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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.8" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">xm7z5nQgmMjDjwhzMZNCLdt</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2018001700738</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20180215</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Role of miRNAs on the Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Debora Cristina Pereira da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carneiro</surname>
            <given-names>Felipe Demani</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Kelly Costa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes-Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Caroline</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Niter&#243;i</city>
          <state>RJ</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Nova Friburgo</city>
          <state>RJ</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Nova Friburgo, RJ - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Caroline Fernandes dos Santos Bottino,</bold> Rua Dr Silvio Henrique Braune, 22. Postal Code 28625-650, Centro, Nova Friburgo, RJ - Brazil. E-mail: <email>cf_santos@id.uff.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Fernandes-Santos C; acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation of the data, writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual contente: Silva DCP, Carneiro FD, Almeida KC, Fernandes-Santos, C.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>111</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>738</fpage>
      <lpage>746</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>MiRNA (or microRNA) is a subclass of non-coding RNAs that is responsible for post-transcriptional gene regulation. It has approximately 22 nucleotides and regulates gene expression in plants and animals at the post-transcriptional level, by the cleavage of a target mRNA or by suppression of its translation. Although many of the processes and mechanisms have not yet been fully elucidated, there is a strong association between miRNA expression and several diseases. It is known that miRNAs are expressed in the cardiovascular system, but their role in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) has not been clearly established. In this non-systematic review of the literature, we first present the definition of miRNAs and their action at the cellular level. Afterward, we discuss the role of miRNAs as circulating biomarkers of CVDs, and then their role in cardiac remodeling and atherosclerosis. Despite the complexity and challenges, it is crucial to identify deregulated miRNAs in CVDs, as it allows a better understanding of underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms and helps in the development of more accurate diagnostic and prognostic circulating biomarkers, and new therapeutic strategies for different stages of CVDs.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/diagnosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/genetics</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarkers/metabolism</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiac, Remodeling/genetics</kwd>
        <kwd>Atherosclerosis</kwd>
        <kwd>MicroRNAs</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Scientific research has been done in attempts to explain the pathophysiology of several diseases for the development of new therapies. In this regard, miRNA (or microRNA) has drawn attention of scientific community as a potential therapeutic target. Since their discovery in 1993,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> several miRNAs related to biologic processes for their gene-regulatory roles have been cataloged. However, many miRNAs remain to be discovered, which makes them one of the largest classes of gene regulators. To give an idea of the importance of miRNAs, these molecules regulate approximately one third of all gene expression in mammals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Although many studies have successfully established an association between miRNA expression patterns and several diseases, many mechanisms and processes involved have not been fully elucidated. In diabetes mellitus, for example, results of experimental studies have indicated that specific miRNAs present in pancreatic islets may play a regulatory role in insulin secretion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> MiRNA expression may also be visualized in different types of tumors, acting either as tumor suppressors or exerting an opposite role with deleterious effects.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Although it is currently known that miRNAs are expressed in the cardiovascular system, their role on the development of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) still need to be better understood.</p>
      <p>In light of this, we conducted a systematic review aimed at summarizing and discussing the findings of the main studies investigating the relationship between miRNAs and CVD. We searched for articles published in the PubMed database (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed">www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed</ext-link>). Original articles written in English, involving humans or animals, were selected using the following MeSH terms - microRNA AND Cardiovascular Diseases, miRNA AND Cardiovascular Diseases.</p>
      <p>In this review, we first describe the definition of miRNAs and their actions at the cellular level. Subsequently, we discuss the role of miRNAs as circulating biomarkers, and their role in cardiac remodeling and atherosclerosis.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>MiRNA biology</title>
        <p>For many years, it was believed that non-coding regions of the genome were &#8220;junk&#8221;, as they did not carry information for protein synthesis. Currently, it is known that most of the eukaryotic transcriptome is composed by noncoding RNAs, which are classified as functional and regulators. Among functional RNAs, there are transfer RNA (tRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA); major classes of RNAs regulators are miRNAs, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), piwiRNAs (piRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Among this wide variety of noncoding RNA classes, much attention has been drawn to miRNAs because of the association between dysregulation of these molecules and development of phenotypic and pathological changes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> MiRNAs are defined as single-stranded, small noncoding RNA molecules containing about 22 nucleotides (nt). They function in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in plants and animals by means of cleavage of the target messenger RNA (mRNA) or by suppression of mRNA translation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> The first miRNA, lin-4, was described in 1993 by the group of Rosalind Lee as a miRNA involved in the larval development of <italic>Caenorhabditis</italic>
					<italic>elegans</italic> (<italic>C. elegans</italic>). Lin-4 negatively regulates the level of LIN-14 protein in the first larval stage, decreasing its expression over time.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
				</p>
        <p>MiRNA biogenesis starts with the synthesis of a long primary transcript, known as pri-miRNA (~110pb) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Pri-miRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase II or III;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> they contain a hairpin structure, essential for its recognition by miRNA processing enzymes. Pri-miRNA is processed into pre-miRNA (~70pb) by the nuclear RNaseIII enzyme Drosha<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> which recognizes and cleaves the ends of the hairpin-shaped small RNA structures.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Synthesis of miRNA and its action on messenger RNA (mRNA). Hairpin primary-microRNAs are synthesized in the nucleus, converted into pre-miRNA by Drosha enzyme, and exported from the nucleus into the cytoplasm by the Exportin-5 protein. In the cytoplasm, pre-miRNA is recognized by the enzyme Dicer; RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) binds to a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), generating mature miRNA. Mature miRNA interacts with the target mRNA, leading to either its degradation or its translation.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-05-0738-80215-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Following the nuclear processing, each pre-RNA is exported into the cytoplasm by the Exportin-5 protein.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Pre-miRNA is recognized by the enzyme Dicer, which cleaves the loop region into a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA:~22pb). This process recruits proteins of the Argonaute protein family to form the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> RISC binds to one of the strands of the dsRNA and generates mature miRNA (canonical miR or miR-5p) which is involved in the regulation of a target mRNA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> The other strand (miR* or miR-3p) is either degraded or involved in the generation of another RISC, acting in the regulation of another target mRNA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The perfect matching between miRNA and the three prime untranslated region (3'-UTR) of the target mRNA leads to the cleavage of the mRNA and its transfer to mRNA processing bodies (p-bodies) and subsequent degradation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> On the other hand, a partial matching between miRNA and 3&#8217;-UTR inhibits translation, which is the main mechanism of action of the miRNAs in mammals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Thus, by translation inhibition, miRNA has a direct effect on translation factors and on poly(A) tail functioning.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Although the primary location of miRNAs is cell cytoplasm,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> some studies have confirmed the entry of these molecules into the circulatory system, possibly resulting from cell lysis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Therefore, MiRNAs are also found in the circulatory system and several studies have shown its high stability in the extracellular environment. MiRNA degradation in the extracellular milieu could be prevented by its binding to proteins (e.g. lipoproteins) or its encapsulation into microvesicles and exosomes. Thereby, miRNAs can be reliably detected in plasma samples, and suggested as potential biomarkers of CVDs.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Since miRNAs are small sequences and do not require perfect matching, a unique miRNA can have tens of target mRNA, and a unique mRNA can be the target of multiple miRNAs, producing a broad regulatory power of genetic expression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>MiRNAs as circulating biomarkers</title>
