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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.8" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">5JmYH9Q9gBmTkrpySXF3XtD</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2018000600558</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20180086</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
          <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
            <subject>Systemic Arterial Hypertension</subject>
          </subj-group>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Endothelial Dysfunction and Inflammation Precedes Elevations in Blood Pressure Induced by a High-Fat Diet</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oishi</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge Camargo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castro</surname>
            <given-names>Cynthia Aparecida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Karina Ana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fabricio</surname>
            <given-names>Victor</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>C&#225;rnio</surname>
            <given-names>Evelin Capelari</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Phillips</surname>
            <given-names>Shane A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Duarte</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Claudia Garcia de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rodrigues</surname>
            <given-names>Gerson Jhonatan</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Carlos</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>S&#227;o Paulo</city>
          <state>SP</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Carlos (UFSCar), S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Carlos</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Ribeir&#227;o Preto</city>
          <state>SP</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">University of Illinois at Chicago</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Chicago</city>
          <state>Illinois</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="US">USA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois - USA</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">University of Illinois</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Jorge Camargo Oishi.</bold> Rua Rosalino Belline, 455. Postal Code 13564-050, Santa Paula, S&#227;o Carlos, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>jorgeoishi@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and Obtaining financing: Oishi JC, Duarte ACGO, Rodrigues GJ; Acquisition of data: Oishi JC, Castro CA, Silva KA, Fabricio V, C&#225;rnio EC, Duarte ACGO, Rodrigues GJ; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Oishi JC, Castro CA, Silva KA, Fabricio V, C&#225;rnio EC, Phillips SA, Duarte ACGO, Rodrigues GJ; Statistical analysis: Oishi JC; Writing of the manuscript: Oishi JC, Castro CA, Silva KA, Fabricio V, Duarte ACGO, Rodrigues GJ; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Oishi JC, Castro CA, Silva KA, C&#225;rnio EC, Phillips SA, Duarte ACGO, Rodrigues GJ.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>110</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>558</fpage>
      <lpage>567</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Obesity leads to a chronic inflammatory state, endothelial dysfunction and hypertension.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>To establish the time-course of events regarding inflammatory markers, endothelial dysfunction, systolic blood pressure (SBP) in obesity in only one experimental model.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>We fed male Wistar rats (eight-week age) with a standard diet (Control - CT, n = 35), or palatable high-fat diet (HFD, n = 35) for 24 weeks. Every six weeks, 7 animals from each group were randomly selected for euthanasia. SBP and serum levels of interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-&#945;, C-reactive protein, adiponectin and nitric oxide were determined. Endothelial and vascular smooth muscle functions were determined in dissected aorta and lipid peroxidation was measured. Statistical significance was set at p &lt; 0.05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>Levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines began to increase after six weeks of a high-fat diet, while those of the anti-inflammatory cytokine adiponectin decreased. Interestingly, the endothelial function and serum nitric oxide began to decrease after six weeks in HFD group. The SBP and lipid peroxidation began to increase at 12 weeks in HFD group. In addition, we showed that total visceral fat mass was negatively correlated with endothelial function and positively correlated with SBP.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Our results show the time-course of deleterious effects and their correlation with obesity.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Endothelium / abnormalities</kwd>
        <kwd>Diet, High-Faties</kwd>
        <kwd>Nitric Oxide</kwd>
        <kwd>Dyslipidemias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Currently, obesity and associated comorbidities are one of the major health problems in developed and developing countries, reducing both the quality and quantity of life and increasing the risk of mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Obesity is characterized by excessive fat tissue storage and is strongly associated with the development of cardiovascular diseases, dyslipidemia and hypertension. There is an associated pro-inflammatory environment that appears to worsen cardiovascular outcomes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> and according to the World Health Organization,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> cardiovascular diseases are currently one of the major causes of mortality in the world.</p>
      <p>A great number of metabolic disorders are caused by obesity; among them endothelial dysfunction plays an important role in the development of insulin resistance and hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Almost thirty-five years ago, it was discovered that endothelial cells could modulate relaxations and contractions of the underlying vascular smooth muscle, which allowed for the concept that vascular tonus control is endothelium-dependent of the underlying vascular smooth muscle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The endothelium produces several "relaxing factors" (EDRFs, endothelium-derived relaxing factors), hyperpolarizing factors (EDHFs), as well as contractile factors (EDCFs). Through a fine balance between the release of EDRFs and EDCFs, the endothelium plays a vital role in maintaining circulatory homeostasis. Any change in this balance may result in endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Previous studies have demonstrated the onset of hypertension and endothelial dysfunction in obesity induced by a high-fat diet.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> However, whether and in which order they appear has not been well defined and the temporal relationships between weight gain, endothelial dysfunction and blood pressure following a high-fat diet have not been determined. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine the time course of inflammation, endothelial dysfunction and the increase in blood pressure following a high-fat diet designed to induce obesity.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Animals and dietary treatments</title>
        <p>The experimental protocol was in accordance with the guidelines of the Brazilian College for Animal Experimentation (COBEA) and was approved by the Ethical Committee of the Federal University of S&#227;o Carlos (026/2013).</p>
        <p>Seventy male (8-week-old) Wistar rats (250-300 g) were assigned to two experimental groups with food and water <italic>ad libitum</italic> for 24 weeks: Control (CT, n = 35) was fed a standard diet or HFD (n = 35) fed with high-fat diet, that consisted of a standard rat diet plus peanuts, milk chocolate, and biscuits at a proportion of 3:2:2:1 as previously described.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Standard diet and high-fat diet contained, respectively, 20/20% of protein, 4.5/20% of fat and 55/40% of carbohydrate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> The caloric values of the diets were approximately 4.07 kcal/g for the standard diet and 5.12 Kcal/g for HFD. At time 0 and after every 6 weeks, 7 rats from CT and 7 from HFD group were randomly euthanized, and blood was collected for experimental analysis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Blood pressure measurements in Conscious Rats</title>
        <p>Indirect systolic blood pressure (SBP) was measured two days before euthanasia every 6 weeks using tail-cuff plethysmography (Power Lab 8/35, AD Instruments, Pty Ltda, CO), as described by Rodrigues et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Mean SBP was calculated from an average of four successive measurements in each animal.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Vascular reactivity studies</title>
        <p>The animals were anaesthetized with isoflurane and euthanized by decapitation. Thoracic aortas were isolated and cleaned of adherent connective tissues, and placed in a Krebs solution, as described previously.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Aortas were carefully mounted as ring preparations (&#8773; 4 mm in length) and placed in bath chambers containing Krebs solution at 37&#176;C continuously bubbled with 95% O<sub>2</sub> and 5% CO<sub>2</sub>, pH 7.4 in an isometric myograph (model 610 DMT-USA) and recorded by a PowerLab8/SP data acquisition system (AD Instruments Pty Ltd., Colorado). The aortic rings were submitted to a tension of 1.5 g, which was readjusted every 15 min during a 60 min equilibration period before adding the given drug. Experiments were done in aortic rings with intact endothelium and also in denude endothelium aortic rings. Endothelial integrity was assessed by the degree of relaxation induced by 1 &#181;mol/l acetylcholine (ACH) in the presence of contractile tone induced by phenylephrine (0.1 &#181;m/l). The ring was considered with intact endothelium if the relaxation with acetylcholine was higher than 80%. In endothelium-denuded aortas, the relaxation to ACH was less than 5%. After the endothelial integrity test, aortic rings were pre-contracted with phenylephrine (100 nM). When the plateau was reached, concentration-effect curves to acetylcholine (0.1nM to 0.1mM) in intact endothelium aortic rings or concentration-effect curves for NO donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP) in denude endothelium aortic rings were constructed. Concentration curves were fitted with a sigmoidal dose-response equation which disclosed the maximal effect (MaxE) and the negative logarithm of the agonist that produces half-maximal response (pD2) using GraphPad Prism (GraphPad Software In, USA).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Body fat composition</title>
        <p>Visceral adipose tissue (VAT) was dissected (mesenteric, epididymal and retroperitoneal white adipose tissues) and weighed to evaluate central adiposity.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Aorta lipid peroxidation (Ferrous oxidation-Xylenol Orange - FOX)</title>
