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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.8" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">5d9wTDkXJBdymhDj5kXSGVj</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2018001500356</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2018005012101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20180155</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Secondary Dyslipidemia In Obese Children - Is There Evidence For Pharmacological Treatment?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Radaelli</surname>
            <given-names>Graciane</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sausen</surname>
            <given-names>Grasiele</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cesa</surname>
            <given-names>Claudia Ciceri</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Portal</surname>
            <given-names>Vera Lucia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pellanda</surname>
            <given-names>Lucia Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <city>Porto Alegre</city>
            <state>RS</state>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia / Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia - IC/FUC, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Lucia Campos Pellanda,</bold> Av. Princesa Isabel, 370, 3&#186; andar, Postal Code 99620-000, Santana, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil. E-mail: <email>pellanda.pesquisa@gmail.com</email>, <email>metodologia.up@cardiologia.org.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Radaelli G, Pellanda LC; Acquisition of data: Radaelli G, Sausen G; Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript: Radaelli G, Cesa CC; Obtaining financing: Radaelli G; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Radaelli G, Sausen G, Cesa CC, Portal VL, Pellanda LC.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>23</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <season>09</season>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>111</volume>
      <issue>03</issue>
      <fpage>356</fpage>
      <lpage>361</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>08</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>01</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Long-term safety, effectiveness and criteria for treatment with statins in children are still unclear in clinical practice. There is very limited evidence for the use of medication to treat children with dyslipidemia secondary to obesity who do not respond well to lifestyle modification.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>Systematic review of randomized clinical trials of statin use to treat children and adolescents with dyslipidemia secondary to obesity.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>We performed a search in PubMed, EMBASE, Bireme, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, SciELO, and LILACS for data to evaluate the effect of statins on: improvement of surrogate markers of coronary artery disease in clinical outcomes of adulthood; increased serum levels of total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and apolipropotein B (APOB); and decreased serum levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) from inception to February 2016. Participants were children and adolescents.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>Of the 16793 potentially relevant citations recovered from the electronic databases, no randomized clinical trials fulfilled the inclusion criteria for children with dyslipidemia secondary to obesity.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions:</title>
          <p>We found no specific evidence to consider statins in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia secondary to obesity in children. The usual practice of extrapolating findings from studies in genetic dyslipidemia ignores the differences in long-term cardiovascular risks and the long-term drug treatment risks, when compared to recommendation of lifestyle changes. Randomized clinical trials are needed to understand drug treatment in dyslipidemia secondary to obesity.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Dyslipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Child</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesity</kwd>
        <kwd>Adolescents</kwd>
        <kwd>Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors</kwd>
        <kwd>Cholesterol</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>According to the National Survey on Health and Nutrition Examination, 11.7% of adults aged 20-39 years and 41.2% of adults aged 40-64 years had elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Recent data shows that the estimated number of adults who have total cholesterol (TC) levels &#8805; 240 mg/dL reaches 30.9 million and 32.6% of the adults have hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> In 2011-2012, of 5 boys and girls, 1 had abnormal concentration of TC, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) or non-high density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C). The prevalence of high TC, HDL-C, non-HDL-C is 7.8%, 12.8% and 8.4%, respectively, and 20.2% had abnormal concentration of at least 1 of the 3 measurements.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Dyslipidemia causes have changed in epidemiological studies; previously, genetic disturbances were the most common conditions causing dyslipidemia in children. In the last few decades, dyslipidemia secondary to obesity (DSO) has been increasing.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Drug therapy for high-risk lipid abnormalities resulted in great advances in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic diseases in adults.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> However, the use of pharmacological therapy in children with secondary dyslipidemia is a subject of controversy. Safety, effectiveness and criteria for statin treatment in children are unclear in clinical practice.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> There is limited evidence for medication use in children with DSO that do not respond well to lifestyle modification. The majority of studies with statins refer to children and adolescents with genetic dyslipidemia and higher levels of LDL-C.</p>