        <p>Circulating levels of miRNAs have been shown to be altered in some CVDs. This fact has aroused interest in using it as a diagnostic and prognostic tool, since circulating miRNAs have high stability and are easily detected. MiRNAs could be used, for example, as biomarkers of heart failure (HF), atrial fibrillation, acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and atherosclerosis, by its detection in blood plasma (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Circulating biomarkers. Some of the serum and plasma miRNAs that could be used as diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers in cardiovascular diseases are here illustrated.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-05-0738-80215-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>It has been well established that the presence of miR-1 in the blood may be helpful in the detection of AMI. However, its long-term use as a biomarker has not been recommended, since it remains circulating in the blood only for a short period. The short half-life of MiR-1 is probably explained by its direct release from cardiac necrotic tissue into the circulation, not encapsulated in exosomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> In case of heart injury, miRNAs would be released into the blood through exosomes or by cell rupture, associated or not with other molecules. These molecules could protect miRNAs from degradation, prolonging its time in circulation. Besides, the increase in blood flow, changes in pH and release of cytokines can also affect the half-life of circulating miRNAs. For example, it was shown that exogenously added mature miR-1 is rapidly degraded both <italic>in vitro</italic> and <italic>in vivo</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> One limitation of the use of circulating miRNA is the lack of normalization of its quantification as compared with tissue miRNA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Despite these limitations, miR-1 is highly sensitive in early identifying AMI.</p>
        <p>Several studies have suggested a higher diagnostic accuracy of miR-499 compared with troponin T for AMI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> MiR-499 has the advantage of being detectable in the blood within the next four hours after the AMI, whereas troponin can be detected only later.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Therefore, miR-499 could enhance the accuracy of troponin T in the early diagnosis of AMI. The HUNT study investigated 179 miRNAs in 212 healthy subjects aiming to predict AMI in these individuals. Several circulating miRNAs were significantly different between individuals who suffered from fatal AMI and those who remained healthy during the follow-up period. Logistic regression analysis revealed that five miRNAs (miR-106a-5p, miR-424-5p, let-7g-5p, miR-144-3p and miR-660-5p) composed the best model for predicting AMI, providing 77% correct classification for both genders.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Jia et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> showed that miR-30d-5p and -125b-5p also have diagnostic value for AMI, in a study on acute coronary syndrome patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> In an animal model of AMI, serum miR-208a was increased at 4 hours and 24 hours after AMI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Several studies have been conducted aiming at evaluating prognostic and/or diagnostic value of miRNAs in heart failure (HF), as well as in HF treatment. There is evidence that miRNAs have an important role in both the initiation and progression of HF. Although brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) are considered the gold standard for HF diagnosis, miRNAs have been exhaustively studied as potential biomarkers. For example, a recent systematic review with meta-analysis showed that miR-423-5p, as associated with atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) would have a potential diagnostic value for HF detection.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> In chronic HF, Cakmak et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> showed that miR-182 has a higher prognostic value for cardiovascular mortality, characterized by unexplained sudden death, decompensated HF or hemodynamically significant arrhythmia, as compared with NT-proBNP and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP) by ROC curve analysis in patients with compensated HF (NYHA II, n = 20) and decompensated HF (NYHA III, n = 22) compared with healthy controls (n = 15).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> A more comprehensive overview of miRNAs involved in acute and chronic HF can be found in a recent review by Vegter et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Studies on atrial fibrillation (AF) patients have shown that patients with stable chronic HF, AF and ejection fraction &lt; 40% show a significant reduction in plasma miR-150 compared with healthy controls.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Harling et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> analyzed the plasma obtained at 24 h before myocardial revascularization to evaluate diagnostic accuracy of miRNA in post-operative AF. The authors showed a predictive accuracy of 78%,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> indicating that miR483-5 is a potential biomarker of post-operative AF. There is evidence that miR-23a and miR-26a could also predict post-operative AF, since their levels are reduced in the postoperative period of patients undergoing coronary bypass artery grafting surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Reduced circulating levels of miR-126 is a potential biomarker of the development, progression and severity of AF and HF, according to a study conducted with patients with AF, HF or both.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Also, Gorem et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> showed reduced expression of miR-150 in both platelets and serum of patients with chronic systolic HF associated with AF, compared with individuals without AF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> reported the synthesis of endothelial cell-derived apoptotic bodies containing high levels of miR-126 in atherosclerotic vascular disease. These molecules triggered the production of the chemokine CXCL12 in recipient vascular cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Circulating miR-212 has been suggested by Jeong et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> as a biomarker of atherosclerosis, as it improves the prediction of atherosclerosis when combined with hemoglobin A1c, HDL and lipoprotein(a). Elevated plasma miR-29a levels were associated with increased carotid intima-media thickness in atherosclerosis patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac remodeling</title>
        <p>Ventricular remodeling is one of the mechanisms involved in the progression of HF and involves cardiomyocyte apoptosis and hypertrophy, interstitial fibrosis caused by collagen deposition, and vascular rarefaction (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). Despite evidence of an important role of miRNAs on pathologic remodeling, many miRNAs involved in this process remain to be identified. Also, there have been conflicting results on the association of miRNAs with diseases.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiac remodeling and miRNAs. Main miRNAs that modulate cardiac hypertrophy and tissue fibrosis during adverse cardiac remodeling in many diseases are here illustrated.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-05-0738-80215-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>MiR-1, -133a, -208a/b and -499 are believed to be specific for cardiac tissue, as they are more abundant in this tissue than in others. These miRNAs are involved in mesodermal precursor differentiation, in transdifferentiation/reprogramming of adult fibroblasts/myofibroblasts into mature cardiomyocytes, and preservation of normal function and survival of cardiomyocytes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> In pathologic conditions, dysregulation of cardiac miRNAs may lead to HF progression, combined with arrhythmia, ischemia, ventricular dilatation, fibrosis and tissue necrosis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiomyocytes</title>
