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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.8" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">G9kTXBZzgVRWcTcdXwFjV7z</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2018000600514</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20180076</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
          <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
            <subject>Hypertension</subject>
          </subj-group>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Metabolic Syndrome-Related Features in Controlled and Resistant Hypertensive Subjects</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Catharina</surname>
            <given-names>Arthur Santa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Modolo</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ritter</surname>
            <given-names>Alessandra Mileni Versuti</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sabbatini</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;a Rodrigues</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Heno Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreno</surname>
            <given-names>Heitor</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faria</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Campinas</city>
          <state>SP</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas - Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>S&#227;o Paulo</city>
          <state>SP</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Arthur Santa Catharina.</bold> Rua Manoel Avelino, 09. Postal Code 13450-445, Vila Lin&#243;polis, Santa B&#225;rbara d'Oeste, Campinas, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>arthurscatharina@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, Obtaining financing and Writing of the manuscript: Catharina AS, Faria AP; Acquisition of data: Sabbatini AR, Catharina AS, Ritter AMV, Faria AP; Analysis and interpretation of the data and Statistical analysis: Catharina AS, Modolo R, Ritter AMV, Faria AP; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Sabbatini AR, Catharina AS, Modolo R, Ritter AMV, Lopes HF, Moreno Junior H.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>110</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>514</fpage>
      <lpage>521</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>01</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is widespread among hypertensive patients. Clinical features and potential biomarkers of MetS in the presence of hypertension and resistant hypertension (RHTN) represent a great area of interest for investigation.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of MetS and the clinical features associated with it in resistant and mild to moderate hypertensives.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>This cross-sectional study included 236 patients, (i) 129 mild to moderate hypertensive patients and (ii) 107 patients with RHTN. We measured blood pressure (BP) and adipokines levels, and performed bioelectrical impedance analysis. Microalbuminuria (MA), cardiac hypertrophy and arterial stiffness were also assessed. The significance level of alpha = 0.05 was adopted.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>We found a MetS prevalence of 73% in resistant and 60% in mild-to-moderate hypertensive patients. In a multiple regression analysis, MA (odds ratio = 8.51; p = 0.01), leptin/adiponectin ratio (LAR) (odds ratio = 4.13; p = 0.01) and RHTN (odds ratio = 3.75; p = 0.03) were independently associated with the presence of MetS apart from potential confounders.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions:</title>
          <p>Our findings suggest that both resistant and controlled hypertensive subjects have a high prevalence of MetS. In addition, MetS-related metabolic derangements may cause early renal and hormonal changes. Finally, LAR may be useful as a reliable biomarker for identifying those hypertensive subjects who are at risk for developing MetS.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Metabolic Syndrome / diagnosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases / mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>Cholesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>Waist Circumference</kwd>
        <kwd>Triglycerides</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that affects approximately a quarter of worldwide adult population, which makes it a serious public health challenge.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Ever since the MetS was described in 1988,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> several scientific organizations have attempted to formulate a general definition for the syndrome. The National Cholesterol Education Program - Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP-ATPIII) definition<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> has become the most widely used definition, probably because it provides a relatively simple approach for diagnosing MetS with easily measurable risk factors.</p>