      <p>The objective of this study is to discuss critically the evidence about the effectiveness, safety and effects of the use of statins in children and adolescents with DSO, based on a systematic review of the literature.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <p>This systematic review was performed in accordance with the PRISMA Statement and registered at the PROSPERO under identification CRD42015020530.</p>
      <p>The search was conducted in MEDLINE (via PubMed), EMBASE, Bireme, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, SciELO, and LILACS. The search strategy included the terms: "Child", "Adolescent", "Hypercholesterolemia", "Dyslipidemias", "Cholesterol", "Hydroxymethylglutaryl-Coa reductase inhibitors", "Statin", &#8220;HDL-C&#8221; and &#8220;Triglycerides&#8221;. Two reviewers (G.R. and G.S.) performed the literature search and study selection independently. Disagreements were solved by consensus or by a third reviewer (L.C.P.).</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Selection criteria</title>
        <p><bold>Types of study:</bold> Randomized clinical trials describing statin therapy for children and adolescents. Participants: children and adolescents (up to 18 years old). Interventions: statins for at least 8 weeks. Target condition: DSO. Outcomes: reduction in the risk factors, TC, LDL-C, apolipropotein B (APOB) and HDL-C, improvement in the coronary artery disease indirect markers and/or clinical outcomes in adult life.</p>
        <p><bold>Search limits:</bold> Language: no language restriction. Time period: from inception to February 2016. Design: Randomized clinical trials. Main outcome: risk factors reduction in the infancy, improvement of coronary artery disease indirect markers in clinical outcomes of adult life. Secondary outcomes: statin effects - elevated plasmatic levels of TC, LDL-C and APOB, decrease in the HDL-C levels.</p>
        <p><bold>Inclusion criteria:</bold> Randomized clinical trial reporting children with statin treatment for at least 8 weeks.</p>
        <p><bold>Exclusion criteria:</bold> Non-blinded treatment duplicated data or absent reporting of considered outcomes.</p>
        <p><bold>Data extraction and quality evaluation:</bold> The CONSORT analysis instrument was used to evaluate methodological quality of the included studies performed by two independent reviewers.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>We identified 16793 citations from the electronic search of the databases from inception to February 2016. After duplicate studies were removed, 15820 studies were subjected to title and abstract screening. We excluded 15740 studies and 80 studies were subjected to full-text review. We did not include any randomized clical trial about DSO in children, and all 80 articles of full-texts were excluded for the reasons: 39 studies on non-pediatric population (subjects aged 18 to 80 years), 15 studies did not use treatment with statins, 12 studies did not have the design of a randomized clinical trial, and 14 randomized clinical trials evaluated children and adolescents with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), involving a total of 2347 individuals (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flow diagram of the studies included. RCT: randomized clinical trial.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-03-0356-80155-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>Dyslipidemia secondary to obesity in children and adolescents is increasingly prevalent in clinical practice. However, the present review did not retrieve specific evidence about drug therapy in this group.</p>
      <p>In this type of dyslipidemia, the most common lipid alterations are low HDL-C and elevated triglycerides (TG) secondary to insulin resistance syndrome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> High TC levels may be associated with these conditions, but cannot be considered the most important factor. Steinberg et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> showed that the degree of insulin resistance explains a significant proportion of variation in the levels of TG, LDL-C, and HDL-C, and Stan et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> estimated a 10% prevalence of small dense LDL (sdLDL) particles in children showing insulin resistance compared to 1% in those without insulin resistance. As recommended by the Expert Panel,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> low saturated-fat and cholesterol diet is the first approach to lower TC and LDL-C levels, to reduce obesity and insulin resistance, and to prevent the development of atherosclerosis. These recommendations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> confirm that primary prevention in children with dyslipidemia involves lifestyle modification. In childhood, the construction of healthy eating habits must be emphasized, since early preference patterns have a long-term influence on dietary intake later in life.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> To provide information about nutrition is, therefore, an important part of the routine visits.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> However, neither assessment of the patient&#8217;s nutritional status nor discussion of dietary habits seem to be performed systematically.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Physicians often point to the lack of knowledge in this area as one of the main limitations to this practice.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