        <p>MiR-1 is one of the most abundant miRNAs, responsible for the control of different aspects of differentiation and proliferation of cardiomyocytes. In animals, miR-1 would be involved in the proliferation and differentiation of cardiac cells during cardiogenesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> However, increased expression of miR-1 can cause arrythmia, as it controls cardiac conductance and automaticity by modulating the expression of proteins involved in intracellular calcium regulation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> MiR-21 is predominantly expressed in cardiac fibroblasts. Its increased expression was shown to indirectly promote cardiac hypertrophy by stimulating Mitogen Activated Protein (MAP) kinases in an animal model of HF,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> although there is evidence that increased expression of miR-1 has an anti-hypertrophic role in isolated cardiomyocytes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Silencing of miR-208 in an animal model of AMI attenuated apoptosis, hypertrophy and fibrosis, promoting improvement in cardiac function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> There is evidence that miR-133 protects cardiomyocytes from hypertrophy in neonatal rats. Mechanisms involved in this process include modulation of intracellular calcium concentrations and reduction of mRNA expression into ANP and myosin heavy chain beta MHC-&#946;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> MiR-223 could suppress hypertrophy by decreasing calcium intracellular concentrations, cardiomyocyte contractility, and phosphorylation of cardiac troponin I (cTNI).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>MiR-124 would be involved in cardiac hypertrophy, since its expression is increased in a model of angiotensin II-induced hypertrophy in primary cultured rat neonatal cardiomyocytes, and inhibition of its expression would suppress angiotensin II-induced hypertrophy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> In mice, induction of miR-499 expression in the heart caused cellular hypertrophy and cardiac dysfunction due to altered expression of contractile proteins - MYH7B and skeletal muscle actin alpha 1 (ACTA1).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fibrosis</title>
        <p>Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) is considered a key molecule in the fibrotic process, as it induces the synthesis of extracellular matrix (ECM). Duisters et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> demonstrated that miR-133 and miR-30 regulate CTGF expression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> CTGF expression is inversely proportional to the expression of these miRNAs in models of cardiac diseases in rodents (genetic model with hyperactivation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, cardiac hypertrophy and HF) and in disease-related left ventricular remodeling in biopsy samples of patients with aortic stenosis undergoing valve replacement surgery. Besides, increased expression of miR-133 and miR-30 reduces CTGF expression, resulting in decreased collagen deposition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> On the other hand, miR-203 may play a pro-fibrogenic role, since induction of its expression in cultured mouse cardiomyocytes increases the synthesis of CTGF, transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-&#946;1) and fibronectin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Mir-29 also seems to play an important role in ECM remodeling in patients with HF. Mir-29 is preferentially expressed in fibroblasts, in areas surrounding infarcted areas. It would be involved in apoptosis, specially at final stages of HF, reducing collagen expression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> In an animal model of infarction, miR-24 expression is reduced, which is correlated with EMC remodeling. MiR-24 expression induced by synthetic precursors inhibits fibrosis, and differentiation and migration of cardiac fibroblasts.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> MiR-98 seems to have a similar mechanism, since induction of its expression in human cardiac fibroblasts inhibits TGF-&#946;1-induced fibrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tissue expression profile based on diseases</title>
        <p>Ikeda et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> performed a broad analysis of miRNA expression in 67 samples of left ventricular myocardium in ischemic cardiomyopathy, dilated cardiomyopathy and aortic stenosis patients. They found distinct microRNA expression profiles according to different diseases; expression of 13 miRNAs was specific to aortic stenosis, and 8 miRNAs specific to both cardiomyopathies, with no overlapping between both groups.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> In dilated cardiomyopathy and aortic stenosis, expression of miR-1, -19a and -19b was reduced and miR-214 expression was increased; this was related to cardiac hypertrophy, with no changes in miRNA-133 and -208 expression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> Nevertheless, Care et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> showed reduced expression of miRNA-133 in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and atrial dilation, whereas Yang et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> reported increased expression of miR-1 in ischemic cardiomyopathy.</p>
        <p>In the study by Lai et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> the association of several miRNAs with HF was investigated in biopsy specimens taken from left ventricular apex during cardiac surgery. Increased expression of miR-1, -21, -23, -29, -130, -195 and -199 was found in myocardium of these patients, whereas miR-30, -133 and -208 expression was unchanged. This was associated with higher mRNA expression for caspase-3, type I and type III collagen and TGF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Atherosclerosis</title>
        <p>Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the artery walls in response to endothelial injury, especially in medium and large sized elastic vessels, muscular arteries and regions with disturbed laminar blood flow. It is considered the main cause of coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, stroke and peripheral vascular disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> Several evidences have shown the involvement of miRNAs in the development of atherosclerosis, in both human and animal models. MiRNAs can be categorized into miRNAs involved in endothelial dysfunction, cholesterol homeostasis, development of atherosclerotic plaque, neoangionesis and plaque instability and rupture, as described in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Atherosclerosis and miRNAs. Dysregulation of the expression of several miRNAs has been found in different stages of atherosclerosis formation. Some of the miRNAs involved in endothelial dysfunction and inflammation, cholesterol homeostasis, plaque development, neoangiogenesis and plaque instability and rupture are here illustrated.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-05-0738-80215-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Endothelium</title>
        <p>In pigs, endothelial cells from regions susceptible to atherosclerosis (aortic arch and abdominal aortic-renal artery bifurcation) showed reduced expression of miR-10a and -10b. MiR-10a inhibits some pro-inflammatory genes in endothelial cells, including vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and E-selectin, as well as the NF-kB pathway.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> In rats, miR-181b regulates endothelial cell activation and vascular inflammatory response to NF-kB in the presence of pro-inflammatory stimuli.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> In human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), miR-126, miR-31 and miR-1703p also regulate vascular inflammation by controlling the expression of cell adhesion molecules - VCAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and E-selectin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cholesterol homeostasis</title>
        <p>MiR-33a and miR-33b regulate SREBP2 and SREPB1 genes, responsible for cholesterol regulation and fatty acid metabolism, in human and mice cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> Inhibition of miR-33a inhibited atherosclerosis in mice.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> Inhibition of miR-122 expression, which accounts for 80% of miRNAs expressed in the liver, significantly decreased cholesterol serum levels in mice and non-human primates.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Plaque development</title>