      <p>The relationship between MetS and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) is noteworthy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> In the largest meta-analysis on the theme comprising nearly one million patients, MetS was associated with a 2-fold increase in risk of CVD, cardiovascular mortality, myocardial infarction and stroke, and a 1.5-fold increase in the risk of all-cause mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The negative prognostic impact of MetS was also observed in patients with hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Studies have shown a high prevalence of hypertension-related asymptomatic organ damage in hypertensive patients with MetS, such as left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), elevated urinary albumin excretion rate and arterial stiffness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> The majority of these patients have shown a deregulated production of adipokines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Adiponectin, an adipokine with anti-atherogenic, insulin sensitization, lipid oxidation, and vasodilatation activities<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> showed to be decreased in obese and subjects with essential and resistant<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> hypertension (RHTN). In contrast, elevated leptin levels are associated with MetS, hypertension and atherosclerosis. On the other hand, there are few data regarding MetS, resistant hypertension and mild to moderate hypertension. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of MetS and the clinical features associated with MetS in resistant and mild to moderate hypertensive patients.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Study population</title>
        <p>In this cross-sectional study, a convenience sample of 107 resistant and 129 mild to moderate hypertensive patients regularly followed at the Resistant Hypertension Outpatient Clinic and Hypertension Outpatient Clinic of the University of Campinas (Campinas, Brazil) were enrolled, and classified into those with MetS (n = 157) and without MetS (n = 79). Suitable subjects who agreed to participate in the study were screened for a 6-month period of clinical follow-up to exclude (i) secondary hypertension (pheochromocytoma, aortic coarctation, Cushing's or Conn's syndrome, renal artery stenosis and obstructive sleep apnea) and (ii) pseudoresistance hypertension, including poor medication adherence (verified by pill counts) and white coat hypertension (verified by ambulatory blood pressure monitoring-ABPM).</p>
        <p>The diagnosis of "true" RHTN was done according to the 2008 American Heart Association Scientific Statement,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> the last guideline published which properly defines a condition as (1) high blood pressure (BP) levels despite the use of at least three antihypertensive agents of different classes or (2) controlled BP after the use of four or more drugs. Ideally, one of the three agents should be a diuretic and all agents should be prescribed at optimal doses. Mild to moderate hypertensive subjects (grade I and II hypertension) were defined in accordance to the 2013 European Society of Hypertension (ESH) guidelines,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> the last guideline on essential hypertension. Exclusion criteria were clinically-evident coronary artery disease or cerebrovascular disease, significant impaired renal or liver function, myocardial infarction and peripheral vascular disease.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagnosis of MetS</title>
        <p>Diagnosis of MetS was determined according to the criteria proposed by the NCEP-ATPIII revised in 2005,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> as the presence of at least three of the following criteria: (i) waist circumference (WC) &#8805; 88 cm for women or &#8805; 102 cm for men, (ii) HDL-cholesterol &lt; 50 mg/dL for women or 40 mg/dL for men, (iii) triglycerides &#8805; 150 mg/dL (or in current use of fibrate), (iv) cutoff BP values of &#8805; 130/85 mmHg (or current antihypertensive treatment), and (v) fasting glucose &#8805; 100 mg/dL (or current treatment for type 2 diabetes).</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA)</title>
          <p>Fat-free mass (FFM), fat mass (FM), total body water (TBW) and basal metabolic rate (BMR) were determined by BIA using the Bioimpedance Analyser 450 (Biodynamics Corporation, Seattle, USA). The measurements were performed after 4-hour period of fasting. Also, patients were instructed to avoid physical activity and smoking prior to the examination.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Office and Ambulatory BP measurements</title>
          <p>Office systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP) were evaluated at approximately 08:00 a.m. in the right arm using a validated digital sphygmomanometer (HEM-907XL, OMRON Healthcare Inc., Bannockburn, IL, USA).</p>
          <p>The 24-h ABPM measurements were performed with a validated automatic device (Spacelabs 90217, Spacelabs Inc, Redmon, WA, USA), and measurements were taken every 20min. Patients were instructed to maintain their usual daily activities and inform them in a personal diary. Both office and ambulatory BP measurements were performed according to 2013 ESH guidelines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biochemical measurements</title>
          <p>The laboratory exams analyzed were: fasting blood glucose (FBG), insulin, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), serum sodium and potassium, plasma cortisol, total cholesterol, low and high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDLc and HDLc, respectively), triglycerides, urea, creatinine and renin. The values between 30 and 300 mg/g of urine albumin/creatinine ratio grouped the patients as having microalbuminuria (MA) for comparisons of early renal damage. Plasma concentrations of adiponectin and leptin (R&amp;D Systems, Minneapolis, USA) were determined by ELISA and aldosterone (Immunotech SAS, Marseille, France) by chemiluminescence, according to the manufacturer's instructions.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pulse wave velocity</title>
          <p>Arterial stiffness was determined by pulse wave velocity (PWV), in meters per second (m/s), dividing the distance between the right carotid and femoral arteries by the pulse transit time through these two sites of interest. We used the Sphygmocor device (AtCor Medical, USA), synchronized with the electrocardiogram. We used the mean of two PWV values in the analyses, or the median of three consecutive readings if the difference between the two measurements was greater than 0.5 m/s. The patients were considered as having arterial rigidity if PWV &#8805; 10 m/s, for comparisons of vascular damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Echocardiography</title>
