="center">1.1 &#177; 0.5</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
							</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN4">
            <p>GCOC: combined oral contraceptive group; CG: control group; HDL-cholesterol: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-cholesterol: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; VLDL-cholesterol: very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol;</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN5">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Two-way t-test for independent samples;</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN6">
            <label>**</label>
            <p>Bidirectional Mann-Whitney test.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>As shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>, GCOC women had higher oxidized LDL plasma levels (mU/mL) than the CG, 384 (198-410) versus 283 (208-250) (p &lt; 0.01).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>The boxplot shows a higher concentration of oxidized LDL in women using combined oral contraceptives compared to those who did not use this group of drugs (p &lt; 0.01). In addition, it is noted that in the GCOC the concentration of this oxidized lipoprotein is in the first quartile, while the CG is in the third quartile. The comparison of the median between groups was compared by bidirectional Mann-Whitney test.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-06-0764-80194-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>In <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>, the analyses of correlation between oxidized LDL and the variables of the fasting lipid profile, as well as between oxidized LDL and the PCR are presented. Moderate and positive linear correlation was observed between oxidized LDL, and LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides and total cholesterol.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t3">
        <label>Table 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Correlation analysis between LDL-oxidized (mU/mL) and fasting lipid profile variables (mg/dL) and CRP (mg/dL)</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="33%"/>
            <col width="33%"/>
            <col width="33%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Crossings</th>
              <th align="center">Correlation coefficient (rs)</th>
              <th align="center">p value<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref>
							</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Oxidized LDL and TG</td>
              <td align="center">0.32</td>
              <td align="center">0.03</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Oxidized LDL and CT</td>
              <td align="center">0.47</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Oxidized LDL and LDL-cholesterol</td>
              <td align="center">0.29</td>
              <td align="center">0.05</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Oxidized LDL and HDL-cholesterol</td>
              <td align="center">0.26</td>
              <td align="center">0.08</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Oxidized LDL and PCR</td>
              <td align="center">0.20</td>
              <td align="center">0.19</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN7">
            <p>Oxidized LDL: oxidized low-density lipoprotein; TG: triglycerides; TC: total cholesterol; HDL-cholesterol: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-cholesterol: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; CRP: C-reactive protein;</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN8">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Spearman's correlation test.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>In <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref>, we can observe the intergroup analysis of oxidized LDL when categorized based on the value of the median. It can be seen that 71.4% of the women in the GCOC had higher plasma oxidized LDL values than the established cut-off when compared to the CG, which was 28.6% (p &lt; 0.01).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t4">
        <label>Table 4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Categorical analysis based on the median of oxidized LDL</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="20%"/>
            <col width="20%"/>
            <col width="20%"/>
            <col width="20%"/>
            <col width="20%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="2">
							</th>
              <th align="center" colspan="2">COC</th>
              <th align="center" rowspan="2">p value<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref>
							</th>
            </tr>
            <tr style="border-top-style:solid;border-top-width:thin">
              <th align="center">No n (%)</th>
              <th align="center">Yes n (%)</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" rowspan="2">Oxidized LDL</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 247</td>
              <td align="center">15 (71.4%)</td>
              <td align="center">6 (28.6%)</td>
              <td align="center" rowspan="2">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">&gt; 247</td>
              <td align="center">6 (28.6%)</td>
              <td align="center">15 (71.4%)</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN9">
            <p>Oxidized LDL: oxidized low-density lipoprotein; COC: combined oral contraceptive.</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN10">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Fisher&#8217;s exact test.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>In response to the objectives of this study, we identified that women who use COC have higher oxidized LDL values, with a moderate and positive correlation of oxidized LDL with LDL-cholesterol, total cholesterol and triglycerides. In addition, 71.4% of the women who used COC presented oxidized LDL values above the cutoff point when compared to the control group (28.6%). Thus, although it is not possible to establish a perfect cause-effect relationship due to the method used, to the non-stratification of COC types, and to the effects of regionality, the results presented here are reinforced by the characteristics and homogeneity of the sample, which does not present the classic factors that could be known to induce the increase of oxidized LDL. In this context, although there is no clearly defined mechanism, some hypotheses may explain the elevation of oxidized LDL in women who use COC.</p>