        <p>MiR-155 is an important regulator of the immune system and seems to be involved in acute inflammatory response. MiR-155 modulates the development of atherosclerotic plaque, lipid uptake and the inflammatory response of monocytes and macrophages that leads to foam cell formation. Among its mechanism of action, this miRNA acts as a regulator of the negative feedback in oxidized LDL-induced inflammatory response in macrophages and inhibits the release of inflammatory cytokines from macrophages, such as interleukin 6 (IL-6) and IL-8 and tumoral necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In peripheral blood monocytes in humans, miR-125a-5p showed an important role in mediating lipid absorption and reducing the secretion of some inflammatory cytokines (IL-2, IL-6, TNF-&#945; and TGF-&#946;) in macrophages.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> Oxidized LDL increased the levels of miR-125a-5p, which regulates oxysterol-binding protein-related protein (ORP)-9, hence decreasing the expression of scavenger receptors (CD68) and LOX-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> Similarly, miR-155 reduced oxidized LDL uptake, decreasing the expression of CD36 and LOX-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Progression of fatty streaks to fibrous cap of an atheroma is mainly caused by proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) to the intima. Proliferation and apoptosis of these cells are regulated by TGF-&#946;, which, in turn, is negatively regulated by miR-26a (i.e., miR-26 inhibition promotes VSMC differentiation) in human serum.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> In addition, both miR-21 and miR-221 also modulate the proliferation of VSMC; miR-221 acts in response to platelet derived growth factor (PDGF). Also, miR-221 negatively regulates p2Kip1, which is critical for induction of cell proliferation mediated by PDGF, whereas c-Kit may be associated with inhibition of VSMC-specific contractile gene transcription by reducing the expression of myocardin, a potent VSMC-specific nuclear coactivator.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Neoangionesis</title>
        <p>During the development of atherosclerotic plaque, activated, cholesterol-containing macrophages are responsible for the release of several cytokines, including those involved in neoangiogenesis. MiRNAs involved in this process include miR-221, -222, -155, -27a, -27b and -210. In HUVEC cells, miR-222/221 affect the expression of c-Kit,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> and miR-222 is involved in vascular remodeling mediated by inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> MiR-155 seems to regulate the expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> In a three-dimensional spheroid model, increased expression of miR-27a/b stimulates endothelial cell sprouting, indicating its pro-angiogenic effect, since they target semaphorin 6A, an angiogenesis inhibitor.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref> Finally, miR-210 expression in HUVEC progressively increases in hypoxia and its increased expression in normoxia leads to formation of capillary-like structures by VEGF on Matrigel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Plaque instability and rupture</title>
        <p>Instability and rupture of the fibrous capsule of an atherosclerotic plaque depend on the balance between synthesis and degradation of the ECM by fibroblasts. Plaque rupture is the main mechanism involved in the development of stroke and AMI, and sudden death. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) act in collagen degradation, especially MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3 and MMP-9 released by activated macrophages.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>
				</p>
        <p>MMP-9 is regulated by miR-133a/b, which can also modulate VSMC apoptosis and proliferation in animal models.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref> Cipollone et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref> investigated miRNA expression and its correlation with plaque instability in internal carotid artery in humans. Two independent cohorts of atherosclerotic plaques of patients who underwent carotid endarterectomy for extracranial high-grade (&gt;70%) internal carotid artery were collected in two Italian hospitals (n = 15 and n = 38). The plaques were subdivided into 2 groups (symptomatic and asymptomatic plaques) according to the presence or absence of stroke. The authors observed that, among the 41 miRNAs examined, there was increased expression of 5 miRNAs (miNA-100, miRNA-127, miRNA-145, miRNA-133a, and miRNA-133b) in symptomatic compared with asymptomatic plaques.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref> It is worth mentioning that differences in the expression of miRNAs between stable and unstable plaques were not related to differences in conventional risk factors or concomitant therapies, since these variables were well balanced between the two groups. Incubation of HUVECs with miR-133 downregulated the expression of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Despite all difficulties and challenges, it is crucial to identify dysregulated miRNAs, as it allows a better understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in CVDs. Studies on tissue and circulating miRNAs could help in the development of more accurate diagnostic and prognostic circulating markers, as well as new therapeutic strategies for different stages of CVDs.</p>
      <p>Despite advances in this field, there are still some limitations, for example, in using circulating miRNAs as biomarkers. Molecular processes that control the packing and release of extracellular miRNAs have not been fully elucidated, including mechanisms mediated or not by vesicles. Besides, detection of circulating miRNAs requires high technical skills, which could limit their use in routine laboratory use. Another limiting factor is the omnipresence of miRNAs in the circulation, requiring further investigations to identify its tissue origin.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by FAPERJ.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Debora Cristina Pereira da Silva, from Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Papel dos miRNAs na Fisiopatologia das Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Debora Cristina Pereira da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carneiro</surname>
            <given-names>Felipe Demani</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Kelly Costa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes-Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Caroline</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Nova Friburgo, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Caroline Fernandes dos Santos Bottino,</bold> Rua Dr Silvio Henrique Braune, 22. CEP 28625-650, Centro, Nova Friburgo, RJ - Brasil. E-mail: <email>cf_santos@id.uff.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Fernandes-Santos C; obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados, reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Silva DCP, Carneiro FD, Almeida KC, Fernandes-Santos, C.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>O miRNA (ou microRNA) constitui uma subclasse de RNAs n&#227;o codificantes respons&#225;veis pela regula&#231;&#227;o g&#234;nica p&#243;s-transcricional. Ele possui aproximadamente 22 nucleot&#237;deos e regula a express&#227;o g&#234;nica em plantas e animais ao n&#237;vel p&#243;s-transcricional, pela clivagem de um mRNA alvo ou da repress&#227;o de sua tradu&#231;&#227;o. Embora muitos processos e mecanismos ainda n&#227;o estejam completamente elucidados, existe uma forte associa&#231;&#227;o entre a express&#227;o de miRNAs e diversas doen&#231;as que acometem o organismo. Os miRNAs s&#227;o expressos no sistema cardiovascular, contudo o seu papel no desenvolvimento das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCVs) ainda n&#227;o est&#225; totalmente elucidado. Diante disso, realizou-se uma revis&#227;o n&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura a fim de se discutir a rela&#231;&#227;o entre os miRNAs e as DCVs. Nesta revis&#227;o, primeiramente &#233; discutido o que s&#227;o os miRNAs e a sua a&#231;&#227;o a n&#237;vel celular. Ap&#243;s, &#233; discutido o papel dos miRNAs como biomarcadores circulantes de DCVs e ent&#227;o o seu papel no remodelamento card&#237;aco e na aterosclerose. Apesar da complexidade e dos desafios, a identifica&#231;&#227;o dos miRNAs desregulados nas DCVs &#233; crucial, uma vez que possibilita uma melhor compress&#227;o dos mecanismos celulares e moleculares envolvidos, assim como auxilia o desenvolvimento de marcadores circulantes de diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico mais acurados e de novas estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas para os diferentes est&#225;gios da DCV.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/diagn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/gen&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarcadores/metabolismo</kwd>
        <kwd>Remodelamento Card&#237;aco</kwd>
        <kwd>Aterosclerose</kwd>
        <kwd>Micro RNAs</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A pesquisa cient&#237;fica tem buscado desvendar a fisiopatologia de diversas doen&#231;as para o desenvolvimento de novos caminhos terap&#234;uticos. Nesse &#226;mbito, o miRNA (ou microRNA) vem ganhando a aten&#231;&#227;o da comunidade cient&#237;fica como um poss&#237;vel alvo terap&#234;utico. Desde que foram descobertos em 1993,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> diversos miRNAs relacionados a processos biol&#243;gicos como reguladores g&#234;nicos j&#225; foram catalogados. Estima-se que ainda haja diversos miRNAs desconhecidos, o que os torna uma das maiores classes de reguladores g&#234;nicos. Para dimensionar sua import&#226;ncia, estima-se que os miRNAs regulem cerca de 1/3 da express&#227;o g&#234;nica em mam&#237;feros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Diversas pesquisas t&#234;m estabelecido uma rela&#231;&#227;o do padr&#227;o de express&#227;o de miRNAs com algumas doen&#231;as, embora muitos dos processos e mecanismos ainda n&#227;o estejam completamente elucidados. No diabetes, por exemplo, estudos experimentais apontam a presen&#231;a de miRNAs espec&#237;ficos nas ilhotas pancre&#225;ticas e sugerem que esses exer&#231;am papel importante no controle da secre&#231;&#227;o da insulina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> A express&#227;o de miRNAs tamb&#233;m pode ser observada em diferentes tipos de tumores; em alguns casos eles atuam como supressores e em outros exercem papel oposto e com efeitos delet&#233;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> J&#225; se sabe hoje que os miRNAs s&#227;o expressos no sistema cardiovascular; entretanto, este conhecimento ainda &#233; insuficiente para um melhor entendimento sobre o seu papel no desenvolvimento das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCVs).</p>