        <p>Thoracic aortas were isolated and cleaned of adherent connective tissues. The methodology was described by Jiang et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> The ferrous oxidation&#8722;xylenol orange (FOX), measures lipid peroxides (cumene hydroperoxide - CHP), one of the main products of lipid peroxidation. For the standard assay, the following reagents were added sequentially: 0.25 mM FeSO<sub>4</sub>, 25 mM H2SO<sub>4</sub>, 0.1 mM xylenol orange, and water to a total of 0.9 ml. A sample of tissue extract (20-100 &#181;L) was added, and the final volume was adjusted to 1 ml with water. Blanks were prepared by replacing tissue extract with water. Samples were incubated at room temperature until the reaction was complete (40 min), and absorbance at 560 nm was measured.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Serum nitrite and nitrate (NOx)</title>
        <p>Serum nitric oxide levels were obtained by measuring the serum concentrations of its stable end-products nitrite (NO<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>) and nitrate (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>), collectively known as NOx, as described previously.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> The NO/ozone chemiluminescence method was performed using the NO Analyzer 280i (Sievers, Boulder, CO, USA).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Determination of adiponectin and inflammatory cytokines</title>
        <p>Quantification of adiponectin and inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF-&#945;), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP) in serum was performed using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. IL-6 and TNF-&#945; were evaluated using commercial OptEIA kits (BD Biosciences, Pharmingen, USA). Adiponectin and CRP were analyzed using Duo Set kits (R&amp;D Systems, USA). All kits were used according to the manufacturers' instructions, and the results were expressed in pg/mL for all cytokines evaluated.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Morphological and histological evaluation</title>
        <p>Aorta segments were quickly cleaned from the surrounding tissues and blood, cut into rings fixed in formalin 37% and embedded in paraffin blocks. Later, 4-&#181;m thick sections were cut with a microtome (Leitz 1512, IMEB, USA), placed onto glass microscope slides and stained with hematoxylin and eosin using the standard methods. Images of transverse sections of the arterial segments were captured using a camera connected to an optical microscope (Leica DM 2000). External diameter (ED) was obtained by measuring the surfaces of the adventitia and internal diameter (ID) from the endothelium surface. The media thickness was obtained by dividing the difference ED - ID by 2 (&#948; = ED - ID/2). The media/lumen ratio was calculated from the area data. The images were analyzed using the ImageJ analysis software, as described previously.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>The normality of distribution (of all quantitative and continuous variables) was checked using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. A sample of 7 animals in each group was required to provide 85% statistical power with a two-tailed alpha of 0.05 for pD2 and 90% for all other variables analyzed in this study. Differences between the CT and HFD groups were compared using two-way repeated measures analysis of variance ANOVA. When differences were indicated, a Newman-Keuls post hoc analysis was used with a statistical significance set at p &lt; 0.05. These data were expressed as mean &#177; SD (Statistica software 7.0, StatSoft. Inc, USA). Vascular reactivity data of pD2 and Emax were expressed as mean &#177; SD with a statistical significance set at p &lt; 0.05 (Graphpad Prism 3.0). Pearson correlation was made between pD2 and the SBP, pD2 and VAT, blood pressure and VAT, IL-6 and pD2, TNF-&#945; and pD2, CRP and pD2 and between adiponectin and pD2, with a statistical significance of 5%.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Total visceral adipose tissue</title>
        <p>The sum of the weight of the retroperitoneal, visceral and epididymal adipose tissues - (VAT) was higher in HFD than in the CT group at 6 weeks. At 24 weeks, fat weight was 300% higher in the HFD than the CT group. VAT in the CT group increased at 12 weeks compared to 6 weeks, but remained unchanged for the rest of the experimental period (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Visceral adipose fat (VAT) in control (CT) and high-fat diet (HFD) groups over the weeks. *P &lt; 0.05, compared with CT; + p &lt; 0.05, within-group comparison (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 weeks). Seven rats from each group were compared at each time point.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Inflammatory status</title>
        <p>The inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-&#945; and CRP were increased in serum of HFD animals in 6, 12, 18 and 24 weeks when compared to the CT group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>
					<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">A</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">C</xref>). On the other hand, the levels of serum adiponectin decreased in the HFD group after 6, 12, 18 and 24 weeks of the experimental protocol (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2 D</xref>). In the CT group, no changes were found in these cytokine levels.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) (A), tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF-&#945;) (B), C-reactive protein (CRP) (C) and adiponectin (D) in the control (CT) and high-fat diet (HFD) groups over time. *P &lt; 0.05, CT compared with HFD group; + p &lt; 0.05, within-group comparison (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 weeks). Seven rats from each group were compared at each time point</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Vascular reactivity</title>
        <p>No differences were found (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3A</xref>) in the endothelium-dependent relaxation induced by acetylcholine (pD2) in the CT group over the entire experimental period. On the other hand, the pD2 was impaired in aortas of obese animals at 6, 12, 18 and 24 weeks compared to CT rats. Moreover, we observed a decrease in pD2 throughout the experimental period in HFD group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figures 3B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">C</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Concentration-response curve to acetylcholine (endothelium-dependent relaxation) in aortic rings of rats of the control (CT) (A) and high-fat diet (HFD) group (B) groups and half-maximal response pD2 (C) in both groups. *P &lt; 0.05, CT compared with HFD group in each 6 weeks; + p &lt; 0.05, within-group comparison (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 weeks); seven rats from each group were compared at each time point</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>No differences were observed in the maximum relaxant effect (MaxE) in both CT and HFD groups. In endothelium-denuded aortic rings, there were no differences in the pD2 and MaxE to endothelium-independent relaxation induced by SNP in the CT and HFD groups in all the weeks evaluated (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Half-maximal response (pD2) and maximal effect (MaxE) in aortic rings of the rats of the control (CT) and high-fat (HFD) groups. *P &lt; 0.05, compared with CT group; + p &lt; 0.05, within-group comparison (0 <italic>vs</italic>. 6, 6 <italic>vs</italic>. 12, 12 <italic>vs</italic>. 18, 18 <italic>vs</italic>. 24 weeks)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="3">Weeks</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="4">Intact Endothelium</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="4">Denude Endothelium</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">pD2</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">MaxE(%)</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">pD2</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">MaxE(%)</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="center">CT</th>
                <th align="center">HFD</th>
                <th align="center">CT</th>
                <th align="center">HFD</th>
                <th align="center">CT</th>
                <th align="center">HFD</th>
                <th align="center">CT</th>
                <th align="center">HFD</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">0</td>
                <td align="center">7.58 &#177; 0.25</td>
                <td align="center">7.58 &#177; 0.22</td>
                <td align="center">90.67 &#177;7.40</td>
                <td align="center">90.87 &#177; 7.14</td>
                <td align="center">8.69 &#177; 0.13</td>
                <td align="center">8.68 &#177; 0.23</td>
                <td align="center">103.8 &#177; 2.77</td>
                <td align="center">104.6 &#177; 3.38</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">6</td>
                <td align="center">7.52 &#177; 0.07</td>
                <td align="center">7.37 &#177; 0.18<bold>*<sup>+</sup></bold></td>
                <td align="center">93.42 &#177;6.80</td>
                <td align="center">90.31 &#177; 7.64</td>
                <td align="center">8.67 &#177; 0.21</td>
                <td align="center">8.66 &#177; 0.22</td>
                <td align="center">98.3 &#177; 4.10</td>
                <td align="center">100.2 &#177; 7.67</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">12</td>
                <td align="center">7.48 &#177; 0.18</td>
                <td align="center">7.23 &#177; 0.11<bold>*<sup>+</sup></bold></td>
                <td align="center">89.17 &#177;8.80</td>
                <td align="center">90.90 &#177; 7.67</td>
                <td align="center">8.69 &#177; 0.10</td>
                <td align="center">8.71 &#177; 0.13</td>
                <td align="center">102.5 &#177; 2.48</td>
                <td align="center">103.9 &#177; 3.43</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">18</td>
                <td align="center">7.42 &#177; 0.22</td>
                <td align="center">7.12 &#177; 0.15<bold>*<sup>+</sup></bold></td>
                <td align="center">88.98 &#177;9.90</td>
                <td align="center">89.34 &#177; 10.05</td>
                <td align="center">8.71 &#177; 0.10</td>
                <td align="center">8.69 &#177; 0.07</td>
                <td align="center">105.8 &#177; 3.70</td>
                <td align="center">104.3 &#177; 1.85</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">24</td>
                <td align="center">7.34 &#177; 0.19</td>
                <td align="center">6.99 &#177; 0.23<bold>*<sup>+</sup></bold></td>
                <td align="center">91.46 &#177;6.61</td>
                <td align="center">89.80 &#177; 8.59</td>
                <td align="center">8.69 &#177; 0.07</td>
                <td align="center">8.68 &#177; 0.14</td>
                <td align="center">105.9 &#177; 2.98</td>
                <td align="center">105.9 &#177; 2.11</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>There was a strong negative correlation between pD2 and SBP (r = -0.722, p &lt; 0.01). Moreover, we found a negative correlation between pD2 and VAT (r = -0.729, p &lt; 0.01), between pD2 and inflammatory cytokines (pD2 and IL-6, r = -0.74; pD2 and TNF-&#945;, r = -0.86; pD2 and CRP, r = -069, p &lt; 0.05) and a positive correlation between pD2 and adiponectin (r = 0.77, p &lt; 0.01).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Serum nitric oxide (NO) and aorta lipid peroxidation</title>