      <p>It should be noted that, in recent years, scientific evidence has increasingly made the role of oxidized LDL in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis clearer.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> However, there is still no clearly defined mechanism, but several hypotheses that help explain the oxidation of LDL-cholesterol in different populations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> One of these hypotheses demonstrates that the bioavailability of LDL-cholesterol in association with oxidative stress appears to be the main determinant for the formation of oxidized LDL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Thus, although we did not observe a difference in the fasting LDL-cholesterol levels among the groups studied, we suggest that the GCOC has a higher concentration of the more atherogenic LDL-cholesterol subfraction. This particle is small and dense, and has lower concentrations of antioxidants. Taken together, these factors make it more prone to oxidative damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> In this study, the hypothesis in question is based on the TG/HDL-cholesterol ratio result, which we found to be significantly higher in GCOC. In addition, it has been suggested that the TG/HDL-cholesterol ratio may reflect the size of LDL-cholesterol particles, with values &gt; 1 being indicative of small and dense particles.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Consistent with our study, Graaf et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> showed that women who use COC have higher concentrations of atherogenic LDL-cholesterol subfraction, which may suggest a more atherogenic lipid profile in this population.</p>
      <p>In contrast to our findings, although in a population of 40-48 years of age, different oral contraceptive formulations, and factors such as smoking, intestinal disease and physical activity, the ELAN study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> did not identify any significant changes in plasma oxidized LDL of women who use and do not use oral contraceptives. However, it was noted that in women using this group of drugs, the lipid oxidation, marked by the highest concentration of peroxides (-OOH), was 1.7 times higher. According to the authors, this result could be explained by the higher oxidative stress induced by ethinylistradiol present in the formulations of COC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In line with this observation, we can suggest, as well as other studies, that women on COC have higher oxidative stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> This hypothesis can be supported by the significant increase in oxidized LDL in GCOC, because according to the literature this oxidized lipoprotein is a variable of oxidative stress.</p>
      <p>According to literature data, the estrogenic and androgenic properties of COCs have an influence on oxidative stress, because these hormones have several actions on the vascular endothelium, increasing the bioavailability of nitric oxide, a fact that does not seem to protect, but rather attacks the endothelium, due to increased oxidative stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Another fact that calls attention is that oxidized LDL has a correlation with other lipid variables. In fact, our results, as well as other studies, indicate that oxidized LDL has a moderate positive correlation with total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> This relationship may be partially justified by findings indicating that an increase of 1mg/dL in serum levels of total cholesterol or LDL-cholesterol, as well as an increase of one unit in the total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratio, can predict increases of 0.22, 12.21 and 15.78 U/L at oxidized LDL levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> According to the literature, triglycerides can predict, regardless of variables such as LDL-cholesterol, elevated oxidized LDL values.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Consistent with the literature, our study demonstrated a significant increase in serum TG, HDL-cholesterol, CRP, and systolic blood pressure values in GCOC, whereas no difference was detected in LDL-cholesterol values.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> However, caution should be taken when analyzing the LDL-cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol results, because the TG/HDL-cholesterol ratio is significantly higher in this group of women, indicating a higher atherogenic potential related to LDL cholesterol. Regarding HDL cholesterol, although in our sample its values are significantly high, it is not yet known what the effects of COC on its subfractions are, since atherogenic particles of HDL-cholesterol are present.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
			</p>
      <p>It is also interesting to note that the use of COC has been suggested as an independent factor for plasma CRP elevation in women of reproductive age. This increase appears to be associated with changes in estrogen &#946; receptor function and levels, increased cortisol, increased TNF-&#945;, hypomethylation in the DNA of macrophages, and alterations in hepatic PCR synthesis. It is also worth noting that the current use of COC can independently represent 20 to 32% of the variation of CRP in these women.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> In addition, it was also shown that one in three women on COC shows CRP &gt; 3 mg/L, which according to the literature can markedly increase the risk of cardiovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In addition, as in our results, research has shown a significant elevation of blood pressure in women on use of COC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> In fact, according to some studies, COC use may be related to mild and moderate arterial hypertension, with increases ranging from 20 to 40 mmHg in SBP and 10 to 20 mmHg in the diastolic pressure. Also, according to the studies, this elevation can be reversed within 3 months after COC descontinuation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Such elevation of blood pressure may occur due to changes in electrolyte concentrations, oxidative stress, insulin resistance, and increased production of renin and hepatic angiotensinogen in these women.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Therefore, in addition to the fact that oxidized LDL emerges as a non-traditional risk factor for future cardiovascular events in postmenopausal women,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> and that, in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis, besides being present in all stages of the atherosclerotic process, it begins to be deposited in the arterial wall of young adults, even before the initial formation of the atheromatous plaque,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> it is suggested that women taking COC present a greater future cardiovascular risk than women who do not use this group of drugs.</p>