        <p>Diante do exposto, realizou-se uma revis&#227;o n&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura a fim de se organizar e discutir os principais estudos que investigam a rela&#231;&#227;o dos miRNAs com a doen&#231;a cardiovascular. A base de dados consultada foi o PubMed (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed). Foram selecionados artigos originais realizados com humanos ou animais, redigidos na l&#237;ngua inglesa e utilizou-se como palavras-chave os descritores MeSH: microRNA AND Cardiovascular Diseases, miRNA AND Cardiovascular Diseases. Na presente revis&#227;o da literatura, primeiro apresentamos o que s&#227;o os miRNAs e a sua a&#231;&#227;o a n&#237;vel celular. Ap&#243;s, &#233; discutido o papel dos miRNAs como biomarcadores circulantes e ent&#227;o o seu papel no remodelamento card&#237;aco e na aterosclerose.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Biologia dos miRNAs</title>
          <p>Durante anos acreditava-se que as regi&#245;es n&#227;o-codificantes do genoma eram &#8220;lixo gen&#233;tico&#8221;, pois n&#227;o possu&#237;am informa&#231;&#227;o para a s&#237;ntese de prote&#237;nas. Atualmente, sabe-se que a maior por&#231;&#227;o do transcriptoma produzido pelo genoma de eucariotos &#233; composta por RNAs n&#227;o-codificantes, que podem ser classificados em funcionais e reguladores. Entre os RNAs funcionais destacam-se o RNA transportador (tRNA), o RNA ribossomal (rRNA), o pequeno RNA nuclear (snRNA) e o pequeno RNA nucleolar (snoRNA). Dentre os RNAs reguladores destacam-se o miRNA, o pequeno RNA de interfer&#234;ncia (siRNA), o piwiRNA (piRNA) e o longo RNA n&#227;o-codificador (lncRNA).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Dessa ampla variedade de classes de RNAs n&#227;o-codificantes, os miRNAs se tornaram alvo de grande interesse devido &#224; associa&#231;&#227;o observada entre a sua desregula&#231;&#227;o e o surgimento de altera&#231;&#245;es fenot&#237;picas e patol&#243;gicas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Os miRNAs s&#227;o definidos como pequenas mol&#233;culas end&#243;genas de &#225;cido ribonucleico (RNA) em cadeia simples, n&#227;o codificantes, com aproximadamente 22 nucleot&#237;deos (nt). Atuam como reguladores da express&#227;o g&#234;nica em plantas e animais ao n&#237;vel p&#243;s-transcricional, pela clivagem de um RNA mensageiro (RNAm) alvo ou da repress&#227;o de sua tradu&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O primeiro miRNA (lin-4) foi descrito em 1993 pelo grupo de Rosalind Lee, estando ele associado &#224; regula&#231;&#227;o do desenvolvimento larval de <italic>Caenorhabditis elegans</italic> (<italic>C. elegans</italic>). Lin-4 regulava negativamente o n&#237;vel da prote&#237;na LIN-14 (da primeira fase larvar), diminuindo sua express&#227;o ao longo do tempo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A biog&#234;nese de um miRNA come&#231;a com a s&#237;ntese de um longo transcrito prim&#225;rio conhecido como pri-miRNA (~110pb) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>). Os pri-miRNAs s&#227;o transcritos pelas RNAs polimerase II ou III<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> e possuem uma estrutura de <italic>hairpin</italic> (&#8220;grampo de cabelo&#8221;), que &#233; essencial para o reconhecimento das enzimas de processamento de miRNAs. No n&#250;cleo, o pri-miRNA &#233; processado em pr&#233;-miRNA (~70pb) pela a&#231;&#227;o da enzima Drosha<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> que reconhece e cliva as extremidades de pequenas estruturas de RNA em forma de <italic>hairpin</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f5">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>S&#237;ntese do miRNA e sua a&#231;&#227;o sobre o RNA mensageiro. O pri-miRNA em forma de grampo &#233; sintetizado no n&#250;cleo e convertido a pre-miRNA pela a&#231;&#227;o da enzima Drosha, sendo ent&#227;o exportado do n&#250;cleo pela Exportina 5. No citoplasma, o pre-miRNA sofre a&#231;&#227;o da enzima DICER e a uni&#227;o do complexo de silenciamento induzido por RNA (RISC) &#224; dupla fita de RNA (dsRNA) gera o miRNA maduro. O miRNA maduro se anela ao RNAm alvo, promovendo a sua degrada&#231;&#227;o ou inibindo a sua tradu&#231;&#227;o.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-05-0738-80215-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Ap&#243;s o processamento nuclear, cada pr&#233;-miRNA &#233; exportado para o citoplasma atrav&#233;s da prote&#237;na Exportina 5.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> O pr&#233;-miRNA &#233; reconhecido pela enzima Dicer que cliva a regi&#227;o do <italic>loop</italic>, resultando em uma mol&#233;cula de dupla fita de RNA (dsRNA; ~22pb). Esse processo recruta prote&#237;nas da fam&#237;lia argonauta (Ago) para formar o complexo de silenciamento induzido por RNA (RISC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> O RISC se liga a uma das duas fitas do dsRNA para gerar o miRNA maduro (miR can&#244;nico ou miR-5p) que atua na regula&#231;&#227;o de um RNAm alvo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> A outra fita (miR* ou miR-3p) &#233; degradada ou capaz de formar outro RISC e realizar a regula&#231;&#227;o de outro RNAm alvo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O pareamento perfeito entre o miRNA e a regi&#227;o 3' UTR do RNAm alvo promove a clivagem do RNAm e o seu posterior encaminhamento para os <italic>p-bodies</italic> (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>mRNA processing bodies</italic>) para a sua consequente degrada&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Por outro lado, o pareamento parcial entre o miRNA e a regi&#227;o 3&#8217; UTR do mRNA promove inibi&#231;&#227;o da tradu&#231;&#227;o, o principal mecanismo de atua&#231;&#227;o dos miRNAs em mam&#237;feros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Por meio desse pareamento, o miRNA tem a capacidade de inibir a tradu&#231;&#227;o, interferindo diretamente com os fatores de inicia&#231;&#227;o da tradu&#231;&#227;o ou perturbando a fun&#231;&#227;o da cauda poli-A.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> A localiza&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria dos miRNAs &#233; o citoplasma celular,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> embora alguns estudos confirmem o ingresso dessas mol&#233;culas no sistema circulat&#243;rio, possivelmente devido ao processo de lise celular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Assim, os miRNAs tamb&#233;m est&#227;o presentes na circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea e diversos estudos mostram sua alta estabilidade no meio extracelular. A prote&#231;&#227;o dos miRNAs &#224; degrada&#231;&#227;o no meio extracelular seria devido &#224; sua liga&#231;&#227;o a prote&#237;nas (p. ex., lipoprote&#237;nas) ou pelo seu encapsulamento em microves&#237;culas e exossomas. Assim, os miRNAs podem ser detectados de forma confi&#225;vel em amostras plasm&#225;ticas, sendo apontados como potenciais biomarcadores no diagn&#243;stico das DCVs.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> O fato dos miRNAs serem sequ&#234;ncias pequenas e agirem sem a necessidade de pareamento completo faz com que um &#250;nico miRNA possa ter como alvo dezenas de RNAm, assim como um &#250;nico RNAm pode ser alvo de m&#250;ltiplos miRNAs, gerando assim um grande poder regulat&#243;rio da express&#227;o gen&#233;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>miRNAs como biomarcadores circulantes</title>
          <p>Estudos apontam que o n&#237;vel circulante de miRNAs est&#225; alterado em algumas DCVs, despertando assim o interesse em seu uso como ferramenta de diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico e progn&#243;stico, uma vez que os miRNAs possuem alta estabilidade na corrente sangu&#237;nea e s&#227;o de f&#225;cil detec&#231;&#227;o. Os miRNAs poderiam ser utilizados, por exemplo, como biomarcadores da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC), fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) e aterosclerose, por meio de sua detec&#231;&#227;o no plasma sangu&#237;neo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f6">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Biomarcadores circulantes. Aqui s&#227;o ilustrados alguns dos miRNAs encontrados no soro ou plasma sangu&#237;neo que poderiam ser utilizados como biomarcadores de diagn&#243;stico ou progn&#243;stico de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-05-0738-80215-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>J&#225; est&#225; bem estabelecido que a presen&#231;a do miR-1 no sangue auxilia a identifica&#231;&#227;o do IAM, mas sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o como biomarcador a longo-prazo n&#227;o &#233; recomendada, devido ao curto tempo no qual ele permanece na circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea. Sua curta meia-vida resulta provavelmente de sua libera&#231;&#227;o direta no sangue a partir do tecido card&#237;aco necr&#243;tico de forma n&#227;o encapsulada pelo exossoma.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Quando h&#225; les&#227;o card&#237;aca, miRNAs seriam liberados no sangue por meio de exossomos ou pela ruptura celular, podendo estar associados ou n&#227;o a outras mol&#233;culas. Estas mol&#233;culas poderiam proteger os miRNAs contra a degrada&#231;&#227;o, prolongando o seu tempo de perman&#234;ncia na circula&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, o aumento do fluxo sangu&#237;neo, altera&#231;&#227;o do pH e a libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas s&#227;o fatores que tamb&#233;m influenciam a meia-vida dos miRNAs circulantes. Por exemplo, foi verificado que o miR-1 maduro exogenamente adicionado ao soro &#233; rapidamente degradado tanto<italic>in vitro</italic> quanto<italic>in vivo.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Uma limita&#231;&#227;o ao uso de miRNA circulantes &#233; a falta de normaliza&#231;&#227;o de sua quantifica&#231;&#227;o, quando comparado ao miRNA tecidual.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Contudo, apesar dessas limita&#231;&#245;es, o miR-1 apresenta alta sensibilidade na identifica&#231;&#227;o do IAM no momento inicial desse evento adverso.</p>