        <p>By quantification of serum NO metabolites, we observed that NO level decreased at 6 weeks in HFD rats and remained lower throughout the experimental period when compared to the CT group. The time of experiment had no effect on NO concentrations in CT and the HFD groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Serum nitric oxide (NO) concentration in rats of the control (CT) and high-fat diet (HFD) groups. *P &lt; 0.05, compared with CT group; + p &lt; 0.05, within-group comparison (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 weeks); seven rats from each group were compared at each time point</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Levels of lipid peroxidation in aorta increased at 12 weeks of a high-fat diet and remained high throughout the experimental period when compared to the CT group. In the HFD group, there was an increase in lipid peroxidation at 12 weeks when compared to 6 weeks (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Lipid peroxidation in aortic rings from rats of control (CT) and high-fat diet (HFD) groups. *P &lt; 0.05, compared with CT group; + p &lt; 0.05, within-group comparison (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 weeks); seven rats from each group were compared at each time point. CHP: cumene hydroperoxide.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Systolic blood pressure</title>
        <p>As shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref>, high-fat diet induced an increase in SBP at 12, 18 and 24 weeks in the HFD group when compared to the CT group. Moreover, a positive correlation was found between SBP and VAT (r = 0.756, p &lt; 0.01) in the HFD, and no significant differences in blood pressure were found in the CT group.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figure 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Systolic blood pressure in rats of control (CT) and high-fat diet (HFD) groups over 24 weeks. *P &lt; 0.05, compared with CT group; + p &lt; 0.05, within-group comparison (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 weeks); seven rats from each group were compared at each time point</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Alterations in the vascular structure</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> shows that high-fat diet induced an increase in aortic medial thickness after 18 weeks and 24 weeks, and decreased the ID after 24 weeks in HFD compared to CT group (p &lt; 0.05), resulting in an increase in the media thickness/lumen ratio after 18 and 24 weeks. In HFD group, there was an increase in the intima-media thickness after 18 weeks of high-fat diet, a decrease in the ID after 12 weeks, and an increase in the media thickness/lumen ratio in the aorta after 18 weeks of high-fat diet.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Quantitative values obtained from morphometrical analysis of thoracic aorta thickness from control group (CT, n = 7) and high-fat group (HFD, n = 7) rats. Results are expressed as means &#177; SD. * P &lt; 0.05, compared with CT group; + p &lt; 0.05, within-group comparison (0 <italic>vs</italic>. 6, 6 <italic>vs</italic>. 12, 12 <italic>vs</italic>. 18, 18 <italic>vs</italic>. 24 weeks)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="18%"/>
              <col width="16%"/>
              <col width="15%"/>
              <col width="15%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="2">Weeks</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">Media Thickness (&#181;m)</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">Internal diameter (ID) (&#181;m)</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">Media:lumen ratio</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="center">CT</th>
                <th align="center">HFD</th>
                <th align="center">CT</th>
                <th align="center">HFD</th>
                <th align="center">CT</th>
                <th align="center">HFD</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">0</td>
                <td align="center">157.99 &#177; 7.18</td>
                <td align="center">157.88 &#177; 4.75</td>
                <td align="center">2830.64 &#177; 75.20</td>
                <td align="center">2832.64 &#177; 75.98</td>
                <td align="center">0.056 &#177; 0.00</td>
                <td align="center">0.056 &#177; 0.01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">6</td>
                <td align="center">163.51 &#177; 7.51</td>
                <td align="center">163.64 &#177; 11.98</td>
                <td align="center">2967.21 &#177; 177.85+</td>
                <td align="center">2919.31 &#177; 145.46</td>
                <td align="center">0.054 &#177; 0.00</td>
                <td align="center">0.056 &#177; 0.00</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">12</td>
                <td align="center">162.82 &#177; 6.67</td>
                <td align="center">164.64 &#177; 9.64</td>
                <td align="center">2976.80 &#177; 167.73</td>
                <td align="center">2876.36 &#177; 99.89+</td>
                <td align="center">0.055 &#177; 0.01</td>
                <td align="center">0.057 &#177; 0.00</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">18</td>
                <td align="center">161.65 &#177; 9.95</td>
                <td align="center">178.20 &#177; 5.26 *+</td>
                <td align="center">2987.53 &#177; 156.18</td>
                <td align="center">2854.40 &#177; 133.40</td>
                <td align="center">0.054 &#177; 0.00</td>
                <td align="center">0.062 &#177; 0.00*+</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">24</td>
                <td align="center">164.21 &#177; 9.51</td>
                <td align="center">181.96 &#177; 9.73 *</td>
                <td align="center">3045.25 &#177; 168.01</td>
                <td align="center">2835.53 &#177; 167.74*</td>
                <td align="center">0.054 &#177; 0.00</td>
                <td align="center">0.064 &#177; 0.01*</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that has detected the time course of vascular function, vascular structure, oxidative stress and inflammatory status during the obesity progression in just one experimental model. Our findings showed that inflammatory state and endothelial dysfunction precedes the development of high blood pressure induced by high-fat diet. Obesity progression was associated with increased predisposition to pathological conditions and to common features of cardiovascular risk factors, including hypertension and endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The high-fat diet used in this study induced differences in adiposity between HFD and CT groups, validating our experimental model. The risk of developing obesity-related derangements is proportional to the degree of adiposity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> and, in particular, to the accumulation of fat in the visceral region.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> In this study, the HFD group had greater VAT mass at 6, 12, 18 and 24 weeks than the CT group.</p>
      <p>In obesity, the inflammatory status is distinctive,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> and is characterized by low-grade inflammation, which results in tissue remodeling and systemic metabolic deterioration over time.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Thus, detecting the time of increased inflammation is important for the development of therapeutic intervention.</p>
      <p>Adipose tissue is fundamental to the development of inflammation by inducing the increase of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-&#945; and IL-6,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> and a decrease in anti-inflammatory chemokines such as adiponectin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> In addition, it has been described that TNF-&#945; contributes to CRP elevation, which is a marker of low-grade inflammatory state, but also has a close relationship with dyslipidemia and endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> In mice, the HFD induced an elevation of IL-6 after 2, 4 and 6 months,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> and an increase in plasma levels of pro-inflammatory mediators TNF-&#945;, IL-6 after 15 weeks.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In the present study, we detected that the levels of inflammatory cytokines TNF-&#945;, IL-6 and CRP increased after 6 weeks in the HFD group and remained higher up to 24 weeks, while the adiponectin concentration was reduced and remained lower in the same period. These results indicate an early development of a low-grade inflammation state in this animal model. TNF-&#945; is involved in the systemic inflammatory response and its levels are increased in the adipose tissue of obese mice compared with lean controls.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> On the other hand, adiponectin, which improves cardiovascular functions and has anti-inflammatory effects<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> decreased after 6 weeks in HFD group and remained lower up to 24 weeks.</p>
      <p>Obesity is also associated with an impairment of endothelial cell function and promotes endothelial dysfunction through an array of metabolic disorders including the accumulation of adipose tissue, high blood pressure, dyslipidemia and diabetes, which are linked to vascular oxidative stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> The endothelium comprises the inner lining of blood vessels, and forms the interface between the circulating blood and the vascular wall. It also acts as an endocrine and paracrine organ, which regulates vascular function by secreting a variety of trophic and vasoactive factors that regulate vascular tone, cell adhesion, smooth muscle cell proliferation and inflammation of the vascular wall.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Endothelial dysfunction has a key role in the development of various cardiovascular diseases. In obesity, many factors could negatively affect the endothelium function, which include changes in blood pressure, glucose levels, lipid metabolism and inflammatory system, elevated levels of free fatty acids and oxidative stress, which in turn causes a reduction in the availability of NO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
			</p>
      <p>We observed that 6 weeks of high-fat diet was sufficient to induce endothelial dysfunction. Moreover, our results suggest that the impaired relaxation to acetylcholine observed in aortas from obese rats is related to a reduction of NO production. The HFD group showed the lowest serum concentration of NO at 6 weeks, which remained low up to 24 weeks. Consistent with our observations, various studies have shown obesity-induced impairment of endothelial function at different points of obesity development. Boustany-Kari et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> observed impaired endothelial function in rats fed for 11 weeks on a high-fat diet. In addition, 16 weeks of a high-fat diet in mice led to endothelial dysfunction and increases in systolic pressure in animals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Moreover, levels of TNF-&#945; are strongly correlated with adiposity and diminished vasodilation in resistance arteries of rats, and IL-6 levels are proportional to adiposity whose elevations result in direct impairments of endothelial function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> On the other hand, the decreased adiponectin levels are associated with dyslipidemia and cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, adiponectin can upregulate NO production by modulation of Ser1177 phosphorylation through AMPK and, conversely, IL-6 and TNF-&#945; decrease eNOS Ser1177 phosphorylation, resulting in diminished eNOS activity and less NO generation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In addition, we found a strong correlation between inflammatory cytokines (TNF-&#945;, IL-6, CRP) and endothelial function (pD<sub>2</sub>).</p>