        <p>Left ventricular (LV) measurements were performed according to the recommendations of the American Society of Echocardiography using two-dimensional M-mode echocardiography.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Examinations were performed by an echocardiography expert and reviewed by two blinded investigators, following standard technique, using a cardiovascular ultrasound machine (Siemens Acuson CV70, Munich, Bavaria, Germany) with a multi-frequency sector transducer (2-4 MHz). We calculated LV mass index (LVMI), and considered those with LVMI &gt; 95 g/m<sup>2</sup> (females) and &gt; 115 g/m<sup>2</sup> (males) as having left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). The intraobserver and interobserver coefficients of variation were less than 9.5% for the LVMI.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analyses</title>
        <p>For continuous variables we calculated the mean and standard deviation or median (1st, 3rd quartiles), according to normal distribution, measured by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. We compared them using either unpaired Student&#180;s t-test or Mann-Whitney test, according to distribution of data. Categorical variables were presented in absolute numbers and/or percentages and compared by chi-square test. A logistic regression model was applied to determine association of clinical variables with the presence of MetS, apart from potential confounders. All statistical tests were performed using SigmaPlot 12.5 version (Systat software, Inc.). A significance level of alpha = 0.05 was adopted.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>Baseline characteristics of hypertensive subjects with and without MetS are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>. We found a MetS prevalence of 66% in all hypertensive population. No differences were found between groups regarding age, race and gender. As expected, BMI, WC, FM and TBW were higher in hypertensive patients with MetS. Office heart rate (HR) was significantly higher in patients with MetS. Neither office and ambulatory BP levels nor the proportion of patients with uncontrolled office BP (&#8805; 140/90 mmHg) were different between groups. The patients with MetS showed a higher prevalence of MA compared to their counterparts. The medication use was similar between groups, except for the calcium channel blockers and antidiabetics that were higher in MetS group (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>General characteristics of hypertensive patients with and without metabolic syndrome</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">Patients with MetS (n = 157)</th>
              <th align="center">Patients without MetS (n = 79)</th>
              <th align="center">p-value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Clinical data</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Age (years)</td>
              <td align="center">63 (56 &#8211; 70)</td>
              <td align="center">65 (56 &#8211; 71)</td>
              <td align="center">0.39</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">White race (%)</td>
              <td align="center">122 (77)</td>
              <td align="center">52 (65)</td>
              <td align="center">0.05</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Female gender (%)</td>
              <td align="center">106 (67)</td>
              <td align="center">47 (59)</td>
              <td align="center">0.23</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">BMI (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">31 (27 &#8211; 34)</td>
              <td align="center">26 (23 &#8211; 28)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">WC (cm)</td>
              <td align="center">100 &#177; 13</td>
              <td align="center">89 &#177; 12</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">FFM (Kg)</td>
              <td align="center">54 (46 &#8211; 62)</td>
              <td align="center">52 (44 &#8211; 63)</td>
              <td align="center">0.13</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">FM (Kg)</td>
              <td align="center">24 (19 &#8211; 31)</td>
              <td align="center">17 (13 &#8211; 23)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">TBW (%)</td>
              <td align="center">74 (72 &#8211; 75)</td>
              <td align="center">73 (72 &#8211; 75)</td>
              <td align="center">0.03</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">BMR (cal/day)</td>
              <td align="center">1672 (1436 &#8211; 1947)</td>
              <td align="center">1616 (1369 &#8211; 1954)</td>
              <td align="center">0.23</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Office SBP(mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">142 (134 &#8211; 150)</td>
              <td align="center">146 (132 &#8211; 154)</td>
              <td align="center">0.39</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Office DBP(mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">82 (75 &#8211; 89)</td>
              <td align="center">82 (80 &#8211; 88)</td>
              <td align="center">0.44</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Office HR (bpm)</td>
              <td align="center">67 (61 &#8211; 76)</td>
              <td align="center">64 (58 &#8211; 72)</td>
              <td align="center">0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">24h-ABPM SBP(mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">128 (118 &#8211; 139)</td>
              <td align="center">129 (118 &#8211; 136)</td>