          <p>Diversos estudos relatam que o miR-499 possui acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica superior a troponina T para o IAM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> A vantagem do miR-499 &#233; que ele pode ser detectado no sangue em menos de quatro horas ap&#243;s o IAM, enquanto a troponina s&#243; pode ser detectada mais tardiamente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Assim, miR-499 poderia aumentar a acur&#225;cia da troponina T no diagn&#243;stico precoce do IAM. O estudo HUNT investigou 179 miRNAs em 212 indiv&#237;duos sadios com o objetivo de predizer IAM. Diversos miRNAs circulantes diferiram significativamente durante o per&#237;odo de acompanhamento entre indiv&#237;duos que posteriormente sofreram IAM e aqueles que permaneceram saud&#225;veis. Ap&#243;s an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica, foi observado que um conjunto de 5 miRNAs (miR-106a-5p, -424-5p, miR-144-3p, miR-660-5p e let-7g-5p) melhor prediziam o IAM, com 77% de acerto para ambos os g&#234;neros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Jia et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> mostraram que os miR-30d-5p e -125b-5p tamb&#233;m possuem valor diagn&#243;stico para o IAM, quando avaliados em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Em modelo animal de IAM cir&#250;rgico, o miR-208a apresentou n&#237;veis circulantes elevados 4 horas e 24 horas ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o do infarto.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Diversos estudos j&#225; foram realizados com o foco em se avaliar o valor progn&#243;stico e/ou diagn&#243;stico dos miRNAs na IC, assim como no tratamento da IC. Existem evid&#234;ncias de que os miRNAs desempenham um papel tanto no surgimento quanto na progress&#227;o da IC. Apesar do pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral (BNP) e do pr&#243;-pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral N-terminal (NT-proBNP) serem utilizados atualmente como padr&#227;o ouro no diagn&#243;stico da IC, os miRNAs t&#234;m sido estudados exaustivamente como potenciais biomarcadores. Como exemplo, uma recente revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica com meta-an&#225;lise mostrou que o miR-423-5p, associado ao pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico atrial (ANP), teria um potencial valor diagn&#243;stico para a detec&#231;&#227;o da IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Na IC cr&#244;nica, Cakmak et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> mostraram que o miR-182 teria maior valor progn&#243;stico para mortalidade cardiovascular, caracterizada pela morte s&#250;bita inexplic&#225;vel, IC descompensada ou arritmia hemodinamicamente significativa, comparado ao NT-proBNP e a prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR) de alta sensibilidade pela an&#225;lise da curva ROC em pacientes com IC compensado (NYHA II, n = 20) e descompensados (NYHA III, n = 22), comparado a controles saud&#225;veis (n = 15).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Um panorama mais completo dos miRNAs envolvidos na IC aguda e cr&#244;nica pode ser visto na revis&#227;o recentemente publicada de Vegter e colaboradores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Considerando os estudos em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA), j&#225; foi observado que pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica est&#225;vel com FA e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o &lt; 40% apresentam uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa dos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de miR-150 comparados aos seus controles saud&#225;veis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Harling et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> estudaram o plasma coletado no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio 24 horas antes de cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, para avaliar a precis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica do miRNA na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria. Nesta an&#225;lise, os autores mostraram o miR483-5p como um potencial biomarcador da FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria, com precis&#227;o preditiva global de 78%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Os miR-23a e -26a tamb&#233;m teriam a capacidade de prever a FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria, uma vez que seus n&#237;veis est&#227;o reduzidos no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de pacientes submetidos &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria arterial de <italic>by-pass</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> O n&#237;vel circulante reduzido do miR-126 serviria como candidato a biomarcador do desenvolvimento, progress&#227;o e severidade da FA e da IC, de acordo com estudo realizado em pacientes com FA, IC ou associa&#231;&#227;o de ambos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Por fim, Gorem et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> mostraram express&#227;o reduzida do miR-150 nas plaquetas de pacientes com IC sist&#243;lica cr&#244;nica associada &#224; FA, comparado aos indiv&#237;duos sem FA, perfil tamb&#233;m encontrado no soro desses pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Na doen&#231;a vascular ateroscler&#243;tica, j&#225; foi observada a produ&#231;&#227;o de corpos apopt&#243;ticos derivados de c&#233;lulas endoteliais, os quais continham grande quantidade de miR-126 em seu interior e que eram, por sua vez, capazes de desencadear a produ&#231;&#227;o de quimiocina CXCL12 nas c&#233;lulas vasculares receptoras.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> O miR-212 circulante &#233; sugerido por Jeong et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> como um biomarcador da aterosclerose, visto que ele aumenta a predi&#231;&#227;o da aterosclerose quando combinado a hemoglobina A1c, HDL e lipoprote&#237;na (a). Em pacientes com aterosclerose, foi visto uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre o espessamento das t&#250;nicas intima-m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida com n&#237;veis elevados do miR-29a circulante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Remodelamento card&#237;aco</title>
          <p>O remodelamento ventricular &#233; um dos mecanismos envolvidos na progress&#227;o da IC e envolve a apoptose e hipertrofia de cardiomi&#243;citos, fibrose intersticial decorrente da deposi&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno, e a rarefa&#231;&#227;o vascular (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>). Existem evid&#234;ncias de que os miRNAs desempenham um papel importante nesse remodelamento patol&#243;gico, contudo ainda n&#227;o se conhece todos os miRNAs envolvidos e alguns estudos apresentam diverg&#234;ncias em seus resultados dependendo da doen&#231;a em foco.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f7">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Remodelamento card&#237;aco e miRNAs. Principais miRNAs que modulam a hipertrofia card&#237;aca e a fibrose tecidual durante o remodelamento card&#237;aco adverso em diversas condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-05-0738-80215-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Uma vez que os miR-1, -133a, -208a/b e -499 s&#227;o mais abundantes no cora&#231;&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o a outros tecidos, acredita-se que eles sejam espec&#237;ficos desse tecido. Eles est&#227;o envolvidos na diferencia&#231;&#227;o dos precursores mesod&#233;rmicos e na transdiferencia&#231;&#227;o/reprograma&#231;&#227;o dos fibroblastos/miofibroblastos adultos em cardiomi&#243;citos maduros, assim como mant&#234;m a funcionalidade e a sobreviv&#234;ncia dos cardiomi&#243;citos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Em condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas, a desregula&#231;&#227;o dos miRNAs card&#237;acos pode levar &#224; progress&#227;o da IC, associada a arritmia, hip&#243;xia, isquemia, dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular, fibrose e necrose tecidual.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiomi&#243;citos</title>