      <p>Our findings are consistent with literature, showing that a high-fat diet treatment for 6 weeks was able to increase VAT. Interestingly, an inverse correlation was observed between VAT and endothelium function (pD<sub>2</sub>). In addition, the levels of these adipokines were altered at 6 weeks in the HFD group, confirming the concept of obesity-related endothelial dysfunction. We showed here that these events occur at an early stage of obesity development.</p>
      <p>Obesity is also strongly associated with hypertension, which is a major risk factor for the development of coronary heart diseases. In fact, 79% of hypertension in men was a direct result of excess weight.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Hypertension, characterized by chronic high blood pressure, has a multifactorial origin and an endothelial dysfunction can contribute to its genesis and maintenance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> In the present study, the high-fat diet induced an increase in the SBP at 12 weeks and it continued to increase reaching the maximum values at 18 weeks. These results are in accordance with Boustany et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> that observed a rise in blood pressure, and increased activity of adipose and systemic renin angiotensin system after 11 weeks of high-fat diet in rats. The Framingham Heart Study reported a close connection between body fat levels and blood pressure in both men and women, and that adiposity emerged as a major factor which can be controlled and that contributes to hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> The same occurred in our study, which showed a strong correlation between SBP and VAT.</p>
      <p>Interestingly, in the present study, structural alterations in the aorta occurred after a rise in blood pressure. It is well known that hypertension is associated with structural alterations in arteries that could contribute to maintaining hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> In addition, although not significantly, the media/lumen ratio starts to increase at 12 weeks, coinciding with the rise of blood pressure, and at 18 and 24 weeks, this increase becomes significant. Chen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> found that the high-fat diet induced the increase in media thickness after 9 weeks. Our findings are in good agreement with these reports.</p>
      <p>High-fat diet can also induce vascular pathogenesis, including effects on the aorta, leading to changes in vascular structure. Clinical and experimental studies have shown that increased body mass index is often associated with stiffening and increased arterial wall thickness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> These alterations found in this study are important predictors of increased cardiovascular mortality.</p>
      <p>Previous studies in animals suggested that hypertension is associated with an increased formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from all layers of the vascular wall.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> In agreement with these results, our findings showed an increase in lipid peroxidation (used as a marker of oxidative stress) in aortic rings at the same time that SBP increased, starting at 12 weeks. Moreover, Kobayasi et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> found a reduced antioxidant activity, increased local vascular inflammation and impaired endothelium-dependent relaxation in mice fed on a high fat diet at 16 weeks. The release of IL-6, mainly from abdominal adipocyte sources might have a pivotal role in the relationship between oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction. IL-6 and TNF-&#945; contribute to CRP elevation, a marker of low-grade inflammatory state, and also have a close relationship with endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
			</p>
      <p>As mentioned earlier, obesity is commonly associated with oxidative stress,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> which is able to modify vascular tonus by impeding NO bioavailability and/or signaling.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> We have observed that 6 weeks of high-fat diet decreased NO circulating levels without significant effects on aortic lipid peroxidation at this point of obesity progression. Thus, these results suggest that the decrease in circulating NO levels precedes the increase in oxidative stress. During the oxidative stress state, excessive production of ROS reduces the bioactivity of NO due to its rapid oxidative inactivation by the ROS superoxide (O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8722;</sup>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
			</p>
      <p>According to Victor et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> while visceral fat stores expand, adipocytes generate increasing levels of ROS. In the present study, the high-fat diet induced the accumulation of abdominal fat that could trigger lipid peroxidation in the aorta at 12 weeks, which persists up to 24 weeks.</p>
      <p>One limitation of this study was the fact that visceral fat mass was evaluated by dissection of adipose tissue. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), the gold standard method for assessment of body fat mass, would provide more comprehensive data of body composition; but, unfortunately, the method could not be performed in this study.</p>
      <p>Our data suggest that even at early stages of development, obesity (6 weeks) can trigger chronic inflammation and impairment of endothelial function. This impairment appears most closely related to inflammatory cytokines and expansion of VAT.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>In conclusion, development of obesity first led to a reduction of endothelial function, which continued to decline over the weeks, and to systemic inflammation, followed by an increase in blood pressure, lipid peroxidation and changes in aortic structure. Our work is relevant in showing the relationship of obesity with chronic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction and hypertension. Despite many studies in this area, the results we found are a further step towards to the development of therapeutic strategies to prevent these abnormalities.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Erratum</label>
        <p>In the Original Article &#8220;Endothelial Dysfunction and Inflammation Precedes Elevations in Blood Pressure Induced by a High-Fat Diet&#8221;, pages 558-567, by authors Jorge Camargo Oishi, Cynthia Aparecida Castro, Karina Ana Silva, Victor Fabricio, Evelin Capelari C&#225;rnio, Shane A. Phillips, Ana Claudia Garcia de Oliveira Duarte, Gerson Jhonatan Rodrigues, the correct affiliation of Dr. Shane A. Phillips is University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois - USA.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by CNPq and partially funded by FAPESP.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of Post Doctoral submitted by Jorge Camargo Oishi, from Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Carlos.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee on Animal Experiments of Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Carlos under the protocol number 026/2013.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hernandez-Mijares</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rocha</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in atherosclerosis: mitochondria-targeted antioxidants as potential therapy</article-title>
          <source>Curr Med Chem</source>
          <year>2009</year>
          <volume>16</volume>
          <issue>35</issue>
          <fpage>4654</fpage>
          <lpage>4667</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2174/092986709789878265</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
          <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
            <subject>Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Sist&#234;mica</subject>
          </subj-group>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Disfun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial e Inflama&#231;&#227;o Precedem a Eleva&#231;&#227;o da Press&#227;o Arterial Induzida por Dieta Hiperlip&#237;dica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oishi</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge Camargo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castro</surname>
            <given-names>Cynthia Aparecida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Karina Ana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fabricio</surname>
            <given-names>Victor</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>C&#225;rnio</surname>
            <given-names>Evelin Capelari</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Phillips</surname>
            <given-names>Shane A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Duarte</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Claudia Garcia de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rodrigues</surname>
            <given-names>Gerson Jhonatan</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Carlos (UFSCar), S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois - USA</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Jorge Camargo Oishi.</bold> Rua Rosalino Belline, 455. CEP 13564-050, Santa Paula, S&#227;o Carlos, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>jorgeoishi@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Oishi JC, Duarte ACGO, Rodrigues GJ; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Oishi JC, Castro CA, Silva KA, Fabricio V, C&#225;rnio EC, Duarte ACGO, Rodrigues GJ; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Oishi JC, Castro CA, Silva KA, Fabricio V, C&#225;rnio EC, Phillips SA, Duarte ACGO, Rodrigues GJ; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Oishi JC; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Oishi JC, Castro CA, Silva KA, Fabricio V, Duarte ACGO, Rodrigues GJ; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Oishi JC, Castro CA, Silva KA, C&#225;rnio EC, Phillips SA, Duarte ACGO, Rodrigues GJ.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>A obesidade leva a um estado de inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e hipertens&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Estabelecer a sequ&#234;ncia de eventos relacionados a marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) na obesidade em um modelo experimental.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Ratos Wistar machos (8 semanas de idade) receberam dieta padr&#227;o (Controle - CT, n = 35) ou uma dieta palat&#225;vel hiperlip&#237;dica (DHL, n = 35) por 24 semanas. A cada seis semanas, 7 animais de cada grupo foram aleatoriamente selecionados para eutan&#225;sia. Foram determinados a PAS, e n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de interleucina-6, fator de necrose tumoral-a, prote&#237;na C reativa, adiponectina e &#243;xido n&#237;trico. As fun&#231;&#245;es do m&#250;sculo liso endotelial e vascular foram determinadas na aorta dissecada, e medida a peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica. A signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica foi estabelecida em p &lt; 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>os n&#237;veis das citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias come&#231;aram a aumentar ap&#243;s seis semanas de dieta hiperlip&#237;dica, enquanto os n&#237;veis da citocina anti-inflamat&#243;ria adiponectina diminu&#237;ram. Um resultado interessante foi a redu&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e do &#243;xido n&#237;trico ap&#243;s seis semanas no grupo DHL. Al&#233;m disso, mostramos que a massa de tecido adiposo visceral total esteve negativamente correlacionada com fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e positivamente correlacionada com a PAS.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p> Nossos resultados demonstram a progress&#227;o temporal dos efeitos delet&#233;rios e sua correla&#231;&#227;o com a obesidade.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Endot&#233;lio / anormalidades</kwd>