              <td align="center">0.78</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">24h-ABPM DBP(mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">77(70 &#8211; 81)</td>
              <td align="center">78 (70 &#8211; 86)</td>
              <td align="center">0.28</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ABPM HR (bpm)</td>
              <td align="center">64 &#177; 14</td>
              <td align="center">64 &#177; 13</td>
              <td align="center">0.94</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Uncontrolled office BP (%)</td>
              <td align="center">96 (61)</td>
              <td align="center">48 (60)</td>
              <td align="center">0.97</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>TODs</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">MA &#8805; 30 (mg.g<sup>-1</sup>), n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">31 (20)</td>
              <td align="center">3 (4)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">PWV &#8805; 10 (m.s<sup>-1</sup>), n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">68 (43)</td>
              <td align="center">35 (44)</td>
              <td align="center">0.94</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LVH, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">83 (53)</td>
              <td align="center">44 (55)</td>
              <td align="center">0.96</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Medication</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
              <td align="center">
							</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Total anti-HA drugs</td>
              <td align="center">3 (2 &#8211; 4)</td>
              <td align="center">3 (2 &#8211; 4)</td>
              <td align="center">0.27</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Diuretics, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">123 (78)</td>
              <td align="center">64 (80)</td>
              <td align="center">0.75</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">CCBs, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">112 (71)</td>
              <td align="center">42 (52)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ACEIs, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">36 (22)</td>
              <td align="center">26 (32)</td>
              <td align="center">0.13</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ARAs, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">108 (69)</td>
              <td align="center">48 (60)</td>
              <td align="center">0.27</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Beta-blockers, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">67 (43)</td>
              <td align="center">28 (35)</td>
              <td align="center">0.39</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Spironolactone, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">33 (21)</td>
              <td align="center">8 (10)</td>
              <td align="center">0.06</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Central &#945;-agonists, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">24 (15)</td>
              <td align="center">8 (10)</td>
              <td align="center">0.37</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Oral antidiabetics, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">90 (57)</td>
              <td align="center">16 (20)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Statins, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">111 (70)</td>
              <td align="center">51 (63)</td>
              <td align="center">0.41</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Antiplatelet drugs, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">67 (43)</td>
              <td align="center">23 (29)</td>
              <td align="center">0.06</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN01">
            <p>Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation or median (1st, 3rd quartiles), according to data distribution. Continuous variables were compared using unpaired Student&#180;s t-test or Mann-Whitney test, according to data distribution. Categorical variables were compared by chi-square test. BMI: body mass index; WC: waist circumference; FFM: fat free mass; FM: fat mass; TBW: total body water; BMR: basal metabolic rate; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; HR: heart rate; ABPM: ambulatory blood pressure monitoring; LVH: left ventricular hypertrophy; MA: microalbuminuria; PWV: pulse wave velocity; CCBs: calcium channel blockers; ACEIs: angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors; ARAs: angiotensin II receptor antagonist; TODs: target organ damages.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>As expected, the evaluation of biochemical parameters showed increased triglycerides, as well as fasting glucose and HbA1c in subjects with MetS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>). Additionally, adiponectin levels were significantly lower in patients with MetS, while leptin demonstrated to be increased in those patients, compared to the subjects without MetS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t2">
        <label>Table 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Biochemical parameters of hypertensive patients with and without metabolic syndrome</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="24%"/>
            <col width="30%"/>
            <col width="26%"/>
            <col width="20%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">Patients with MetS (n = 157)</th>
              <th align="center">Patients without MetS (n = 79)</th>
              <th align="center">p-value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Cholesterol (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">166 (139 &#8211; 192)</td>
              <td align="center">179 (150 &#8211; 200)</td>