          <p>O miR-1 &#233; um dos mais abundantes miRNAs no tecido mioc&#225;rdico, respons&#225;vel pelo controle de diferentes aspectos do processo de diferencia&#231;&#227;o e prolifera&#231;&#227;o dos cardiomi&#243;citos. Em animais, o miR-1 estaria envolvido na prolifera&#231;&#227;o e diferencia&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas card&#237;acas durante a cardiog&#234;nese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Por outro lado, o aumento da express&#227;o do miR-1 leva &#224; arritmia, visto que ele controla a condut&#226;ncia card&#237;aca e automaticidade pela modula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas envolvidas no manuseio do c&#225;lcio intracelular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> O miR-21 &#233; expresso predominantemente em fibroblastos card&#237;acos; o aumento de sua express&#227;o promoveu indiretamente a hipertrofia card&#237;aca pela estimula&#231;&#227;o da MAP (<italic>Mitogen Activated Protein</italic>) quinase dos fibroblastos em modelo animal de IC,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> embora haja evid&#234;ncias de que o aumento de sua express&#227;o possui papel anti-hipertr&#243;fico em cardiomi&#243;citos isolados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O silenciamento do miR-208 em modelo animal de IAM reduz a apoptose e atenua a hipertrofia e a fibrose card&#237;aca, refletindo em melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> Existem evid&#234;ncias de que o miR-133a protege os cardiomi&#243;citos neonatais de rato da hipertrofia. Entre os mecanismos envolvidos est&#227;o a modula&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio intracelular e redu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o do RNA para o ANP e para a miosina de cadeia pesada do tipo beta (&#946;-MHC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> O miR-223 tamb&#233;m &#233; capaz de reduzir a concentra&#231;&#227;o intracelular de c&#225;lcio, a contratilidade dos cardiomi&#243;citos, e a fosforila&#231;&#227;o da troponina I (cTNI), mecanismos pelos quais este miRNA suprimiria a hipertrofia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O miR-124 estaria envolvido com a hipertrofia card&#237;aca, uma vez que sua express&#227;o est&#225; aumentada em modelo de hipertrofia induzida pela angiotensina II em cardiomi&#243;citos de ratos neonatais em cultura e a inibi&#231;&#227;o de sua express&#227;o suprime a hipertrofia induzida por angiotensina II.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> Em camundongos, a indu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o do miR-499 especificamente no cora&#231;&#227;o leva &#224; hipertrofia celular e disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca devido &#224; altera&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas contr&#225;teis - MYH7B e actina alfa 1 do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico (ACTA1).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fibrose</title>
          <p>O fator de crescimento do tecido conjuntivo (CTGF) &#233; uma mol&#233;cula considerada chave no processo fibr&#243;tico uma vez que ele induz a s&#237;ntese da matriz extracelular (MEC). Duisters et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> mostraram que os miR-133 e miR-30 regulam a express&#227;o do CTGF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> A express&#227;o de CTGF &#233; inversamente proporcional &#224; express&#227;o desses miRNAs em modelos de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca em roedores (modelo gen&#233;tico com hiperativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, hipertrofia card&#237;aca e IC) e no remodelamento patol&#243;gico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em humanos com estenose a&#243;rtica isolada submetidos &#224; cirurgia de substitui&#231;&#227;o valvar, cujas amostras foram coletadas por bi&#243;psia. Al&#233;m disso, o aumento da express&#227;o dos miR-133 e miR-30 reduz a express&#227;o de CTGF, o que resulta em menor deposi&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Por outro lado, o miR-203 pode atuar com um fator fibrog&#234;nico, visto que a indu&#231;&#227;o de sua express&#227;o em cardiomi&#243;citos de camundongo em cultura aumenta a produ&#231;&#227;o de CTGF, fator de transforma&#231;&#227;o do crescimento beta 1 (TGF-&#946;1) e fibronectina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O miR-29 tamb&#233;m parece desempenhar um papel importante no remodelamento da MEC em humanos com IC. Ele &#233; expresso preferencialmente em fibroblastos, sendo encontrado no entorno de &#225;reas infartadas. Ele estaria envolvido no processo de apoptose, principalmente no est&#225;gio final da IC, levando a redu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de col&#225;geno.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> Em modelo animal de infarto, h&#225; redu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o do miR-24 e esse se correlaciona com o remodelamento da MEC. Quando a express&#227;o do miR-24 &#233; induzida por precursores sint&#233;ticos, h&#225; redu&#231;&#227;o da fibrose, bem como da diferencia&#231;&#227;o e migra&#231;&#227;o de fibroblastos card&#237;acos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> O miR-98 atua de forma semelhante, visto que a indu&#231;&#227;o de sua express&#227;o em fibroblastos card&#237;acos humanos em cultura inibe a fibrose induzida pelo TGF-&#946;1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Perfil de express&#227;o tecidual com base na doen&#231;a</title>
          <p>Ikeda et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> realizaram uma an&#225;lise ampla da express&#227;o de miRNAs de 67 amostras de mioc&#225;rdio do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo de pacientes com cardiomiopatia isqu&#234;mica, cardiomiopatia dilatada e estenose a&#243;rtica. Eles detectaram express&#227;o diferencial dependendo da condi&#231;&#227;o, onde 13 miRNAs foram espec&#237;ficos para a estenose a&#243;rtica e 8 para as cardiomiopatias, sem sobreposi&#231;&#227;o entre estes dois grupos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> Houve redu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o dos miR-1, -19a e -19b na cardiomiopatia dilatada e na estenose a&#243;rtica e aumento da express&#227;o do miR-214, o qual est&#225; relacionado &#224; hipertrofia card&#237;aca, mas sem altera&#231;&#227;o na express&#227;o dos miRNAs-133 e -208.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> Entretanto, Care et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> mostraram express&#227;o reduzida do miR-133 na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica e na dilata&#231;&#227;o atrial, e Yang et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> encontraram aumento da express&#227;o do miR-1 na cardiomiopatia isqu&#234;mica.</p>
          <p>Em estudo conduzido por Lai et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> a associa&#231;&#227;o de diversos miRNAs com a IC foi investigada em amostras do &#225;pice do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo obtidas por bi&#243;psia durante cirurgia card&#237;aca. O mioc&#225;rdio desses pacientes apresentou aumento da express&#227;o dos miR-1, -21, -23, -29, -130, -195 e -199, enquanto a express&#227;o dos miR-30, -133 e -208 manteve-se inalterada. Esse perfil estava associado a maior express&#227;o do mRNA para a caspase 3, col&#225;genos tipo I e tipo III e TGF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Aterosclerose</title>
          <p>A aterosclerose &#233; uma doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria cr&#244;nica da parede arterial, que ocorre em resposta &#224; les&#227;o endotelial, principalmente em art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas de m&#233;dio e grande calibre, art&#233;rias musculares e regi&#245;es onde h&#225; um dist&#250;rbio do fluxo sangu&#237;neo laminar. Ela &#233; considerada a principal respons&#225;vel pela doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, doen&#231;a arterial carot&#237;dea, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico e doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> Existem diversas evid&#234;ncias de que os miRNAs est&#227;o envolvidos no desenvolvimento da aterosclerose, tanto em modelos experimentais quanto em humanos. Podemos separ&#225;-los em miRNAs envolvidos na disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, homeostase do colesterol, desenvolvimento da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, neoangiog&#234;nese e instabilidade e ruptura da placa, conforme ilustrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f8">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Aterosclerose e miRNAs. Desregula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de diversos miRNAs j&#225; foi encontrada nas diferentes etapas do desenvolvimento da aterosclerose. Aqui s&#227;o ilustrados alguns miRNAs envolvidos na disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e inflama&#231;&#227;o, homeostase do colesterol, desenvolvimento da placa, neoangiog&#234;nese e instabilidade e ruptura da placa.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-05-0738-80215-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Endot&#233;lio</title>
          <p>Em su&#237;nos, c&#233;lulas endoteliais obtidas de regi&#245;es arteriais suscept&#237;veis a aterosclerose (arco da aorta e bifurca&#231;&#227;o aorta abdominal-art&#233;ria renal) apresentaram express&#227;o reduzida dos miR-10a e -10b. O miR-10a inibe alguns genes pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio nas c&#233;lulas endoteliais, incluindo a mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o celular vascular 1 (VCAM-1) e a E-selectina, assim como a via do NF-kB.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> Em ratos, o miR-181b regula a ativa&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas endoteliais e a resposta inflamat&#243;ria vascular ao NF-kB diante de est&#237;mulos pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> Em c&#233;lulas endoteliais obtidas da veia umbilical humana (HUVEC), os miR-126, miR-31 e miR-17-3p tamb&#233;m regulam a inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular pelo controle da express&#227;o de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o celular (VCAM-1, mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intercelular 1 [ICAM-1] e E-selectina).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Homeostase do colesterol</title>