      <p>On the other hand, obese children may also suffer from FH, that is phenotypically diagnosed by the presence of high levels of LDL-C and a family history of premature cardiovascular disease and/or high cholesterol at baseline in one of the parents and/or a mutation that causes FH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> After dietary intervention, any child with LDL-C &#8805; 5 mmol/L (190 mg/dL) has high probability of having genetic FH. A family history of premature cardiovascular disease in close relatives and/or high cholesterol levels at baseline in a parent, LDL-C &#8805; 4 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) are also indicative of a high probability of genetic FH. The detection of a pathogenic mutation, usually in the LDLR gene, is the gold-standard diagnosis test for FH. The LDL-C levels must be measured at least twice in 3 months to confirm the diagnosis of FH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The maintenance of a healthy lifestyle and statin treatment (age 8 to 10 years) are proposed as the main interventions to control heterozygous FH (HeFH). The target of LDL-C for children is 3.5 mmol/L (130 mg/dL) if &gt; 10 years old, or, ideally, to reduce 50% of the baseline level among children aged 8 to 10 years, especially with an extremely high LDL-C, high levels of lipoprotein(a), family history of premature cardiovascular disease or others cardiovascular risk factors, balanced against the risk of long-term adverse effect of treatment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Statins have shown better effects on major cardiovascular outcomes, justifying their use despite their still unknown side effects when used for more than 2 years in children.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase have shown repeatedly in random controlled studies to effectively reduce coronary morbidity and mortality in adults at high risk. As a result, statins have become one of the most prescribed drugs for adults in the world.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> In adults, statins have proved to effectively reduce both LDL-C levels and vascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
			</p>
      <p>At usual doses, statins are a remarkably safe drug group. Few reports exist about serious adverse gastrointestinal events, and hepatic transaminases and creatine-phosphokinase elevation. However, evidence for their use in children still lacks.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Children with serious lipid abnormalities due to genetic disorders may meet the criteria for drug therapy with the statins commonly used in adults. In the last few years, reports about the short-term safety of some of these drugs in this group have been published.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
			</p>
      <p>All statins recommended by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> have been approved for children with FH and some other primary or genetic dyslipidemia causes. Data about cholesterol reduction in other groups of children were insufficient.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> The statins used to treat children with HeFH are approved by the FDA or used in treatments based on cholesterol-lowering studies in children with HeFH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> For other dyslipidemia causes in children, the focus should be on the diet and treating subjacent metabolic disorders.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Treatment may be started earlier in severe cases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Effectiveness and safety are similar in both children with genetic disorders and children with DSO in the short term. However, concerns about long-term safety still remain.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> None of these studies cited above had a long-term follow up, and none of them described potential late collateral effects of early therapy for cholesterol reduction or delay in cardiovascular outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Kusters et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> have reported the longest follow-up in children with FH treated with statins. Long-term treatment with statins started during childhood in patients with FH was associated with the normalization of the ntima-media thickness progression. No serious adverse event was reported during the 10-year follow-up. Braamskamp et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> have published the first study that evaluated the long-term effect of statin treatment started in childhood on the plasma of gonadal steroid hormones, gonadotropins and dehydroepiandrosterone in young adults with FH. After 10 years of statin treatment, the concentrations of testosterone, estradiol, luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone in those patients with FH were within the reference range when compared with non-affected siblings.</p>