        <kwd>Dieta Hiperlip&#237;dica</kwd>
        <kwd>&#211;xido N&#237;trico</kwd>
        <kwd>Dislipidemias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Atualmente, a obesidade e as comorbidades associadas s&#227;o um dos principais problemas de sa&#250;de em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos e em desenvolvimento, reduzindo tanto a qualidade como a expectativa de vida, e aumentando o risco de mortalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> A obesidade &#233; caracterizada por ac&#250;mulo excessivo de tecido adiposo e est&#225; fortemente associada com o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, dislipidemia e hipertens&#227;o. Existe um meio pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio associado &#224; obesidade que parece piorar os desfechos cardiovasculares<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> e, segundo a Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares s&#227;o atualmente uma das principais causas de mortalidade no mundo.</p>
        <p>Um grande n&#250;mero de dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos &#233; causado pela obesidade. Entre eles, a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial exerce um papel importante no desenvolvimento de resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e hipertens&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> H&#225; quase tinta e cinco anos, descobriu-se que as c&#233;lulas endoteliais poderiam modular relaxamentos e contra&#231;&#245;es da musculatura lisa vascular, apresentando o conceito de que o controle do t&#244;nus vascular &#233; dependente do endot&#233;lio da musculatura lisa vascular subjacente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O endot&#233;lio produz v&#225;rios fatores de relaxamento (EDRFs, <italic>endothelium-derived relaxing factors</italic>), fatores de hiperpolariza&#231;&#227;o (EDHFs), e fatores de contra&#231;&#227;o (EDCFs). Por meio de um adequado equil&#237;brio entre a libera&#231;&#227;o de EDHFs e EDCFs, o endot&#233;lio exerce um papel fundamental na manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase circulat&#243;ria. Qualquer altera&#231;&#227;o nesse equil&#237;brio pode resultar em disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Estudos pr&#233;vios demonstraram o in&#237;cio de hipertens&#227;o e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial na obesidade induzida por dieta hiperlip&#237;dica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Contudo, se e em qual ordem elas ocorrem n&#227;o foi bem definido, bem como ainda n&#227;o foi determinada a rela&#231;&#227;o temporal entre ganho de peso, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea em resposta a uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica. Portanto, o objetivo do presente estudo foi determinar a sequ&#234;ncia em que ocorrem a inflama&#231;&#227;o, a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, e o aumento da press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea ap&#243;s uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica usada para induzir a obesidade.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Animais e tratamentos diet&#233;ticos</title>
          <p>O protocolo experimental estava de acordo com as diretrizes do Col&#233;gio Brasileiro de Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal (COBEA) e foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Carlos (026/2013).</p>
          <p>Setenta ratos machos Wistar com 8 semanas de vida, pesando entre 250 e 300g foram alocados em dois grupos experimentais com comida e &#225;gua <italic>ad libitum</italic> por 24 semanas - controle (CT, n = 35) que recebeu uma dieta padr&#227;o ou DHL (n = 35) que recebeu uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica, que consistiu em uma dieta padr&#227;o acrescida de amendoim, chocolate ao leite, e biscoitos em uma propor&#231;&#227;o de 3:2:2:1 conforme descrito anteriormente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> A dieta padr&#227;o e a dieta hiperlip&#237;dica continham, respectivamente, 20/20% de prote&#237;na, 4,5/20% de gordura e 55/40% de carboidrato.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Os valores energ&#233;ticos das dietas foram de aproximadamente 4,07 kcal/g para a dieta padr&#227;o e de 5,12 kcal/g para DHL. No tempo 0 e ap&#243;s cada 6 semanas, 7 ratos do grupo CT e 7 do grupo DHL foram submetidos &#224; eutan&#225;sia aleatoriamente, e o sangue foi coletado para an&#225;lise experimental.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Medidas de press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea em ratos conscientes</title>
          <p>A press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) indireta foi medida dois dias antes da eutan&#225;sia a cada 6 semanas, utilizando pletismografia de cauda (Power Lab 8/35, AD Instruments, Pty Ltda, CO), conforme descrito por Rodrigues et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> A PAS m&#233;dia foi calculada a partir de quatro (em m&#233;dia) medidas sucessivas realizadas em cada animal.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Estudos de reatividade vascular</title>
          <p>Os animais foram anestesiados com isoflurano e submetidos &#224; eutan&#225;sia por decapita&#231;&#227;o. As aortas foram isoladas e limpas de tecido conjuntivo aderente, e colocadas em solu&#231;&#227;o de Krebs, conforme descrito.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> As aortas foram seccionadas em an&#233;is (&#8773; 4 mm de comprimento), colocadas em c&#226;mara contendo solu&#231;&#227;o de Krebs a 37&#186;C, aeradas continuamente com 95% de O<sub>2</sub> e 5% de CO<sub>2</sub>, pH 7,4 em um mi&#243;grafo isom&#233;trico (modelo 610 DMT-EUA). O registro foi realizado por um sistema de aquisi&#231;&#227;o de dados PowerLab8/SP (AD Instruments Pty Ltd., Colorado). Os an&#233;is a&#243;rticos foram submetidos a uma tens&#227;o de 1,5 g, que foi reajustada a cada 15 minutos durante um per&#237;odo de equil&#237;brio de 60 minutos antes da adi&#231;&#227;o da droga. Os experimentos foram realizados em an&#233;is a&#243;rticos com endot&#233;lio intacto e tamb&#233;m em an&#233;is a&#243;rticos desprovidos de endot&#233;lio. A integridade endotelial foi avaliada pelo grau de relaxamento induzido por acetilcolina (ACH) a 1 &#181;mol/L na presen&#231;a de t&#244;nus contr&#225;til induzido por fenilefrina (0,1 &#181;M). Considerava-se que o anel possu&#237;a endot&#233;lio intacto se o relaxamento com acetilcolina fosse maior que 80%. Em aortas desprovidas de endot&#233;lio, o relaxamento com ACH foi menor que 5%. Ap&#243;s o teste de integridade endotelial, os an&#233;is a&#243;rticos foram pr&#233;-contra&#237;dos com fenilefrina (100 nM). Quando o plat&#244; foi alcan&#231;ado, curvas de concentra&#231;&#227;o-efeito para nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio (SNP) doador de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) foram constru&#237;das nos an&#233;is a&#243;rticos sem endot&#233;lio. As curvas de concentra&#231;&#227;o foram ajustadas com uma equa&#231;&#227;o dose-resposta sigmoidal que revelou o efeito m&#225;ximo (EMax) e o logaritmo negativo do agonista que produz metade da resposta m&#225;xima (pD2) usando o programa GraphPad Prism (GraphPad Software In, EUA).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Composi&#231;&#227;o de Gordura Corporal</title>
          <p>O tecido adiposo visceral (TAV) foi dissecado (tecido adiposo branco mesent&#233;rico, epididimal e retroperitoneal) e pesado para avaliar a adiposidade central.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica da aorta (oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#237;on ferroso em xilenol laranja - FOX)</title>
          <p>As aortas foram isoladas e limpas de tecido conjuntivo aderente. A metodologia foi descrita por Jiang et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> A oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#237;on ferroso em xilenol laranja (FOX) mede os per&#243;xidos lip&#237;dicos (hidroper&#243;xido de cumeno - HPC), um dos principais produtos da peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica. Para o teste padr&#227;o, os seguintes reagentes foram adicionados na sequ&#234;ncia: 0,25 mM FeSO<sub>4</sub>, 25 mM H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, 0,1 mM xilenol laranja, e &#225;gua at&#233; completar o volume de 0,9 mL. Uma amostra do extrato de tecido (20-100 &#181;L) foi adicionada, e o volume final ajustado a 1 mL com &#225;gua. Os brancos foram preparados substituindo-se o extrato de tecido por &#225;gua. As amostras foram incubadas &#224; temperatura ambiente at&#233; o final da rea&#231;&#227;o (40 minutos), e a absorb&#226;ncia a 560 nm foi medida.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Nitrito e nitrato s&#233;ricos (NOx)</title>
          <p>Os n&#237;veis de &#243;xido n&#237;trico s&#233;rico foram obtidos medindo-se as concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de seus produtos finais est&#225;veis nitrito (NO<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>) e nitrato (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>), coletivamente conhecidos como NOx, conforme descrito anteriormente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> O m&#233;todo de quimioluminesc&#234;ncia de NO/oz&#244;nio foi realizado utilizando-se o aparelho de an&#225;lise de NO (NO Analyzer 280i, Sievers, Boulder, CO, EUA).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Determina&#231;&#227;o de adiponectina e citocinas inflamat&#243;rias</title>
          <p>A quantifica&#231;&#227;o de adiponectina e das citocinas inflamat&#243;rias - fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;), interleucina 6 (IL-6) e prote&#237;na C- reativa (PCR) no soro foi realizada utilizando-se o kit de ensaio de imunoadsor&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica (ELISA). IL-6 e TNF-&#945; foram avaliados utilizando-se kits comerciais OptEIA (BD Biosciences, Pharmingen, EUA). A adiponectina e a PCR foram analisadas utilizando-se kits Duo Set (R&amp;D Systems, EUA). Todos os kits foram usados de acordo com as instru&#231;&#245;es do fabricante, e os resultados de todas as citocinas avaliadas expressos em pg/mL.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o morfol&#243;gica e histol&#243;gica</title>