          <p>Os miR-33a e miR-33b regulam os genes SREBP2 e SREPB1, os quais s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pela regula&#231;&#227;o do colesterol e do metabolismo de &#225;cidos graxo, tanto em c&#233;lulas humanas quanto em camundongos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> A inibi&#231;&#227;o do miR-33a resultou na regress&#227;o da aterosclerose em camundongos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> A inibi&#231;&#227;o do miR-122, que representa 80% dos miRNAs expressos pelo f&#237;gado, resultou em diminui&#231;&#227;o significativa dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de colesterol em camundongos e primatas n&#227;o-humanos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Desenvolvimento da placa</title>
          <p>O miR-155 &#233; um importante regulador do sistema imunol&#243;gico e demonstra estar envolvido na resposta inflamat&#243;ria aguda. Ele modula o desenvolvimento da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, a capta&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;deos e a resposta inflamat&#243;ria de mon&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos que leva &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas espumosas. Entre seus mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o, ele atua como um regulador de <italic>feedback</italic> negativo na resposta inflamat&#243;ria de macr&#243;fagos induzida pela LDL oxidada e inibe a libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias pelos macr&#243;fagos como, por exemplo, as interleucina 6 (IL-6) e IL-8 e o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Em mon&#243;citos de sangue perif&#233;rico humano, o miR-125a-5p demonstrou papel importante na media&#231;&#227;o da absor&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;dios e diminui&#231;&#227;o da secre&#231;&#227;o de algumas citocinas inflamat&#243;rias (IL-2, IL-6, TNF-&#945; e TGF-&#946;) em macr&#243;fagos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> O LDL oxidado aumentou os n&#237;veis do miR-125a-5p, o qual regula a ORP-9 (um membro da fam&#237;lia de prote&#237;nas ligantes de oxiesterol), reduzindo, assim, a express&#227;o dos receptores <italic>scavengers</italic> SR (CD68) e LOX-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> De forma semelhante, o miR-155 reduziu a capta&#231;&#227;o de LDL oxidado diminuindo a express&#227;o de CD36 e LOX-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A evolu&#231;&#227;o das estrias gordurosas para o ateroma fibroso (capsula fibrosa) &#233; promovida, sobretudo, pela prolifera&#231;&#227;o e migra&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares (CMLV) para a camada intima do vaso. A prolifera&#231;&#227;o e apoptose dessas c&#233;lulas &#233; regulada pelo TGF-&#946;, que por sua vez &#233; modulado negativamente pelo miR-26a (ou seja, a inibi&#231;&#227;o do miR-26a promove a diferencia&#231;&#227;o das CMLVs) em soro humano.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> Os miR-21 e miR-221 tamb&#233;m modulam a prolifera&#231;&#227;o das CMLVs, onde o miR-221 atua em resposta &#224; sinaliza&#231;&#227;o do fator de crescimento derivado de plaquetas (PDGF). Al&#233;m disso, a regula&#231;&#227;o negativa de p27Kip1 pelo miR-221 &#233; cr&#237;tica para a indu&#231;&#227;o de prolifera&#231;&#227;o celular mediada pelo PDGF, enquanto o c-Kit pode estar relacionado com a inibi&#231;&#227;o da transcri&#231;&#227;o do gene contr&#225;til espec&#237;fico de CMLVs, reduzindo a express&#227;o de miocardina, um potente coativador nuclear espec&#237;fico das CMLVs.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Neoangiog&#234;nese</title>
          <p>Durante o desenvolvimento da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, os macr&#243;fagos ativados repletos de colesterol s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pela libera&#231;&#227;o de diversas citocinas, entre elas, citocinas que promovem a neoangiog&#234;nese. Entre os miRNAs envolvidos nesse processo est&#227;o o miR-221, -222, -155, -27a, -27b e -210. Em HUVEC, o miR-222/221 afeta a express&#227;o do c-Kit,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> e o miR-222 est&#225; envolvido no remodelamento vascular mediado pela inflama&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> O miR-155 parece regular a express&#227;o da &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase endotelial (eNOS) e o relaxamento vascular dependente de endot&#233;lio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> Em modelo esferoide tridimensional, a express&#227;o aumentada dos miR-27a/b estimula o brotamento vascular, mostrando, assim, sua a&#231;&#227;o pr&#243;-angiog&#234;nica, uma vez que esses miRNAs t&#234;m como alvo a semaforina 6A, um inibidor da angiog&#234;nese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref> Por fim, a express&#227;o do miR-210 em HUVEC aumenta progressivamente em condi&#231;&#245;es de hip&#243;xia e a indu&#231;&#227;o da sua express&#227;o em condi&#231;&#245;es de norm&#243;xia leva &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de estruturas semelhantes a capilares em Matrigel guiada pelo VEGF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Instabilidade e ruptura da placa</title>
          <p>A instabilidade e ruptura da c&#225;psula fibrosa da placa ateroscler&#243;tica depende do desequil&#237;brio entre a s&#237;ntese e a degrada&#231;&#227;o da MEC pelos fibroblastos. A ruptura da placa &#233; o mecanismo mais importante para o surgimento do acidente vascular encef&#225;lico, IAM e morte s&#250;bita. A lise do col&#225;geno ocorre por interm&#233;dio das enzimas metaloproteinases (MMPs), em especial as MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3 e MMP-9, que s&#227;o liberadas principalmente por macr&#243;fagos ativados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A MMP-9 &#233; regulada pelos miR-133a/b, o qual tamb&#233;m &#233; capaz de modular a apoptose e a prolifera&#231;&#227;o das CMLVs em modelos animais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref> Cipollone et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref> investigaram, em humanos, a express&#227;o de miRNAs e sua correla&#231;&#227;o com a instabilidade da placa ateroscler&#243;tica na art&#233;ria car&#243;tida interna. Foram avaliadas duas coortes independentes de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas coletadas em dois hospitais italianos (n = 15 e n = 38), de pacientes submetidos &#224; endarterectomia carot&#237;dea para extracraniano de alto grau (&gt; 70%) de estenose da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida interna. As placas foram subdivididas em grupos sintom&#225;tico e assintom&#225;tico de acordo com a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de AVE. Os autores observaram que, entre 41 miRNAs investigados, 5 miRNAs (miR-100, -127, -145, -133a e -133b) apresentaram express&#227;o aumentada em placas sintom&#225;ticas (onde houve AVE) em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; placas assintom&#225;ticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref> &#201; importante ressaltar que a discrep&#226;ncia na express&#227;o de miRNAs entre placas inst&#225;veis e est&#225;veis n&#227;o estava relacionada a diferen&#231;as em fatores de risco convencionais ou terapias concomitantes, pois essas vari&#225;veis estavam bem equilibradas entre os dois grupos. Ao incubar HUVEC com o miR-133a, houve redu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o da prote&#237;na alvo MMP-9, enquanto as c&#233;lulas incubadas com miR-133a ou miR-145 apresentaram menor express&#227;o de inibidor do ativador de plasminog&#234;nio 1 (PAI-1).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Apesar da complexidade e dos desafios, a identifica&#231;&#227;o dos miRNAs desregulados &#233; crucial, uma vez que possibilita uma melhor compress&#227;o dos mecanismos celulares e moleculares envolvidos nas DCVs. A pesquisa sobre miRNAs teciduais e circulantes poder&#225; auxiliar no desenvolvimento de marcadores circulantes de diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico mais acurados em compara&#231;&#227;o aos j&#225; utilizados, assim como novas estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas para os diferentes est&#225;gios da DCV.</p>
        <p>Apesar do avan&#231;o neste campo, ainda existem algumas limita&#231;&#245;es, por exemplo, no uso dos miRNAs circulantes como biomarcadores. Ainda n&#227;o s&#227;o conhecidos completamente os processos moleculares que regulam o empacotamento e a libera&#231;&#227;o de miRNAs extracelulares, quer por meio de mecanismos mediados por ves&#237;culas ou n&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, a detec&#231;&#227;o dos miRNAs circulantes demanda alto custo t&#233;cnico, o que limitaria, a princ&#237;pio, o seu uso na rotina cl&#237;nica laboratorial. Outro fator limitante &#233; a onipresen&#231;a dos miRNAs na circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, demandando, assim, investiga&#231;&#245;es adicionais para determinar a sua origem tecidual.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela FAPERJ.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de Debora Cristina Pereira da Silva pelo Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