              <td align="center">0.06</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LDL-c (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">88 (70 &#8211; 111)</td>
              <td align="center">98 (73 &#8211; 118)</td>
              <td align="center">0.19</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">HDL-c (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">43 (37 &#8211; 49)</td>
              <td align="center">57 (51 &#8211; 65)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Triglycerides (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">142 (97 &#8211; 199)</td>
              <td align="center">81 (68 &#8211; 115)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">FBG (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">107 (95 &#8211; 130)</td>
              <td align="center">91 (86 &#8211; 97)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">HbA1c (%)</td>
              <td align="center">6.30 (6&#8211; 7.40)</td>
              <td align="center">5.90 (5.50 &#8211; 6)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">hs-CRP (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">0.39 (0.17 &#8211; 0.65)</td>
              <td align="center">0.25 (0.11 &#8211; 0.48)</td>
              <td align="center">0.02</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Na (mEq.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">141 (140 &#8211; 143)</td>
              <td align="center">142 (138 &#8211; 143)</td>
              <td align="center">0.61</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">K (mEq.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">4.40 (4.10 &#8211; 4.70)</td>
              <td align="center">4.30 (4.20 &#8211; 4.60)</td>
              <td align="center">0.82</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">PAC (ng.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">83 (48 &#8211; 162)</td>
              <td align="center">65 (41 &#8211; 125)</td>
              <td align="center">0.10</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">CC (ml.min<sup>-1</sup>.(1,73m<sup>2</sup>)<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">80 (55 &#8211; 97)</td>
              <td align="center">71 (53 &#8211; 94)</td>
              <td align="center">0.53</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Creatinine (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">0.93 (0.80 &#8211; 1.12)</td>
              <td align="center">0.95 (0.77 &#8211; 1.20)</td>
              <td align="center">0.97</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Renin (pg.ml<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">23 (12 &#8211; 64)</td>
              <td align="center">30 (11 &#8211; 80)</td>
              <td align="center">0.78</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Urea (mg.mL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">35 (26 &#8211; 44)</td>
              <td align="center">36 (28 &#8211; 44)</td>
              <td align="center">0.81</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Cortisol (ug.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">14 (10 &#8211; 20)</td>
              <td align="center">14 (10 &#8211; 16)</td>
              <td align="center">0.44</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Leptin (ng.mL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">21.0 (14.40&#8211;41.60)</td>
              <td align="center">15.70 (6.30&#8211;33.20)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Adiponectin (&#181;g.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">5.30 (2.60&#8211; 7.80)</td>
              <td align="center">7.50 (3.80 &#8211; 11.90)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LAR</td>
              <td align="center">4.81 (2.14 &#8211; 10.80)</td>
              <td align="center">2.22 (1.10 &#8211; 5.20)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LAR &gt; 3.72, n (%)</td>
              <td align="center">85 (54)</td>
              <td align="center">24 (30)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN02">
            <p>Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation or median (1st, 3rd quartiles), according to data distribution. Continuous variables were compared using unpaired Student&#180;s t-test or Mann-Whitney test, according to data distribution. Categorical variables were compared by chi-square test. MetS: metabolic syndrome; LDL-c: low density lipoprotein-c; HDL-c: high density lipoprotein-c; FBG: fasting blood glucose; HbA1C: glycated hemoglobin; hs-CRP: high-sensitivity c-reactive protein; Na: serum sodium; K: serum potassium; PAC: plasma aldosterone concentration; CC: creatinine clearance; LAR &gt; 3.7: leptin adiponectin ratio &gt; 3.7 (the cutoff value was determined by median value).</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Finally, the multiple logistic regression revealed that MA, leptin/adiponectin ratio (LAR) and resistance to antihypertensive treatment were independently associated with the presence of MetS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t3">
        <label>Table 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Multiple logistic regression for the presence of metabolic syndrome<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">*</xref>
					</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">Odds ratio</th>
              <th align="center">95% CI</th>
              <th align="center">p-value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LAR &gt; 3.7</td>
              <td align="center">4.13</td>
              <td align="center">1.38 &#8211; 12.34</td>
              <td align="center">0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">HR (bpm)</td>
              <td align="center">0.97</td>
              <td align="center">0.92 &#8211; 1.03</td>
              <td align="center">0.39</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">MA &gt; 30 (mg.g<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">8.51</td>