      <p>Oxidation of LDL-cholesterol is closely related to endothelial dysfunction in a positive feedback process. The endothelial dysfunction associated with the arterial vascular inflammatory process are mainly responsible for the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, which in turn causes endothelial cell toxicity and chemotactic attraction of monocytes/macrophages through feedback of endothelial dysfunction. This mechanism is known as the oxidative theory of atherogenesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The results presented here point to mechanisms that may help elucidate the outcome of a multicenter study that showed that COC use is associated with a 5-fold increased risk of myocardial infarction in Europe and more than 4-fold in non-European countries. It is worth mentioning that this increase is closely linked to COC formulations with estrogen (&#8805; 50 &#181;g), and the presence of classic risk factors such as smoking, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and obesity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Another interesting study showed that women taking COC with ethinyl estradiol dosages between 30 and 40 &#181;g had a risk of arterial thrombosis between 1.3 and 2.3. At lower dosages (20 &#181;g), the risk was 0.9 and 1.7 times, when compared to women who did not use this group of drugs. These results suggest that even at low dosages, COCs may increase the risk of atherothrombosis, a fact that should be taken into consideration during its prescription, especially in women presenting cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Finally, the present study has limitations that need to be discussed. One of them is the non-stratification of COC types. Although being of 3rd generation, COC has different formulations in concentrations of estrogen and progestin, a fact that, in addition to being able to cause different effects on the metabolism, limits the generalization of the results as to the type of hormone present in the formulation of contraceptives. In addition, dietary control was not adequately performed, although we did not select volunteers in control or dietary limitation, and the influence of diet on our results cannot be completely excluded. It is also important to point out that the limitations presented do not impair the results of this study. On the contrary, they add data that facilitate the understanding of alterations in the lipid profile of women of reproductive age who use COC.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>In summary, the findings of this study indicate that women who use COC have a significant increase in plasma oxidized LDL values, as well as higher concentrations of small and dense LDL-cholesterol subfractures, identified by the TG/HDL-cholesterol ratio. We also identified a moderate and positive correlation of oxidized LDL with atherogenic variables of the lipid profile, which may suggest a greater vascular aggression and, consequently, a higher cardiovascular risk in this population. Finally, we can also suggest higher oxidative stress, represented indirectly by the higher concentration of oxidized LDL in these women.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted Alan Carlos Nery dos Santos, from Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica- EBMSP.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ci&#234;ncia de Salvador under the protocol number 3.39012011. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Eleva&#231;&#227;o da Lipoprote&#237;na de Baixa Densidade Oxidada em Usu&#225;rias de Contraceptivo Oral Combinado</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Alan Carlos Nery dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Petto</surname>
            <given-names>Jefferson</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">4</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Diogo</surname>
            <given-names>Diego Passos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Seixas</surname>
            <given-names>Candice Rocha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Lunara Horn de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ara&#250;jo</surname>
            <given-names>Wagner Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ladeia</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Marice Teixeira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica, Salvador, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Salvador (UNIFACS), Feira de Santana, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Adventista da Bahia (FADBA), Cachoeira, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Social da Bahia (FSBA), Salvador, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Alan Carlos Nery dos Santos,</bold> Av. Dom Jo&#227;o VI, 275. CEP 40290-000, Brotas, Salvador, BA - Brasil. E-mail: <email>alansantos.pos@bahiana.edu.br</email>, <email>allannery.santos@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Santos ACN, Petto J, Ladeia AMT. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Santos ACN, Diogo DP, Rocha CS, Souza LH, Ara&#250;jo WS. An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Santos ACN, Petto J, Diogo DP, Ladeia AMT, Ara&#250;jo WS. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Santos ACN, Petto J, Ara&#250;jo WS, Diogo DP, Souza LH, Rocha CS, Ladeia AMT. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Santos ACN, Petto J, Ara&#250;jo WS, Diogo DP, Ladeia AMT.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>O uso de contraceptivo oral combinado (COC) tem sido relacionado com altera&#231;&#245;es no metabolismo glic&#234;mico, lip&#237;dico, maior estresse oxidativo e press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, o que poderia sugerir maior oxida&#231;&#227;o da lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade colesterol (LDL-colesterol) em mulheres que utilizam COC.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Testar a hip&#243;tese de que existe diferen&#231;a nos valores plasm&#225;ticos da LDL-oxidada entre mulheres que utilizam e n&#227;o utilizam COC, bem como avaliar a correla&#231;&#227;o entre ela e o perfil lip&#237;dico e prote&#237;na C reativa de alta sensibilidade (PCR-as).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Foram selecionadas 42 mulheres com idade entre 18 e 35 anos, eutr&#243;ficas, irregularmente ativas, com triglicer&#237;deos &lt; 150 mg/dL, glicemia &lt; 100 mg/dL e que utilizavam ou n&#227;o COC. Essas foram alocadas no grupo COC, formado por 21 mulheres em uso COC h&#225; pelo menos 1 ano; e grupo controle (GC), composto por 21 mulheres que n&#227;o utilizavam nenhum tipo de contraceptivo hormonal h&#225; pelo menos 1 ano. Adotado um n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de 5% para as an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>Foi observado que o GCOC apresenta valores mais elevados da LDL-oxidada que o GC, respectivamente 384 mU/mL versus 283 mU/mL (p &lt; 0,01). Tamb&#233;m foi observado correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre a LDL-oxidada e a LDL-colesterol (r = 0,3, p &lt; 0,05), com o colesterol total (r = 0,47, p &lt; 0,01) e com os triglicer&#237;deos (r = 0,32, p &lt; 0,03), n&#227;o havendo correla&#231;&#227;o com a PCR-as. Na an&#225;lise categorizada da LDL-oxidada, 71,4% das mulheres do GCOC e 28,6% do GC mantiveram-se acima do ponto de corte estabelecido.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Mulheres que utilizam COC apresentam valores plasm&#225;ticos mais elevados da LDL-oxidada, existindo, correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre a LDL-oxidada e outras vari&#225;veis lip&#237;dicas.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Anticoncepcionais Orais Combinados</kwd>
        <kwd>Transtornos do Metabolismo dos Lip&#237;deos</kwd>
        <kwd>Estresse Oxidativo</kwd>
        <kwd>Aterosclerose</kwd>