      <p>Before starting the widespread use of statins in children with secondary dyslipidemias, ideally studies should establish that statins can reduce total morbidity and mortality in the long-term. There must also be a logical progression of studies addressing primary prevention, from the oldest to the youngest. The use of statins for primary prevention in adults with secondary hyperlipidemia is currently under debate. The introduction of statins at an earlier age may offer the possibility of greater risk reduction than the one currently observed in studies with adults, but to this date this hypothesis remains highly speculative.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusions</title>
      <p>In our search, we found no randomized clinical trial addressing the use of statin therapy in children and adolescents with DSO. All studies retrieved had been performed in patients with FH.</p>
      <p>The usual practice of extrapolating findings from studies in genetic dyslipidemia ignores the differences in long-term cardiovascular risks and long-term drug treatment risks, when compared to recommendation of lifestyle changes. Randomized clinical trials are needed to understand drug treatment in secondary dyslipidemia.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Graciane Radaelli, from Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
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      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Dislipidemia Secund&#225;ria em Crian&#231;as Obesas - H&#225; Evid&#234;ncias para Tratamento Farmacol&#243;gico?</article-title>
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          <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia / Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia - IC/FUC, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
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      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Lucia Campos Pellanda,</bold> Av. Princesa Isabel, 370, 3&#186; andar, CEP 99620-000, Santana, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil. E-mail: <email>pellanda.pesquisa@gmail.com</email>, <email>metodologia.up@cardiologia.org.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Radaelli G, Pellanda LC; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Radaelli G, Sausen G; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Radaelli G, Cesa CC; Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Radaelli G; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Radaelli G, Sausen G, Cesa CC, Portal VL, Pellanda LC.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>A seguran&#231;a em longo prazo, a efic&#225;cia e os crit&#233;rios para o tratamento com estatinas em crian&#231;as s&#227;o ainda pouco claros na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Existem evid&#234;ncias muito limitadas para o uso de medica&#231;&#227;o em crian&#231;as com dislipidemia secund&#225;ria &#224; obesidade e que n&#227;o respondem bem &#224; modifica&#231;&#227;o do estilo de vida.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica de ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados de uso de estatinas para o tratamento de crian&#231;as e adolescentes com dislipidemia secund&#225;ria &#224; obesidade.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Realizamos a busca nas bases de dados PubMed, EMBASE, Bireme, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, SciELO e LILACS para coleta de dados para avaliar o efeito das estatinas sobre: melhora dos marcadores de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) nos resultados cl&#237;nicos na idade adulta, aumento dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de colesterol total (CT), lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL-C) e apolipoprote&#237;na B (APOB) e diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-C) desde o in&#237;cio at&#233; fevereiro de 2016. Crian&#231;as e adolescentes foram inclu&#237;dos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>Das 16793 cita&#231;&#245;es potencialmente relevantes recuperadas das bases de dados eletr&#244;nicas, nenhum ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado atendeu aos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o de crian&#231;as com dislipidemia secund&#225;ria &#224; obesidade.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es:</title>
          <p>N&#227;o encontramos evid&#234;ncia espec&#237;fica para considerar as estatinas no tratamento da hipercolesterolemia secund&#225;ria &#224; obesidade em crian&#231;as. A pr&#225;tica usual de extrapolar achados de estudos em dislipidemia gen&#233;tica ignora as diferen&#231;as nos riscos cardiovasculares de longo prazo e os riscos de tratamento de drogas de longo prazo, quando comparada com a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de mudan&#231;as de estilo de vida. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para compreender o tratamento medicamentoso na dislipidemia secund&#225;ria &#224; obesidade.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Dislipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Crian&#231;a</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Adolescentes</kwd>
        <kwd>Inibidores de Hidroximetilglutaril-CoA Redutases</kwd>