          <p>Os segmentos da aorta foram rapidamente limpos de tecidos adjacentes e sangue, cortados em an&#233;is e fixados em formalina 37% e em blocos de parafina. Em seguida, se&#231;&#245;es de 4 &#181;m de espessura foram cortadas com um micr&#243;tomo (Leitz 1512, IMEB, EUA), transferidas para l&#226;minas de microsc&#243;pio e coradas com hematoxilina e eosina usando m&#233;todos padr&#245;es. Imagens de se&#231;&#245;es transversais dos segmentos arteriais foram capturadas usando uma c&#226;mera conectada a um microsc&#243;pio &#243;tico (Leica DM 2000). O di&#226;metro externo (DE) foi obtido medindo-se as superf&#237;cies da t&#250;nica advent&#237;cia e do di&#226;metro interno (DI) a partir da superf&#237;cie endotelial. A espessura da camada m&#233;dia foi obtida dividindo-se a diferen&#231;a (DE - DI) por dois (d = ED - ID/2). A raz&#227;o camada m&#233;dia/l&#250;men foi calculada a partir dos dados da &#225;rea. As imagens foram analisadas utilizando-se o programa ImageJ, conforme descrito anteriormente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>A normalidade da distribui&#231;&#227;o (de todas as vari&#225;veis quantitativas e cont&#237;nuas) foi testada pelo teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. Foi necess&#225;ria uma amostra de 7 animais em cada grupo para conferir um poder estat&#237;stico de 85% com um alfa bicaudal de 0,05 para pD2 e de 90% para todas as outras vari&#225;veis analisadas neste estudo. As diferen&#231;as entre os grupos CT e DHL foram comparadas por an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia (ANOVA) de dois fatores com medidas repetidas. Quando diferen&#231;as eram apontadas, a an&#225;lise post-hoc de Newman-Keuls foi usada com signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica estabelecida em p &lt; 0,05. Esses dados s&#227;o expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; DP (programa Statistica 7.0, StatSoft. Inc, EUA). Os dados de reatividade vascular de pD2 e MaxE foram expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; DP com p &lt; 0,05 estabelecido como signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica (Graphpad Prism 3.0). A correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson foi realizada entre pD2 e a PAS, pD2 e VAT, press&#227;o arterial e VAT, IL-6 e pD2, TNF-&#945; e pD2, CRP e pD2, e entre adiponectina e pD2, com signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica de 5%.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Tecido adiposo visceral total (TAV)</title>
          <p>A soma dos pesos dos tecidos adiposos retroperitoneal, visceral e epididimal foi maior no grupo DHL que no grupo CT na sexta semana. Na semana 24, o peso do tecido adiposo foi 300% maior no grupo DHL que no grupo CT. TAV no grupo CT aumentou na semana 12 em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; semana 6, mas permaneceu inalterado at&#233; o final do experimento (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f7">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Tecido adiposo visceral (TAV) nos grupos controle (CT) e dieta hiperlip&#237;dica (DHL) ao longo das semanas. *P &lt; 0,05, comparado ao grupo CT; + p &lt; 0,05, compara&#231;&#227;o intragrupo (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 semanas). A cada seis semanas, 7 animais de cada grupo foram avaliados.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Status inflamat&#243;rio</title>
          <p>As citocinas inflamat&#243;rias IL-6, TNF-&#945; e PCR estavam aumentadas no soro dos animais do grupo DHL nas semanas 6, 12, 18 e 24 em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo CT (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figuras 2A</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">C</xref>). Por outro lado, os n&#237;veis de adiponectina s&#233;rica diminu&#237;ram no grupo DHL ap&#243;s 6, 12, 18 e 24 semanas de experimento (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2D</xref>). No grupo CT, n&#227;o houve altera&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de citocina.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f8">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Valores s&#233;ricos das citocinas: IL-6 (A), fator de necrose tumoral-&#945; (TNF-&#945;) (B), prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR) (C) e adiponectina (D) nos grupos controle (CT) e dieta hiperlip&#237;dica (DHL). *P &lt; 0,05, comparado ao grupo CT; + p &lt; 0,05, compara&#231;&#227;o intragrupo (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 semanas). A cada seis semanas, 7 animais de cada grupo foram avaliados.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Reatividade vascular</title>
          <p>N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as no relaxamento dependente do endot&#233;lio induzido pela acetilcolina (pD2) no grupo CT durante todo o per&#237;odo de experimento. Por outro lado, pD2 foi deficiente nas aortas dos animais obesos nas semanas 6, 12, 18 e 24 em compara&#231;&#227;o aos ratos controles. Al&#233;m disso, observamos uma diminui&#231;&#227;o no pD2 durante o per&#237;odo experimental no grupo DHL (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figuras 3B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">C</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f9">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Curva concentra&#231;&#227;o-resposta &#224; acetilcolina (relaxamento dependente de endot&#233;lio) nos an&#233;is a&#243;rticos dos ratos do grupo controle (CT) (A) e grupo dieta hiperlip&#237;dica (DHL) (B) e metade da resposta m&#225;xima (pD2) em ambos os grupos (C). *P &lt; 0,05, CT vs. DHL a cada 6 semanas; + p &lt; 0,05, compara&#231;&#227;o intragrupo (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 semanas). A cada seis semanas, 7 animais de cada grupo foram avaliados.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as no efeito m&#225;ximo de relaxamento (Emax) nos grupos CT e DHL. Nos an&#233;is a&#243;rticos desprovidos de endot&#233;lio, n&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as de pD2 ou Emax ao relaxamento independente de endot&#233;lio induzido por SNP nos grupos CT e DHL em todas as semanas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Metade da resposta m&#225;xima (pD2) e efeito m&#225;ximo (Emax) nos an&#233;is a&#243;rticos dos ratos do grupo controle (CT) e grupo dieta hiperlip&#237;dica (DHL). *P &lt; 0,05, CT vs. DHL a cada 6 semanas; + p &lt; 0,05, compara&#231;&#227;o intragrupo (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 semanas)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3">Semanas</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="4">Endot&#233;lio intacto</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="4">Desprovidos de endot&#233;lio</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">pD2</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">Emax(%)</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">pD2</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">Emax(%)</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="center">CT</th>
                  <th align="center">DHL</th>
                  <th align="center">CT</th>
                  <th align="center">DHL</th>
                  <th align="center">CT</th>
                  <th align="center">DHL</th>
                  <th align="center">CT</th>
                  <th align="center">DHL</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">0</td>
                  <td align="center">7,58 &#177; 0,25</td>
                  <td align="center">7,58 &#177; 0,22</td>
                  <td align="center">90,67 &#177; 7,40</td>
                  <td align="center">90,87 &#177; 7,14</td>
                  <td align="center">8,69 &#177; 0,13</td>
                  <td align="center">8,68 &#177; 0,23</td>
                  <td align="center">103,8 &#177; 2,77</td>
                  <td align="center">104,6 &#177; 3,38</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">6</td>
                  <td align="center">7,52 &#177; 0,07</td>
                  <td align="center">7,37 &#177; 0,18<bold>*<sup>+</sup></bold></td>
                  <td align="center">93,42 &#177; 6,80</td>
                  <td align="center">90,31 &#177; 7,64</td>
                  <td align="center">8,67 &#177; 0,21</td>
                  <td align="center">8,66 &#177; 0,22</td>
                  <td align="center">98,3 &#177; 4,10</td>
                  <td align="center">100,2 &#177; 7,67</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">12</td>
                  <td align="center">7,48 &#177; 0,18</td>
                  <td align="center">7,23 &#177; 0,11<bold>*<sup>+</sup></bold></td>
                  <td align="center">89,17 &#177; 8,80</td>
                  <td align="center">90,90 &#177; 7,67</td>
                  <td align="center">8,69 &#177; 0,10</td>
                  <td align="center">8,71 &#177; 0,13</td>
                  <td align="center">102,5 &#177; 2,48</td>
                  <td align="center">103,9 &#177; 3,43</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">18</td>
                  <td align="center">7,42 &#177; 0,22</td>
                  <td align="center">7,12 &#177; 0,15<bold>*<sup>+</sup></bold></td>
                  <td align="center">88,98 &#177; 9,90</td>
                  <td align="center">89,34 &#177; 10,05</td>
                  <td align="center">8,71 &#177; 0,10</td>
                  <td align="center">8,69 &#177; 0,07</td>
                  <td align="center">105,8 &#177; 3,70</td>
                  <td align="center">104,3 &#177; 1,85</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">24</td>
                  <td align="center">7,34 &#177; 0,19</td>
                  <td align="center">6,99 &#177; 0,23<bold>*<sup>+</sup></bold></td>
                  <td align="center">91,46 &#177; 6,61</td>
                  <td align="center">89,80 &#177; 8,59</td>
                  <td align="center">8,69 &#177; 0,07</td>
                  <td align="center">8,68 &#177; 0,14</td>
                  <td align="center">105,9 &#177; 2,98</td>
                  <td align="center">105,9 &#177; 2,11</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Houve uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre pD2 e PAS (r = -0,722, p &lt; 0,01). Al&#233;m disso, encontramos uma correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre pD2 e TAV (r = -0,729, p &lt; 0,01), entre pD2 e citocinas inflamat&#243;rias (pD2 e IL-6, r = -0,74; pD2 e TNF-&#945;, r = -0,86; pD2 e CRP, r = -069, p &lt; 0,05), e uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre pD2 e adiponectina (r = 0,77, p &lt; 0,01).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>&#211;xido n&#237;trico s&#233;rico (NO) e peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica da aorta</title>
          <p>A partir da quantifica&#231;&#227;o dos metab&#243;litos de NO, observamos que os n&#237;veis de NO diminu&#237;ram na sexta semana nos ratos DHL e permaneceram mais baixos durante o per&#237;odo experimental em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo CT. O tempo de experimento n&#227;o teve efeito sobre as concentra&#231;&#245;es de NO nos grupos CT ou DHL (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f10">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) nos ratos do grupo controle (CT) e grupo dieta hiperlip&#237;dica (DHL) *P &lt; 0,05, CT vs. DHL a cada 6 semanas; + p &lt; 0,05, compara&#231;&#227;o intragrupo (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 semanas). A cada seis semanas, 7 animais de cada grupo foram avaliados.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Os n&#237;veis de peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica na aorta aumentaram na 12&#170; semana de dieta hiperlip&#237;dica e permaneceram altos durante o experimento em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo CT. No grupo DHL, houve um aumento na peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica na semana 12 em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; semana 6 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f11">