        <kwd>Prote&#237;na C Reativa</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Estudos demonstram que mulheres em idade reprodutiva, que utilizam contraceptivo oral combinado (COC), apresentam altera&#231;&#245;es no metabolismo glic&#234;mico,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> lip&#237;dico,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> estresse oxidativo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> e inflama&#231;&#227;o subcl&#237;nica cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Tamb&#233;m, j&#225; foi identificado aumento nas subfra&#231;&#245;es aterog&#234;nicas da lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL-colesterol)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> e eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (PAS).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Em conjunto, essas altera&#231;&#245;es, apresentam associa&#231;&#227;o com a oxida&#231;&#227;o da LDL-colesterol, a qual, tem sido fortemente relacionado com um perfil lip&#237;dico mais aterog&#234;nico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Uma vez oxidada, a LDL-colesterol apresenta v&#225;rias a&#231;&#245;es na fisiologia vascular, entre elas, inibe a express&#227;o do RNAm da enzima &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintetase endotelial, tendo como consequ&#234;ncia a diminui&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o do &#243;xido n&#237;trico e o favorecimento do processo ateroscler&#243;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Al&#233;m disso, tamb&#233;m prejudica a prolifera&#231;&#227;o, motilidade celular e a a&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas-tronco endoteliais, mecanismos capitais na endoteliza&#231;&#227;o das &#225;reas lesadas no processo ateroscler&#243;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Ainda, tem sido sugerido que valores mais elevados de LDL-oxidada, mesmo dentro dos limites de normalidade, estejam associados a maior risco de futuros eventos cardiovasculares e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Somado a isso, foi demonstrado que no Brasil, 33,8% das mulheres com idade entre 18 e 49 anos utilizam contraceptivos orais, sendo que dessas, mais de 13% (IC95% 10,9-15,7%) apresentam fatores de risco como o tabagismo, hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, dislipidemias e obesidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Esses fatores, associados ao uso dos COC podem aumentar sensivelmente o risco de eventos aterotromb&#243;ticos, mesmo em mulheres em idade reprodutiva.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Contudo, para nosso conhecimento ainda n&#227;o existem estudos que tenham investigado a oxida&#231;&#227;o da LDL-colesterol em mulheres jovens em uso de COC, sem outros fatores que justifiquem sua oxida&#231;&#227;o. Assim, foi testada a hip&#243;tese de que existe diferen&#231;a nos valores plasm&#225;ticos da LDL-oxidada entre mulheres que utilizam e n&#227;o utilizam COC, bem como foi avaliada a correla&#231;&#227;o entre a LDL-oxidada e as vari&#225;veis do perfil lip&#237;dico de jejum e a prote&#237;na c reativa.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Amostra</title>
          <p>A pesquisa caracteriza-se como um estudo anal&#237;tico de corte transversal, a qual tem como vari&#225;vel preditora o uso de COC e vari&#225;vel de desfecho a LDL-oxidada.</p>
          <p>A popula&#231;&#227;o estudada foi constitu&#237;da por 42 mulheres autodeclaradas sadias, eutr&#243;ficas, irregularmente ativas, com idade entre 19 e 30 anos, nul&#237;paras, com valores de jejum de triglicer&#237;deos &lt; 150 mg/dL, de glicemia &lt; 100 mg/dL e que utilizavam ou n&#227;o COC. Todas as participantes eram discentes de uma faculdade privada localizada na cidade de Salvador, BA - Brasil.</p>
          <p>A amostra foi dividida em dois grupos: grupo COC (GCOC) formado por 21 mulheres em uso de COC de baixa dosagem de etinilistradiol (15 a 30 mcg) h&#225; pelo menos 1 ano; e grupo controle (GC), composto por 21 mulheres que n&#227;o utilizavam nenhum tipo de contraceptivo hormonal h&#225; pelo menos 1 ano.</p>
          <p>Para determinar se as participantes eram irregularmente ativas foi utilizado o Question&#225;rio Internacional de Atividade F&#237;sica (vers&#227;o longa), desenvolvido pela Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial de Sa&#250;de e pelo Centro de Controle e Preven&#231;&#227;o de Doen&#231;as Norte-Americano.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Foram exclu&#237;das mulheres que relataram dislipidemia familiar, hipo- ou hipertireoidismo, hist&#243;rico de alcoolismo ou tabagismo, s&#237;ndrome do ov&#225;rio polic&#237;stico, estar em dieta hipo- ou hiperlip&#237;dica, fazer uso de suplementos alimentares ou anabolizantes, estar em uso de hipolipemiantes, corticosteroides, diur&#233;ticos ou betabloqueadores. Exclu&#237;das tamb&#233;m, as que na avalia&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica apresentaram valores da PAS &#8805; 140/90 mmHg, circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal &#8805; 80 cm ou, no exame laboratorial, altera&#231;&#227;o da transaminase glut&#226;mica pir&#250;vica (TGP), oxidativa (TGO) ou creatinina. A TGP e TGO foram avaliadas com o intuito de identificar enfermidades pancre&#225;tica e hep&#225;tica, e a creatinina, para identificar a presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o renal.</p>
          <p>Todas as participantes responderam ao question&#225;rio semiestruturado, elaborado pelos autores da pesquisa e passaram por exame f&#237;sico. Esse &#250;ltimo foi composto por medida de press&#227;o arterial (PA) em repouso, massa corporal total, estatura e circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal.</p>
          <p>O &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) foi calculado com as medidas de massa e altura, de acordo com a equa&#231;&#227;o de Quetelet: massa(kg)/altura<sup>2</sup> (cm). Os pontos de corte de IMC adotados foram os preconizados pela IV Diretriz Brasileira Sobre Dislipidemias e Preven&#231;&#227;o da Aterosclerose do Departamento de Aterosclerose da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (SBC),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> ou seja, baixo peso (IMC &lt; 18,5); eutrofia (IMC 18,5-24,9); sobrepeso (IMC 25-29,9) e obesidade (IMC &#8805; 30).</p>
          <p>A circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal foi obtida com fita m&#233;trica met&#225;lica e inel&#225;stica, marca Starrett<sup>&#174;</sup>, com defini&#231;&#227;o de medida de 0,1 cm. Foi mensurada na menor curvatura localizada entre a &#250;ltima costela e a crista il&#237;aca sem comprimir os tecidos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Protocolo da Coleta de Dados Laboratoriais</title>
          <p>Para coleta dos dados laboratoriais, as volunt&#225;rias foram encaminhadas ao Laborat&#243;rio de Patologia Cl&#237;nica na cidade de Salvador, BA - Brasil, onde foram realizadas as coletas das amostras sangu&#237;neas. Depois de puncionada a veia antecubital, foram coletados 10 mL de sangue para dosagem dos triglicer&#237;deos (TG), LDL-oxidada, da lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-colesterol), do colesterol total (CT), glicemia, transaminase glut&#226;mica pir&#250;vica e oxidativa. A LDL-colesterol e a de muito baixa densidade (VLDL-colesterol) foram calculadas pela equa&#231;&#227;o de Friedewald:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> CT = HDL-colesterol + LDL-colesterol + VLDL-colesterol, sendo a VLDL-colesterol igual aos TG/5.</p>