        <kwd>Colesterol</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>De acordo com a <italic>National Survey on Health and Nutrition Examination</italic>, 11,7% dos adultos de 20-39 anos e 41,2% dos adultos de 40-64 anos tinham n&#237;veis elevados de colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL-C).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Dados recentes mostram que o n&#250;mero estimado de adultos com n&#237;veis de colesterol total (CT) &#8805; 240 mg/dl chega a 30,9 milh&#245;es e 32,6% dos adultos t&#234;m hipertens&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Em 2011-2012, de cada 5 meninos e meninas, 1 tinha concentra&#231;&#227;o anormal de CT, colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-C) ou colesterol n&#227;o HDL (n&#227;o-HDL-C). A preval&#234;ncia de n&#237;veis elevados de CT, HDL-C, n&#227;o-HDL-C &#233; de 7,8%, 12,8% e 8,4%, respectivamente, sendo que 20,2% dos estudados apresentavam concentra&#231;&#227;o anormal de pelo menos uma das tr&#234;s medidas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> As causas de dislipidemia mudaram nos estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos; antes, as desordens gen&#233;ticas eram as causas mais comuns de dislipidemia em crian&#231;as. Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, a dislipidemia secund&#225;ria &#224; obesidade (DSO) vem aumentando.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O tratamento medicamentoso para anormalidades lip&#237;dicas de alto risco resultou em grandes avan&#231;os na preven&#231;&#227;o e no tratamento da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica em adultos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Entretanto, o uso de tratamento farmacol&#243;gico em crian&#231;as com dislipidemia secund&#225;ria &#233; controverso. A seguran&#231;a e a efetividade do tratamento com estatina em crian&#231;as, assim como seus crit&#233;rios, n&#227;o s&#227;o claros na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> A evid&#234;ncia para o uso de medicamento em crian&#231;as com DSO que n&#227;o respondem &#224; modifica&#231;&#227;o do estilo de vida &#233; limitada. A maioria dos estudos com estatinas refere-se a crian&#231;as e adolescentes com dislipidemia gen&#233;tica e n&#237;veis altos de LDL-C.</p>
        <p>Este estudo teve por objetivo discutir criticamente a evid&#234;ncia de efetividade e seguran&#231;a, assim como os efeitos, do uso de estatinas em crian&#231;as e adolescentes com DSO, com base em uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>Esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica foi realizada de acordo com o PRISMA <italic>Statement</italic> e registrada no PROSPERO sob o n&#250;mero CRD42015020530.</p>
        <p>A busca foi conduzida nas bases de dados MEDLINE (via PubMed), EMBASE, Bireme, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, SciELO e LILACS. A estrat&#233;gia de busca incluiu os termos: "<italic>Child</italic>", "<italic>Adolescent</italic>", "<italic>Hypercholesterolemia</italic>", "<italic>Dyslipidemias</italic>", "<italic>Cholesterol</italic>", "<italic>Hydroxymethylglutaryl-Coa reductase inhibitors</italic>", "<italic>Statin</italic>", &#8220;<italic>HDL-C</italic>&#8221; e &#8220;<italic>Triglycerides</italic>&#8221;. Dois revisores (G.R. e G.S.) realizaram a busca na literatura e a sele&#231;&#227;o dos estudos independentemente. As discord&#226;ncias foram resolvidas por consenso ou por um terceiro revisor (L.C.P.).</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Crit&#233;rios de sele&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p><bold>Tipos de estudo:</bold> ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados descrevendo a terapia com estatina para crian&#231;as e adolescentes. Participantes: crian&#231;as e adolescentes (at&#233; 18 anos). Interven&#231;&#245;es: estatinas por pelo menos 8 semanas. Condi&#231;&#227;o alvo: DSO. Desfechos: redu&#231;&#227;o de fatores de risco, TC, LDL-C, apolipoprote&#237;na B (APOB) e HDL-C, melhora dos marcadores indiretos de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e/ou desfechos cl&#237;nicos na vida adulta.</p>
          <p><bold>Limites de busca:</bold> linguagem: sem restri&#231;&#227;o de linguagem. Tempo: do in&#237;cio at&#233; fevereiro de 2016. Desenho: ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados. Desfecho principal: redu&#231;&#227;o de fatores de risco na inf&#226;ncia, melhora nos marcadores indiretos de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e/ou desfechos cl&#237;nicos da idade adulta. Desfechos secund&#225;rios: efeitos das estatinas sobre os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos elevados de CT, LDL-C e APOB e reduzidos de HDL-C.</p>
          <p><bold>Crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o:</bold> ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado sobre crian&#231;as em tratamento com estatina por pelo menos 8 semanas.</p>
          <p><bold>Crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o:</bold> Dados duplicados de tratamento n&#227;o cego ou aus&#234;ncia de relato dos desfechos considerados.</p>