              <label>Figura 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica nos an&#233;is a&#243;rticos de ratos dos grupos controle (CT) e dieta hipelip&#237;dica (DHL). *P &lt; 0,05, CT vs. DHL a cada 6 semanas; + p &lt; 0,05, compara&#231;&#227;o intragrupo (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 semanas). A cada seis semanas, 7 animais de cada grupo foram avaliados. HPC: hidroper&#243;xido de cumeno.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf05-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica</title>
          <p>Como mostrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 6</xref>, a dieta hiperlip&#237;dica induziu um aumento na PAS nas semanas 12, 18 e 24 no grupo DHL em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo CT. Al&#233;m disso, observou-se uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre PAS e TAV (r = 0,756, p &lt; 0,01) no grupo DHL, e n&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as significativas na press&#227;o arterial no grupo CT.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f12">
              <label>Figura 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica nos ratos dos grupos controle (CT) e dieta hiperlip&#237;dica (DHL) ao longo de 24 semanas. *P &lt; 0,05, CT vs. DHL a cada 6 semanas; + p &lt; 0,05, compara&#231;&#227;o intragrupo (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 semanas). A cada seis semanas, 7 animais de cada grupo foram avaliados.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0558-80086-gf06-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Altera&#231;&#245;es na estrutura vascular</title>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref> mostra que a dieta hiperlip&#237;dica induziu um aumento na espessura da camada m&#233;dia da aorta ap&#243;s 18 e 24 semanas e diminuiu o DI ap&#243;s 24 semanas no grupo DHL em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo CT (p &lt; 0,05). No grupo DHL, houve um aumento na espessura da camada &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia ap&#243;s 18 semanas de dieta hiperlip&#237;dica, uma redu&#231;&#227;o no DI ap&#243;s 12 semanas, e um aumento na raz&#227;o espessura da &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia/l&#250;men na aorta ap&#243;s 18 semanas de dieta hiperlip&#237;dica.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Valores quantitativos obtidos da an&#225;lise morfom&#233;trica da espessura da aorta dos ratos do grupo controle (CT, n = 7) e grupo dieta hiperlip&#237;dica (DHL, n = 7). Resultados s&#227;o expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; DP. *P &lt; 0,05, CT vs. DHL a cada 6 semanas; + p &lt; 0,05, compara&#231;&#227;o intragrupo (0 vs. 6, 6 vs. 12, 12 vs. 18, 18 vs. 24 semanas)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="14%"/>
                <col width="14%"/>
                <col width="18%"/>
                <col width="16%"/>
                <col width="15%"/>
                <col width="15%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2">Semanas</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">Espessura da camada m&#233;dia (&#181;m)</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">Di&#226;metro interno (ID) (&#181;m)</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">Raz&#227;o camada m&#233;dia:l&#250;men</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="center">CT</th>
                  <th align="center">DHL</th>
                  <th align="center">CT</th>
                  <th align="center">DHL</th>
                  <th align="center">CT</th>
                  <th align="center">DHL</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">0</td>
                  <td align="center">157,99 &#177; 7,18</td>
                  <td align="center">157,88 &#177; 4,75</td>
                  <td align="center">2830,64 &#177; 75,20</td>
                  <td align="center">2832,64 &#177; 75,98</td>
                  <td align="center">0,056 &#177; 0,00</td>
                  <td align="center">0,056 &#177; 0,01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">6</td>
                  <td align="center">163,51 &#177; 7,51</td>
                  <td align="center">163,64 &#177; 11,98</td>
                  <td align="center">2967,21 &#177; 177,85+</td>
                  <td align="center">2919,31 &#177; 145,46</td>
                  <td align="center">0,054 &#177; 0,00</td>
                  <td align="center">0,056 &#177; 0,00</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">12</td>
                  <td align="center">162,82 &#177; 6,67</td>
                  <td align="center">164,64 &#177; 9,64</td>
                  <td align="center">2976,80 &#177; 167,73</td>
                  <td align="center">2876,36 &#177; 99,89+</td>
                  <td align="center">0,055 &#177; 0,01</td>
                  <td align="center">0,057 &#177; 0,00</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">18</td>
                  <td align="center">161,65 &#177; 9,95</td>
                  <td align="center">178,20 &#177; 5,26 *+</td>
                  <td align="center">2987,53 &#177; 156,18</td>
                  <td align="center">2854,40 &#177; 133,40</td>
                  <td align="center">0,054 &#177; 0,00</td>
                  <td align="center">0,062 &#177; 0,00*+</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">24</td>
                  <td align="center">164,21 &#177; 9,51</td>
                  <td align="center">181,96 &#177; 9,73 *</td>
                  <td align="center">3045,25 &#177; 168,01</td>
                  <td align="center">2835,53 &#177; 167,74*</td>
                  <td align="center">0,054 &#177; 0,00</td>
                  <td align="center">0,064 &#177; 0,01*</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Em nosso conhecimento, este &#233; o primeiro estudo a identificar a ordem de ocorr&#234;ncia de mudan&#231;as na fun&#231;&#227;o e estrutura vascular, no estresse oxidativo e no status inflamat&#243;rio durante a progress&#227;o da obesidade em um &#250;nico modelo experimental. Nossos resultados mostraram que a inflama&#231;&#227;o e a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial precedem o desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o induzida por dieta hiperlip&#237;dica. A progress&#227;o da obesidade esteve associada com maior predisposi&#231;&#227;o a condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas e a caracter&#237;sticas comuns dos fatores de risco cardiovasculares, incluindo hipertens&#227;o e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A dieta hiperlip&#237;dica utilizada neste estudo induziu mudan&#231;as na adiposidade entre grupos CT e DHL, validando nosso modelo experimental. O risco de se desenvolver disfun&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; obesidade &#233; proporcional ao grau de adiposidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> e, particularmente, ao ac&#250;mulo de gordura na regi&#227;o visceral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> No presente estudo, o grupo DHL apresentou maior massa de TAV nas semanas 6, 12, 18 e 24 que o grupo CT.</p>
        <p>O estado inflamat&#243;rio na obesidade &#233; caracter&#237;stico,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> marcado por uma baixo grau de inflama&#231;&#227;o, o que resulta na remodela&#231;&#227;o tecidual e deteriora&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica sist&#234;mica ao longo do tempo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Assim, identificar o aumento da inflama&#231;&#227;o na obesidade &#233; importante para o desenvolvimento de interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica.</p>
        <p> O tecido adiposo &#233; fundamental no desenvolvimento de inflama&#231;&#227;o ao induzir o aumento de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, incluindo TNF-&#945; e IL-6,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> e uma diminui&#231;&#227;o nas quimiocinas anti-inflamat&#243;rrias, como a adiponectina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Al&#233;m disso, o TNF-&#945; parece contribuir para a eleva&#231;&#227;o de PCR, a qual &#233; um marcador de inflama&#231;&#227;o de baixo grau, mas tamb&#233;m tem uma rela&#231;&#227;o pr&#243;xima com dislipidemia e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Em camundongos, a DHL induziu um aumento no IL-6 ap&#243;s 2, 4 e 6 meses,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> e nos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de mediadores TNF-&#945;, IL-6 ap&#243;s15 semanas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>No presente estudo, observamos que os n&#237;veis de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias TNF-&#945;, IL-6 e PCR aumentaram ap&#243;s 6 semanas no grupo DHL e permaneceram elevados at&#233; 24 semanas, enquanto que a concentra&#231;&#227;o de adiponectina diminuiu e permaneceu baixa nesse per&#237;odo. Esses resultados indicam um desenvolvimento precoce de uma inflama&#231;&#227;o de baixo grau neste modelo animal. O TNF-&#945; est&#225; envolvido na resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica, e seus n&#237;veis est&#227;o aumentados no tecido adiposo em camundongos obesos em compara&#231;&#227;o a controles magros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Por outo lado, a adiponectina, que melhora a fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular e possui efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> diminuiu ap&#243;s 6 semanas no grupo DHL e permaneceu mais baixa at&#233; a semana 24.</p>