          <p>As coletas foram realizadas com as volunt&#225;rias em jejum de 12 horas. Todas foram orientadas a n&#227;o alterarem sua dieta na semana do teste, a n&#227;o praticarem nenhum esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico diferente do habitual e n&#227;o ingerir bebidas alco&#243;licas 24 horas antes do exame laboratorial. Para o GC, as coletas foram realizadas entre o 5&#186; e o 10&#186; dia do ciclo menstrual, considerando as menores flutua&#231;&#245;es hormonais, conforme recomendado por Casazza e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> As amostras de sangue foram coletadas por um profissional capacitado e em ambiente laboratorial pr&#243;prio para esse tipo de procedimento.</p>
          <p>Para determina&#231;&#227;o da LDL-oxidada nas amostras de soro, foi utilizado o <italic>kit</italic> ELISA. Nessa an&#225;lise, os valores da LDL-oxidada considerados normais foram entre 100 e 700 mU/mL. J&#225; os valores de triglicer&#237;deos, da HDL-colesterol, do colesterol total e da glicemia foram obtidos pelo m&#233;todo enzim&#225;tico colorim&#233;trico de Trinder.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> A TGP e a TGO foram dosadas pelo m&#233;todo colorim&#233;trico de Reitman-Frankel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O c&#225;lculo de sufici&#234;ncia amostral foi realizado no <italic>software</italic> GraphPad StatMate 2.0 for Windows, em que foi considerado uma diferen&#231;a entre as m&#233;dias de 63MU/mL e desvios padr&#227;o de 119,5 MU/mL (GCOC) e 43,6MU/mL (GC), ambos extra&#237;dos de estudo piloto pr&#233;vio (n = 12). No intuito de anular o vi&#233;s do coeficiente de varia&#231;&#227;o laboratorial da dosagem da LDL-oxidada, esta quantificada em 3%, foi considerado uma diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos de 20% para alfa e beta de 0,05 (bidirecional) e 0,80, respectivamente. Desse modo, foram necess&#225;rias 20 mulheres em cada grupo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Inicialmente, para verificar a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados foram aplicados testes de simetria e curtose e o teste de <italic>Shapiro-Wilk</italic>. Os valores das vari&#225;veis com comportamento normal foram descritos em m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o e os valores das vari&#225;veis n&#227;o param&#233;tricas em mediana e intervalo interquartil. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram apresentadas como frequ&#234;ncias absoluta e relativa.</p>
          <p>Para a compara&#231;&#227;o intergrupos das vari&#225;veis param&#233;tricas foi utilizado o teste <italic>t</italic> de Student n&#227;o pareado bidirecional e para as vari&#225;veis n&#227;o param&#233;tricas o teste de <italic>Mann-Whitney</italic>. Verificada tamb&#233;m a correla&#231;&#227;o entre os valores da LDL-oxidada com todas as vari&#225;veis do perfil lip&#237;dico - triglicer&#237;deos, colesterol total, HDL-colesterol e LDL-colesterol e a PCR. Nas an&#225;lises de correla&#231;&#227;o foi utilizado o coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o de <italic>Spearman</italic>.</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m das compara&#231;&#245;es intergrupos da LDL-oxidada, a amostra foi categorizada tomando como base a mediana da LDL-oxidada em mulheres que apresentavam valores da LDL-oxidada acima e abaixo da mediana. Ap&#243;s a categoriza&#231;&#227;o foi utilizado o teste exato de Fisher. Todas as an&#225;lises foram realizadas no pacote estat&#237;stico BioStat 5.0, adotando n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Aspectos &#233;ticos</title>
          <p>Durante todo o estudo foram observadas as diretrizes sobre a pesquisa com seres humanos da Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinque e da Resolu&#231;&#227;o 466/12 do Conselho Nacional de Sa&#250;de. Este estudo foi submetido e aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa da Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ci&#234;ncia de Salvador - BA sob o n&#250;mero 3.390/2011.</p>
          <p>Todas as participantes receberam detalhadamente as informa&#231;&#245;es sobre os objetivos do estudo, riscos e benef&#237;cios envolvidos nos procedimentos e assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido. Foram preenchidas duas vias, ficando uma em posse das participantes e a outra com os pesquisadores.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 1</xref> apresenta as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e antropom&#233;tricas da amostra. Nota-se a homogeneidade entre os grupos e destaca-se a diferen&#231;a entre os valores da PAS (p &lt; 0,02) e PCR (p &lt; 0,01), sendo esses, maiores no GCOC.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e antropom&#233;tricas das mulheres que utilizam e n&#227;o utilizam contraceptivo oral combinado (n = 42)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th align="center">GCOC (n = 21)</th>
                <th align="center">GC (n = 21)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Idade (anos)</td>
                <td align="center">23 &#177; 3,1</td>
                <td align="center">23 &#177; 3,4</td>
                <td align="center">0,98<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">&#205;ndice de massa corporal (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">20 &#177; 2,1</td>
                <td align="center">19 &#177; 2,8</td>
                <td align="center">0,07<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">73 &#177; 7,8</td>
                <td align="center">70 &#177; 5,9</td>
                <td align="center">0,32<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">118 &#177; 8,8</td>
                <td align="center">111 &#177; 9,7</td>
                <td align="center">0,02<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">77 (74 &#8211; 80)</td>
                <td align="center">70 (70 &#8211; 80)</td>
                <td align="center">0,18<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">**</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Prote&#237;na C-reativa (mg/L)</td>
                <td align="center">2,7 (1.8 &#8211; 6,4)</td>
                <td align="center">0,9 (0,5 &#8211; 1,1)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">**</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Glicemia (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">82 &#177; 6,9</td>
                <td align="center">83 &#177; 5,7</td>
                <td align="center">0,57<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Transaminase glut&#226;mica pir&#250;vica (U/L)</td>
                <td align="center">15 &#177; 4,2</td>
                <td align="center">14 &#177; 3,4</td>
                <td align="center">0,16<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Tempo de uso do COC (anos)</td>
                <td align="center">3,7 &#177; 2,3</td>
                <td align="center">&#8211;</td>
                <td align="center">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN11">
              <p>GCOC: grupo contraceptivo oral combinado; GC: grupo controle; COC: contraceptivo oral combinado;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN12">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Teste t de Student bidirecional para amostras independentes;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN13">
              <label>**</label>