          <p><bold>Extra&#231;&#227;o dos dados e avalia&#231;&#227;o de qualidade:</bold> O fluxograma CONSORT foi utilizado por dois revisores independentes para avaliar a qualidade metodol&#243;gica dos estudos inclu&#237;dos.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>Identificamos 16793 cita&#231;&#245;es a partir da busca eletr&#244;nica das bases de dados do in&#237;cio at&#233; fevereiro 2016. Ap&#243;s a remo&#231;&#227;o dos estudos duplicados, 15820 estudos foram submetidos &#224; triagem de t&#237;tulo e resumo. Exclu&#237;mos 15740 estudos, sendo que 80 tiveram seus textos completos revisados. Nenhum ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado sobre DSO em crian&#231;as foi inclu&#237;do, e todos os 80 artigos cujos textos completos foram analisados foram exclu&#237;dos pelas seguintes raz&#245;es: 39 estudos eram em popula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o pedi&#225;trica (idades de 18 a 80 anos), 15 estudos n&#227;o usaram tratamento com estatinas, 12 estudos n&#227;o tinham o desenho de ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado e 14 ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados avaliaram crian&#231;as e adolescentes com hipercolesterolemia familiar (HF), envolvendo um total de 2347 indiv&#237;duos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fluxograma dos estudos inclu&#237;dos. ECR: ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-111-03-0356-80155-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>A DSO em crian&#231;as e adolescentes &#233; cada vez mais prevalente na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Entretanto, esta revis&#227;o n&#227;o obteve evid&#234;ncia espec&#237;fica sobre terapia farmacol&#243;gica nesse grupo.</p>
        <p>Nesse tipo de dislipidemia, as altera&#231;&#245;es lip&#237;dicas mais comuns s&#227;o os n&#237;veis baixos de HDL-C e elevados de triglicer&#237;deos (TG) secund&#225;rios &#224; s&#237;ndrome de resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Altos n&#237;veis de CT podem estar associados com essas condi&#231;&#245;es, mas n&#227;o podem ser considerados o fator mais importante. Steinberger et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> mostraram que o grau de resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica explica a significativa propor&#231;&#227;o de varia&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de TG, LDL-C e HDL-C, e Stan et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> estimaram em 10% a preval&#234;ncia de part&#237;culas da subclasse pequena e densa do colesterol LDL (sdLDL) em crian&#231;as com resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica em compara&#231;&#227;o a 1% daquelas sem resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica. Como recomendado pelo Painel de Especialistas,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> a redu&#231;&#227;o da gordura saturada e do colesterol da dieta &#233; a primeira abordagem para diminuir os n&#237;veis de CT e LDL-C, para reduzir obesidade e resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e para prevenir o desenvolvimento de aterosclerose. Tais recomenda&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> confirmam que a preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria em crian&#231;as com dislipidemia envolve a modifica&#231;&#227;o do estilo de vida. Na inf&#226;ncia, a ado&#231;&#227;o de h&#225;bitos alimentares saud&#225;veis deve ser enfatizada, uma vez que padr&#245;es de prefer&#234;ncia precoces t&#234;m influ&#234;ncia a longo prazo no consumo de alimentos mais tarde.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Portanto, o fornecimento de informa&#231;&#227;o nutricional &#233; parte importante da rotina das consultas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Entretanto, parece n&#227;o haver avalia&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica do estado nutricional do paciente nem discuss&#227;o de seus h&#225;bitos alimentares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Com frequ&#234;ncia, os m&#233;dicos identificaram o desconhecimento nessa &#225;rea como uma das principais limita&#231;&#245;es para tal pr&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Por outro lado, crian&#231;as obesas podem ter HF, fenotipicamente diagnosticada pela presen&#231;a de altos n&#237;veis de LDL-C e pela hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;a cardiovascular prematura e/ou altos n&#237;veis de colesterol em condi&#231;&#245;es basais em um dos pais e/ou uma muta&#231;&#227;o que causa HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Ap&#243;s interven&#231;&#227;o diet&#233;tica, a probabilidade de qualquer crian&#231;a com LDL-C &#8805;5 mmol/l (190 mg/dl) ter HF gen&#233;tica &#233; alta. Uma hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;a cardiovascular prematura em parente pr&#243;ximo e/ou altos n&#237;veis de colesterol em condi&#231;&#245;es basais em um dos pais, LDL-C &#8805; 4 mmol/l (160 mg/dl), tamb&#233;m indica alta probabilidade de HF gen&#233;tica. A detec&#231;&#227;o de uma muta&#231;&#227;o patog&#234;nica, em geral no gene LDLR, &#233; o padr&#227;o-ouro de teste diagn&#243;stico para HF. Os n&#237;veis de LDL-C devem ser medidos pelo menos duas vezes em 3 meses para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico de HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A manuten&#231;&#227;o de um estilo de vida saud&#225;vel e o tratamento com estatina (8 a 10 anos de idade) s&#227;o as principais interven&#231;&#245;es propostas para controlar HF heterozig&#243;tica. O alvo para LDL-C de crian&#231;as &#233; 3,5 mmol/l (130 mg/dl) se &gt;10 anos de idade, ou idealmente reduzir em 50% os n&#237;veis basais de crian&#231;as com 8 a 10 anos de idade, em especial aquelas com n&#237;veis extremamente altos de LDL-C, n&#237;veis altos de lipoprote&#237;na(a), hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;a cardiovascular prematura ou outros fatores de risco cardiovascular, que devem ser pesados considerando-se o risco de efeito adverso do tratamento de longo prazo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> As estatinas mostraram melhor efeito nos principais desfechos cardiovasculares, justificando seu uso a despeito de seus ainda desconhecidos efeitos colaterais quando usadas por mais de 2 anos em crian&#231;as.