        <p>A obesidade tamb&#233;m est&#225; associada com dist&#250;rbio na fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula endotelial e promove disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial por meio de desordens metab&#243;licas, incluindo ac&#250;mulo de tecido adiposo, hipertens&#227;o, dislipidemia e diabetes, os quais est&#227;o associados ao estresse oxidativo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> O endot&#233;lio compreende a camada interna dos vasos sangu&#237;neos, e forma a interface entre o sangue circulante e a parede vascular. Ele tamb&#233;m atua como um &#243;rg&#227;o end&#243;crino e par&#225;crino, que regula a fun&#231;&#227;o vascular pela secre&#231;&#227;o de uma variedade de fatores tr&#243;ficos e vasoativos que regulam o t&#244;nus vascular, ades&#227;o celular, prolifera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas e inflama&#231;&#227;o da parede vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial exerce um papel chave no desenvolvimento de v&#225;rias doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Na obesidade, muitos fatores podem afetar negativamente a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, incluindo mudan&#231;as na press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, nos n&#237;veis glic&#234;micos, no metabolismo lip&#237;dico e no sistema inflamat&#243;rio, n&#237;veis elevados de &#225;cidos graxos e estresse oxidativo, que, por sua vez, causa uma redu&#231;&#227;o na disponibilidade de NO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Observamos que 6 meses de dieta hiperlip&#237;dica foi suficiente para induzir a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Ainda, nossos resultados sugerem que um dist&#250;rbio no relaxamento &#224; acetilcolina, observado nas aortas de ratos obesos, est&#225; relacionado a uma redu&#231;&#227;o na produ&#231;&#227;o de NO. O grupo DHL apresentou as concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas mais baixas de NO na 6&#170; semana, que permaneceram baixas at&#233; a 24&#170; semana. Concordantes com nossos achados, v&#225;rios estudos mostraram uma disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial induzida pela obesidade em diferentes momentos de seu desenvolvimento. Boustany-Kari et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> observaram fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial prejudicada em ratos alimentos com uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica durante 11 semanas. Al&#233;m disso, 16 semanas de uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica em camundongos causou disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e aumento na press&#227;o sist&#243;lica nesses animais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Ainda, n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; est&#227;o fortemente correlacionados com adiposidade e vasodilata&#231;&#227;o diminu&#237;da em art&#233;rias de resist&#234;ncia dos ratos, e n&#237;veis de IL-6 s&#227;o proporcionais &#224; adiposidade, cuja eleva&#231;&#227;o resulta em implica&#231;&#245;es diretas na fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Por outro lado, n&#237;veis diminu&#237;dos de adiponectina est&#227;o associados &#224; dislipidemia e a doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Al&#233;m disso, a adiponectina pode mediar um aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o de NO pela modula&#231;&#227;o da fosforila&#231;&#227;o de Ser1177 pela AMPK; j&#225; IL-6 e TNF-&#945; diminuem a fosforila&#231;&#227;o de eNOS Ser1177, resultando em atividade do eNOS diminu&#237;da e menos gera&#231;&#227;o de NO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Encontramos tamb&#233;m uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre citocinas inflamat&#243;rias - TNF-&#945;, IL-6, CRP e fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial (pD<sub>2</sub>).</p>
        <p>Nossos achados s&#227;o consistentes com a literatura, que mostram que o tratamento com dieta hiperlip&#237;dica por 6 semanas foi capaz de aumentar TAV. Um resultado interessante foi a correla&#231;&#227;o inversa entre TAV e fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial (pD2). Ainda, os n&#237;veis dessas adipocinas estavam alterados na sexta semana no grupo DHL, o que corrobora o conceito da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial relacionada &#224; obesidade. N&#243;s demonstramos neste estudo que esses eventos ocorrem em um est&#225;gio precoce do desenvolvimento da obesidade.</p>
        <p>A obesidade tamb&#233;m est&#225; fortemente associada com hipertens&#227;o, a qual &#233; um fator de risco importante para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as coronarianas. De fato, 79% da hipertens&#227;o em homens resultou diretamente do excesso de peso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> A hipertens&#227;o, caracterizada por press&#227;o elevada cr&#244;nica, tem origem multifatorial, e a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial pode contribuir para sua g&#234;nese e manuten&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> No presente estudo, a dieta hiperlip&#237;dica induziu a um aumento na PAS em 12 semanas, que continuou aumentando at&#233; atingir valores m&#225;ximos em 18 semanas. Esses resultados est&#227;o de acordo com Boustany et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> que observaram um aumento na press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, e na atividade do sistema renina-angiotensina do tecido adiposo e sist&#234;mico ap&#243;s 11 semanas de dieta hiperlip&#237;dica nos ratos. O estudo <italic>Framingham Heart Study</italic> descreveu uma forte rela&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de gordura corporal e press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea tanto em homens como em mulheres, e que a adiposidade surgiu como um importante fator que pode ser controlado e que contribui com a hipertens&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> O mesmo ocorreu em nosso estudo, que mostrou uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre PAS e TAV.</p>
        <p>Outro achado interessante de nosso estudo foi o fato de que altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais na aorta ocorreram ap&#243;s aumento na press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea. Sabe-se que a hipertens&#227;o est&#225; associada com altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais nas art&#233;rias, que poderiam contribuir para a manuten&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a raz&#227;o camada m&#233;dia/l&#250;men come&#231;ou a aumentar (embora de uma maneira n&#227;o significativa) em 12 semanas, coincidindo com o aumento na press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea; esse aumento tornou-se significativo em 18 e 24 semanas. Chen et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> relataram que a dieta hiperlip&#237;dica induziu um aumento na espessura da camada m&#233;dia ap&#243;s 9 semanas. Nossos resultados est&#227;o de acordo com esses estudos.</p>
        <p>A dieta hiperlip&#237;dica tamb&#233;m pode induzir a patog&#234;nese vascular, incluindo efeitos sobre a aorta, levando a altera&#231;&#245;es na estrutura vascular. Estudos cl&#237;nicos e experimentais mostraram que um &#237;ndice de massa corporal aumentado est&#225; frequentemente associado com enrijecimento e aumento na espessura da parede arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Estudos pr&#233;vios envolvendo animais sugeriram que a hipertens&#227;o est&#225; associada com forma&#231;&#227;o aumentada de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (EROs) a partir de todas as camadas da parede vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Em concord&#226;ncia com esses estudos, nossos resultados mostraram um aumento na peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica (usado como marcador de estresse oxidativo) em an&#233;is a&#243;rticos, paralelamente ao aumento da PAS, iniciando nas 12 semanas. Al&#233;m disso, Kobayasi et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> encontraram uma atividade antioxidante reduzida, inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular local aumentada, e um relaxamento dependente de endot&#233;lio deficiente em camundongos alimentados com dieta hiperlip&#237;dica em 16 semanas. A libera&#231;&#227;o de IL-6, principalmente a partir de adip&#243;citos abdominais, pode ter um papel fundamental na rela&#231;&#227;o entre estresse oxidativo e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. IL-6 e TNF-&#945; contribuem para a eleva&#231;&#227;o da PCR, um marcador de estado inflamat&#243;rio de baixo grau, e est&#227;o relacionados com disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Conforme mencionado anteriormente, a obesidade &#233; comumente associada com estresse oxidativo,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> o qual &#233; capaz de modificar o t&#244;nus vascular impedindo a disponibilidade e/ou a sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de NO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Observamos que a dieta hiperlip&#237;dica durante 6 semanas diminuiu os n&#237;veis de NO circulante sem efeitos significativos sobre a peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica nesse per&#237;odo de desenvolvimento da obesidade. Assim, esses resultados sugerem que a diminui&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de NO antecede o aumento no estresse oxidativo. Durante o estresse oxidativo, a produ&#231;&#227;o excessiva de EROs reduz a bioatividade de NO devido &#224; sua r&#225;pida inativa&#231;&#227;o oxidativa pela ERO super&#243;xido (O<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Segundo Victor et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> enquanto os estoques de gordura visceral se expandem, os adip&#243;citos geram n&#237;veis crescentes de EROs. No presente estudo, a dieta hiperlip&#237;dica levou ao ac&#250;mulo de gordura abdominal que poderia induzir a peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica na aorta em 12 semanas, o que persistiria at&#233; 24 semanas.</p>
        <p>Uma limita&#231;&#227;o deste estudo foi o fato de que a massa de gordura visceral foi avaliada por dissec&#231;&#227;o do tecido adiposo. A absorciometria com raios X de dupla energia (DXA), m&#233;todo padr&#227;o ouro para avalia&#231;&#227;o de gordura corporal, forneceria dados mais completos sobre a composi&#231;&#227;o corporal; mas, infelizmente, o m&#233;todo n&#227;o p&#244;de ser utilizado neste estudo.</p>
        <p>Nossos dados sugerem que mesmo em fases iniciais de desenvolvimento (6 semanas), a obesidade pode gerar inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Tal defici&#234;ncia parece mais intimamente relacionada com citocinas inflamat&#243;rias e expans&#227;o do TAV.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>O desenvolvimento da obesidade primeiramente levou a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, que continuou a diminuir ao longo das semanas, e &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, seguido de um aumento na press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica e mudan&#231;as na estrutura a&#243;rtica. Nosso estudo &#233; relevante ao mostrar a rela&#231;&#227;o da obesidade com inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e hipertens&#227;o. Apesar de muitos estudos na &#225;rea, os resultados encontrados representam um passo a mais em dire&#231;&#227;o ao desenvolvimento de estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas para prevenir essas condi&#231;&#245;es.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Errata</label>
          <p>No Artigo Original &#8220;Disfun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial e Inflama&#231;&#227;o Precedem a Eleva&#231;&#227;o da Press&#227;o Arterial Induzida por Dieta Hiperlip&#237;dica&#8221;, p&#225;ginas 558-567, dos autores Jorge Camargo Oishi, Cynthia Aparecida Castro, Karina Ana Silva, Victor Fabricio, Evelin Capelari C&#225;rnio, Shane A. Phillips, Ana Claudia Garcia de Oliveira Duarte, Gerson Jhonatan Rodrigues, a afilia&#231;&#227;o correta do Dr. Shane A. Phillips &#233; University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois - USA.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pelo CNPq e parcialmente financiado pela FAPESP.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de P&#243;s-Doutorado de Jorge Camargo Oishi pela Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Carlos.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pela Comiss&#227;o de &#201;tica em Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Carlos sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 026/2013.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