              <p>Teste de Mann-Whitney bidirecional.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Ao comparar as vari&#225;veis lip&#237;dicas de jejum e a raz&#227;o TG/HDL-colesterol (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 2</xref>) percebe-se que o GCOC apresenta valores plasm&#225;ticos de triglicer&#237;deos (p &lt; 0,01), colesterol total (p &lt; 0,01), HDL-colesterol (p &lt; 0,04), VLDL-colesterol (p &lt; 0,01) e a raz&#227;o TG/HDL-colesterol (p &lt; 0,01) maiores que o GC.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t6">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Compara&#231;&#227;o dos lip&#237;dios de jejum (mg/dL) entre os grupos estudados</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th align="center">GCOC (n = 21)</th>
                <th align="center">GC (n = 21)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Triglicer&#237;deos</td>
                <td align="center">95 (73 &#8211; 112)</td>
                <td align="center">49 (40 &#8211; 64)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">**</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Colesterol total</td>
                <td align="center">210 &#177; 38,6</td>
                <td align="center">183 &#177; 29,7</td>
                <td align="center">0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">*</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HDL-c</td>
                <td align="center">58 &#177; 19,3</td>
                <td align="center">48 &#177; 11,5</td>
                <td align="center">0,04<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">*</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDL-c</td>
                <td align="center">134 &#177; 35,1</td>
                <td align="center">126 &#177; 27,7</td>
                <td align="center">0,42<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">*</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">VLDL-c</td>
                <td align="center">19 (15 &#8211; 22)</td>
                <td align="center">10 (8 &#8211; 13)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">**</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Raz&#227;o TG/HDL-c</td>
                <td align="center">1,7 &#177; 0,5</td>
                <td align="center">1,1 &#177; 0,5</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">*</xref>
								</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN14">
              <p>GCOC: grupo contraceptivo oral combinado; GC: grupo controle; HDL-colesterol: lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade colesterol; LDL-colesterol: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade colesterol; VLDL-colesterol: lipoprote&#237;na de muito baixa densidade colesterol;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN15">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Teste t bidirecional para amostras independentes;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN16">
              <label>**</label>
              <p>Teste de Mann-Whitney bidirecional.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Como mostrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref><bold>,</bold> &#224;s mulheres do GCOC apresentam valores plasm&#225;ticos da LDL-oxidada (mU/mL) mais elevados do que o GC, 384 (198-410) <italic>versus</italic> 283 (208-250) (p &lt; 0,01).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>O boxplot mostra maior concentra&#231;&#227;o da LDL-oxidada nas mulheres em uso de contraceptivo oral combinado, quando comparadas as que n&#227;o utilizam esse grupo de medicamentos (p &lt; 0,01). Al&#233;m disso, nota-se que no GCOC a concentra&#231;&#227;o dessa lipoprote&#237;na oxidada encontra-se no primeiro quartil, enquanto o GC, no terceiro quartil. A compara&#231;&#227;o da mediana entre os grupos foi realizada pelo teste de Mann-Whitney bidirecional.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-06-0764-80194-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 3</xref> s&#227;o apresentadas as an&#225;lises de correla&#231;&#227;o entre a LDL-oxidada e as vari&#225;veis do perfil lip&#237;dico de jejum, bem como entre a LDL-oxidada e a PCR. Foi observada correla&#231;&#227;o linear moderada e positiva entre a LDL-oxidada e a LDL-colesterol, os triglicer&#237;deos e o colesterol total.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t7">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>An&#225;lise de correla&#231;&#227;o entre a LDL-oxidada (mU/mL) e as vari&#225;veis do perfil lip&#237;dico de jejum (mg/dL) e PCR (mg/dL)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Cruzamentos</th>
                <th align="center">Coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o (rs)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN18">*</xref>
								</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDL-oxidada e TG</td>
                <td align="center">0,32</td>
                <td align="center">0.03</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDL-oxidada e CT</td>
                <td align="center">0,47</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDL-oxidada e LDL-colesterol</td>
                <td align="center">0,29</td>
                <td align="center">0,05</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDL-oxidada e HDL-colesterol</td>
                <td align="center">0,26</td>
                <td align="center">0,08</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDL-oxidada e PCR</td>
                <td align="center">0,20</td>
                <td align="center">0,19</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN17">
              <p>LDL-oxidada: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade oxidada; TG: triglicer&#237;deos; CT: colesterol total; HDL-colesterol: lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade colesterol; LDL-colesterol: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade colesterol; PCR: Prote&#237;na C-reativa;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN18">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Teste de correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>J&#225; na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 4</xref> pode-se observar a an&#225;lise intergrupo da LDL-oxidada quando categorizada baseada no valor da mediana. Percebe-se que das mulheres do GCOC, 71,4% tiverem valores plasm&#225;ticos mais elevados da LDL-oxidada que o ponto de corte estabelecido quando comparadas &#224;quelas do GC, que foi de 28,6% (p &lt; 0,01).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t8">
          <label>Tabela 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>An&#225;lise categ&#243;rica baseada na mediana da LDL-oxidada</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="20%"/>
              <col width="20%"/>
              <col width="20%"/>
              <col width="20%"/>
              <col width="20%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="2">
								</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2">COC</th>
                <th align="center" rowspan="2">Valor de p<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN20">*</xref>
								</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-top-style:solid;border-top-width:thin">
                <th align="center">N&#227;o n (%)</th>