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Os inibidores de HMG-CoA redutase mostraram repetidas vezes em estudos controlados randomizados que reduzem efetivamente a morbimortalidade coronariana em adultos de alto risco. Como resultado, as estatinas tornaram-se um dos medicamentos mais prescritos para adultos no mundo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> As estatinas provaram reduzir efetivamente os n&#237;veis de LDL-C e os eventos vasculares em adultos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Nas doses usuais, as estatinas s&#227;o bastante seguras. Existem poucos relatos sobre eventos adversos gastrintestinais s&#233;rios e eleva&#231;&#227;o de transaminases hep&#225;ticas e creatinofosfoquinase. Em crian&#231;as, entretanto, ainda falta evid&#234;ncia para seu uso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Crian&#231;as com anormalidades lip&#237;dicas graves por dist&#250;rbios gen&#233;ticos podem atender aos crit&#233;rios para terapia medicamentosa com as estatinas comumente usadas em adultos. Nos &#250;ltimos anos, relatos sobre a seguran&#231;a a curto prazo de alguns desses medicamentos naquele grupo foram publicados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Todas as estatinas recomendadas pela ag&#234;ncia norte-americana que regula alimentos e f&#225;rmacos [<italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic> (FDA)]<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> foram aprovadas para crian&#231;as com HF e algumas outras causas de dislipidemia prim&#225;ria ou gen&#233;tica. Dados sobre a redu&#231;&#227;o do colesterol em outros grupos de crian&#231;as foram insuficientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> As estatinas usadas para tratar crian&#231;as com HF heterozig&#243;tica s&#227;o aprovadas pela FDA ou usadas em tratamentos baseados em estudos de redu&#231;&#227;o de colesterol em crian&#231;as com HF heterozig&#243;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Nas outras causas de dislipidemia em crian&#231;as, deve-se focar na dieta e no tratamento dos dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos subjacentes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> O tratamento pode ser iniciado mais cedo nos casos graves.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A efetividade e a seguran&#231;a s&#227;o similares em crian&#231;as com dist&#250;rbios gen&#233;ticos e crian&#231;as com DSO no curto prazo. Entretanto, persistem as preocupa&#231;&#245;es quanto &#224; seguran&#231;a no longo prazo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Nenhum dos estudos citados acima teve seguimento de longo prazo, e nenhum descreveu os potenciais efeitos colaterais tardios da terapia precoce para redu&#231;&#227;o de colesterol ou atraso nos desfechos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Kusters et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> relataram o mais longo seguimento de crian&#231;as com HF tratadas com estatinas. O tratamento de longo prazo com estatinas iniciado na inf&#226;ncia em pacientes com HF foi associado com normaliza&#231;&#227;o da progress&#227;o da espessura m&#233;dio-intimal. Nenhum evento adverso grave foi relatado durante o seguimento de 10 anos. Braamskamp et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> publicaram o primeiro estudo que avaliou o efeito de longo prazo do tratamento com estatina iniciado na inf&#226;ncia nos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos dos horm&#244;nios esteroides gonadais, gonadotrofinas e desidroepiandrosterona em adultos jovens com HF. Ap&#243;s 10 anos de tratamento com estatina, as concentra&#231;&#245;es de testosterona, estradiol e horm&#244;nios luteinizante e fol&#237;culo-estimulante naqueles pacientes com HF mostravam-se dentro da faixa de refer&#234;ncia se comparadas &#224;s dos irm&#227;os n&#227;o afetados.</p>
        <p>Antes de difundir o uso de estatinas em crian&#231;as com dislipidemia secund&#225;ria, os estudos devem estabelecer se as estatinas podem reduzir a morbimortalidade total no longo prazo. Al&#233;m disso, deve haver uma progress&#227;o l&#243;gica dos estudos que abordam a preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria, do mais velho para o mais jovem. Atualmente, o uso de estatinas para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria em adultos com hiperlipidemia secund&#225;ria &#233; controverso. A introdu&#231;&#227;o de estatinas em uma idade precoce pode oferecer maior redu&#231;&#227;o de risco do que o atualmente observado em estudos com adultos, mas at&#233; o momento essa hip&#243;tese permanece altamente especulativa.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
        <p>Na nossa busca, n&#227;o encontramos nenhum ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado abordando o uso de terapia com estatina em crian&#231;as e adolescentes com DSO. Todos os estudos recuperados foram realizados em pacientes com HF.</p>
        <p>A pr&#225;tica usual de extrapolar achados dos estudos sobre dislipidemia gen&#233;tica ignora as diferen&#231;as nos riscos cardiovasculares de longo prazo e nos riscos de tratamento medicamentoso de longo prazo, quando comparada com a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de mudan&#231;as de estilo de vida. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para entender o tratamento medicamentoso na dislipidemia secund&#225;ria &#224; obesidade.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de Graciane Radaelli pelo Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