                <th align="center">Sim n (%)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" rowspan="2">LDL-oxidada</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 247</td>
                <td align="center">15 (71,4%)</td>
                <td align="center">6 (28,6%)</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">&gt; 247</td>
                <td align="center">6 (28,6%)</td>
                <td align="center">15 (71,4%)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN19">
              <p>LDL-oxidada: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade oxidada; COC: contraceptivo oral combinado.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN20">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Teste Exato de Fisher.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Em resposta aos objetivos deste estudo, identificamos que mulheres que utilizam COC apresentam valores mais elevados da LDL-oxidada, com correla&#231;&#227;o moderada e positiva entre a LDL-oxidada com a LDL-colesterol, com o colesterol total e com os triglicer&#237;deos. Al&#233;m disso, 71,4% das mulheres que utilizam COC apresentam valores da LDL-oxidada acima do ponto de corte quando comparadas ao controle 28,6%. Assim, embora n&#227;o seja poss&#237;vel estabelecer rela&#231;&#227;o de causa-efeito perfeita em virtude do m&#233;todo empregado, da n&#227;o estratifica&#231;&#227;o dos tipos do COC e dos efeitos da regionalidade, os resultados aqui apresentados s&#227;o refor&#231;ados pelas caracter&#237;sticas e homogeneidade da amostra, a qual, n&#227;o apresenta os cl&#225;ssicos fatores que sabidamente poderiam induzir o aumento da LDL-oxidada. Nesse contexto, ainda que n&#227;o exista um mecanismo claramente definido, algumas hip&#243;teses podem explicar a eleva&#231;&#227;o da LDL-oxidada em mulheres que utilizam COC.</p>
        <p>Cabe ressaltar que nos &#250;ltimos anos, evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas t&#234;m deixado cada vez mais claro o papel da LDL-oxidada na fisiopatologia da aterosclerose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Contudo, ainda n&#227;o existe um mecanismo claramente definido e sim, v&#225;rias hip&#243;teses que ajudam explicar a oxida&#231;&#227;o da LDL-colesterol em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Uma dessas hip&#243;teses, demonstra que a biodisponibilidade da LDL-colesterol, em associa&#231;&#227;o com o estresse oxidativo parece ser o principal determinante para a forma&#231;&#227;o da LDL-oxidada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Assim, embora n&#227;o tenhamos verificado diferen&#231;a nos valores plasm&#225;ticos da LDL-colesterol de jejum, entre os grupos estudados, sugerimos que o GCOC apresenta maior concentra&#231;&#227;o da subfra&#231;&#227;o mais aterog&#234;nica da LDL-colesterol. Essa part&#237;cula &#233; caracterizada por ser pequena e densa, e por apresentar menores concentra&#231;&#245;es de antioxidantes. Em conjunto, esses fatores a torna mais propensas ao dano oxidativo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Neste estudo, a hip&#243;tese em quest&#227;o baseia-se no resultado da raz&#227;o TG/HDL-colesterol, a qual verificamos ser significativamente maior no GCOC. Al&#233;m disso, tem sido sugerido que a raz&#227;o TG/HDL-colesterol possa refletir o tamanho das part&#237;culas da LDL-colesterol, sendo, valores &gt; 1, indicativos de part&#237;culas pequenas e densas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Em concord&#226;ncia como nosso estudo, Graaf et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> mostraram que mulheres que utilizam COC apresentam maiores concentra&#231;&#245;es da subfra&#231;&#227;o aterog&#234;nica da LDL-colesterol, fato que pode sugerir um perfil lip&#237;dico mais aterog&#234;nico nessa popula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Contrapondo nosso resultado, embora em uma popula&#231;&#227;o como idade entre 40 e 48 anos, formula&#231;&#227;o dos contraceptivos orais diferentes, al&#233;m de fatores como tabagismo, doen&#231;a intestinal e atividade f&#237;sica, o estudo ELAN,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> n&#227;o identificou altera&#231;&#245;es significativas entre os valores plasm&#225;ticos da LDL-oxidada de mulheres que utilizam e n&#227;o utilizam contraceptivo oral. No entanto, foi notado que nas mulheres em uso desse grupo de medicamentos, a oxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica, marcada pela maior concentra&#231;&#227;o de per&#243;xidos (-OOH), era 1,7 vezes mais elevada. Segundos os autores, esse resultado poderia ser explicado pelo maior estresse oxidativo induzido pelo etinilistradiol presente nas formula&#231;&#245;es dos COC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em linha com essa observa&#231;&#227;o, podemos sugerir, assim como outras pesquisas, que as mulheres em uso de COC apresentam maior estresse oxidativo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Hip&#243;tese que pode ser apoiada pelo significativo aumento da LDL-oxidada no GCOC, uma vez que, segundo a literatura essa lipoprote&#237;na oxidada &#233; uma vari&#225;vel do estresse oxidativo.</p>
        <p>De acordo como dados de literatura, as propriedades estrog&#234;nicas e androg&#234;nicas dos COC t&#234;m influ&#234;ncia no estresse oxidativo, isso porque, esses horm&#244;nios apresentam v&#225;rias a&#231;&#245;es sobre endot&#233;lio vascular, aumentando a biodisponibilidade do &#243;xido n&#237;trico, fato que n&#227;o parece proteger, mas sim agredir o endot&#233;lio, pelo maior estresse oxidativo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Outro dado que chama aten&#231;&#227;o, &#233; que, a LDL-oxidada apresenta correla&#231;&#227;o com outras vari&#225;veis lip&#237;dicas. De fato, nossos resultados, assim como outros estudos, indicam que a LDL-oxidada apresenta correla&#231;&#227;o moderada positiva com o colesterol total, os triglicer&#237;deos e a LDL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Essa rela&#231;&#227;o pode ser parcialmente justificada por achados que indicam que um aumento de 1mg/dL nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos do colesterol total ou da LDL-colesterol, bem como, aumento de uma unidade na rela&#231;&#227;o colesterol total para HDL-colesterol, podem predizer incrementos de 0,22, 12,21 e 15,78U/L nas concentra&#231;&#245;es da LDL-oxidada respectivamente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Segundo a literatura, os triglicer&#237;deos podem predizer, independentemente, de vari&#225;veis como a LDL-colesterol, valores elevados da LDL-oxidada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em concord&#226;ncia com a literatura, nosso estudo demonstrou aumento significativo dos valores s&#233;ricos dos TG, da HDL-colesterol, da PCR, e dos valores da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica no GCOC, ao passo que, nenhuma diferen&#231;a foi detectada nos valores da LDL-colesterol.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Contudo, &#233; preciso ter cautela ao analisar os resultados referentes a LDL-colesterol e a HDL-colesterol, uma vez que, a raz&#227;o TG/HDL-colesterol &#233; significativamente maior nesse grupo de mulheres, o que indica, um maior potencial aterog&#234;nico relacionado ao LDL-colesterol. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao HDL-colesterol, embora em nossa amostra seus valores estejam significativamente elevados, ainda n&#227;o se sabe quais os efeitos do COC sobre as suas subfra&#231;&#245;es, tendo em vista que, existem part&#237;culas aterog&#234;nicas da HDL-colesterol.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Tamb&#233;m &#233; interessante notar que o uso de COC tem sido sugerido como um fator independente para eleva&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica da PCR em mulheres em idade reprodutiva. Esse aumento parece estar associado a altera&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o e n&#237;veis dos receptores &#946; do estrog&#234;nio, aumento do cortisol, eleva&#231;&#227;o do TNF-&#945;, hipometila&#231;&#227;o no DNA de macr&#243;fagos e altera&#231;&#245;es na s&#237;ntese hep&#225;tica da PCR. Tamb&#233;m chama aten&#231;&#227;o que o uso atual de COC pode representar de forma independente 20 a 32% da varia&#231;&#227;o da PCR nessas mulheres.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Al&#233;m disso, tamb&#233;m foi mostrado que uma em cada tr&#234;s mulheres em uso de COC apresenta PCR &gt; 3 mg/L, fato que segundo a literatura pode aumentar sensivelmente o risco de eventos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, assim como nos nossos resultados, pesquisas t&#234;m demonstrado eleva&#231;&#227;o significativa da press&#227;o arterial em mulheres que utilizam COC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> De fato, segundo alguns estudos, uso do COC pode estar relacionado a quadros de hipertens&#227;o arterial leve e moderada, com aumentos que variam entre 20 e 40mmHg, na PAS e 10 a 20 mmHg, na diast&#243;lica. Ainda segundo os estudos, essa eleva&#231;&#227;o pode ser revertida no prazo de 3 meses ap&#243;s interrup&#231;&#227;o do COC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Tal eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial pode ocorrer devido a altera&#231;&#245;es nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de eletr&#243;litos, estresse oxidativo, resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e maior produ&#231;&#227;o da renina e angiotensinog&#234;nio hep&#225;tico nessas mulheres.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Portanto, somando-se o fato de que a LDL-oxidada emerge como um fator de risco n&#227;o tradicional para futuros eventos cardiovasculares em mulheres ap&#243;s a menopausa,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> e que, na fisiopatologia da aterosclerose, al&#233;m de estar presentes em todas as fases do processo ateroscler&#243;tico, ela come&#231;a a ser depositada na parede arterial de indiv&#237;duos adultos jovens, antes mesmo da forma&#231;&#227;o inicial da placa de ateroma,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> sugere-se que mulheres em uso de COC apresentam risco cardiovascular futuro maior que mulheres que n&#227;o utilizam esse grupo de medicamentos.</p>
        <p>A oxida&#231;&#227;o da LDL-colesterol est&#225; intimamente ligada a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, em um processo de retroalimenta&#231;&#227;o positiva. A disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial associada ao processo inflamat&#243;rio vascular arterial, s&#227;o os principais respons&#225;veis pela oxida&#231;&#227;o da LDL-colesterol que, por sua vez, provoca toxidade das c&#233;lulas endoteliais e atra&#231;&#227;o quimiot&#225;xica de mon&#243;citos/macr&#243;fagos retroalimentando a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Esse mecanismo &#233; conhecido como a teoria oxidativa da aterog&#234;nese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Os resultados aqui apresentados apontam mecanismos que podem ajudar a elucidar o resultado de um estudo multic&#234;ntrico que mostrou que o uso de COC est&#225; associado a um risco de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio aumentado em 5 vezes na Europa e mais de 4 vezes em pa&#237;ses n&#227;o europeus. Vale ressaltar que esse aumento est&#225; intimamente ligado &#224;s formula&#231;&#245;es dos COC com (&#8805; 50 &#181;g de estrog&#234;nio) e a presen&#231;a dos cl&#225;ssicos fatores de risco como tabagismo, hipertens&#227;o arterial, dislipidemias e obesidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Outro interessante estudo demonstrou que mulheres em uso de COC com dosagens de etinilistradiol entre 30 a 40 &#181;g tinham risco de trombose arterial entre 1,3 e 2,3. J&#225; em dosagens menores (20 &#181;g), o risco foi de 0,9 e 1,7 vezes, quando comparadas as mulheres que n&#227;o utilizam esse grupo de medicamentos. Esses resultados sugerem que mesmo em baixas dosagens, os COC podem aumentar o risco de aterotrombose, fato que deve ser levado em considera&#231;&#227;o durante a sua prescri&#231;&#227;o, principalmente em mulheres que apresentem fatores de risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e metab&#243;licas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Por fim, o presente estudo possui limita&#231;&#245;es que precisam ser discutidas. A n&#227;o estratifica&#231;&#227;o dos tipos de COC, tendo em vista que este, mesmo sendo de 3&#170; gera&#231;&#227;o, possui diferentes formula&#231;&#245;es em concentra&#231;&#245;es de estrog&#234;nio e progestina, fato que al&#233;m de poder causar diferente efeitos no metabolismo, limita a generaliza&#231;&#227;o dos resultados quanto ao tipo de horm&#244;nio presente na formula&#231;&#227;o dos contraceptivos. Al&#233;m disso, o controle diet&#233;tico n&#227;o foi adequadamente realizado, embora n&#227;o tenham sido selecionadas volunt&#225;rias em controle ou limita&#231;&#227;o diet&#233;tica, n&#227;o se pode anular completamente a influ&#234;ncia da dieta em nossos resultados. Tamb&#233;m &#233; importante salientar que as limita&#231;&#245;es apresentadas n&#227;o inviabilizam os resultados deste estudo, ao contr&#225;rio, adicionam dados que facilitam o entendimento das altera&#231;&#245;es no perfil lip&#237;dico de mulheres em idade reprodutiva e que utilizam COC.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Em s&#237;ntese, os achados deste estudo indicam que mulheres que utilizam COC apresentam significativo aumento dos valores plasm&#225;ticos da LDL-oxidada, assim como, maiores concentra&#231;&#245;es das subfra&#231;&#245;es pequenas e densas da LDL-colesterol, identificadas pela raz&#227;o TG/HDL-colesterol. Tamb&#233;m identificamos correla&#231;&#227;o moderada e positiva da LDL-oxidada com vari&#225;veis aterog&#234;nicas do perfil lip&#237;dico, podendo sugerir maior agress&#227;o vascular e, consequentemente, maior risco cardiovascular nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Finalmente, tamb&#233;m podemos sugerir maior estresse oxidativo, representado indiretamente pela maior concentra&#231;&#227;o da LDL-oxidada nessas mulheres.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este estudo &#233; parte da disserta&#231;&#227;o de mestrado de Alan Carlos Nery dos Santos pela Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica - EBMSP, Salvador.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ci&#234;ncia de Salvador sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 3.39012011. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