              <td align="center">1.53 &#8211; 47.14</td>
              <td align="center">0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">hs-CRP (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">2.92</td>
              <td align="center">0.83 &#8211; 10.19</td>
              <td align="center">0.09</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">RHTN</td>
              <td align="center">3.75</td>
              <td align="center">1.09 &#8211; 12.92</td>
              <td align="center">0.03</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN03">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>The variables in this model were also adjusted for age, gender and race. MetS: metabolic syndrome; hs-CRP: high-sensitivity c-reactive protein; HR: heart rate; MA: microalbuminuria; RHTN: resistant hypertension; LAR &gt; 3.7: leptin adiponectin ratio &gt; 3.7 (the cutoff value was determined by median value).</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>Our main findings suggest that MA and increased LAR are associated with the presence of MetS in hypertensive population, apart from potential confounders. Also, resistance to antihypertensive treatment is strongly associated with MetS. The high prevalence of these coexisting conditions - hypertension and MetS - may explain the increased prevalence of hypertension-related target organ damage (TOD), such as elevated urinary albumin excretion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Additionally, this early renal organ damage may in part explain the increased cardiovascular risk conferred by MetS in hypertensive patients, since this marker of TOD is a well-known predictor of CV events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> In this sense, the identification and treatment of risk factors for cardiovascular and renal diseases, as well as an early detection of hypertension-related TOD may directly affect the prognosis of hypertensive patients with MetS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Our finding of increased MA in hypertensive patients with MetS is supported by previous studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> The common underlying mechanisms that may explain increased MA in patients with MetS include factors such as: (i) overactivation of the renin-angiotensin system; (ii) increase in oxidative stress and (iii) inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> In addition, the presence of MA may affect reflect progressive endothelial and vascular dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> It is worth to mention that we found no difference in BP levels between the groups. Thus, in our cross-sectional study MA is probably associated with other components that comprise MetS. Another hypothesis is that the greater use of calcium channel blockers by hypertensive patients with MetS could have resulted in BP control, but not in avoiding early renal damage, in agreement with several studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Another point to be mentioned is that despite of the greater use of antidiabetic drugs by patients with MetS, HbA1c remained higher in this group. On the other hand, studies<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> have consistently shown that levels of HbA1c &lt; 7% are associated with a reduced risk of structural and clinical manifestations of diabetic nephropathy in patients with diabetes type 1 and type 2. For instance, the U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> demonstrated a nearly 30% risk reduction for the development of MA in the group intensively treated for hyperglycemia (HbA1c of 7%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Hypoadiponectinemia and hyperleptinemia are commonly found in hypertensive and obese patients. Previous studies have shown an inverse association between adiponectin levels and low-grade albuminuria in essential<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> and resistant hypertensive patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Similarly in experimental studies, adiponectin knockout rats have higher levels of albuminuria (twice above normal values), and after replacement of the protein, albuminuria returned to its normal levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Hyperleptinemia is also an independent risk factor for coronary artery disease <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> and strong predictor of acute myocardial infarction. Besides that, leptin acts as a powerful sympathostimulator, associated with increased BP and tachycardia, which consequently contributes to obesity-related hypertension and kidney damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Furthermore, a study has supported that the LAR is more beneficial than either alone for the diagnosis of MetS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> The use of LAR has the potential to assess insulin sensitivity and MetS in the non-fasting state, since the difference between adiponectin and leptin tends to be small in the fasting <italic>versus</italic> postprandial state.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Our study showed that LAR was independently associated with the presence of MetS. There are several studies that relate MetS to various cytokines and adipokines, but no biomarker is currently used in clinical practice to help in predicting and establishing MetS in individuals. Therefore, the deregulated adipokine levels (LAR) might be a valuable tool for diagnosis, prognosis or even early detection of MetS in the high-risk hypertensive population, although these associations should be tested. This may also guide a rational therapeutic approach and risk management, since adipokines are altered after lifestyle modifications and medications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The prevalence of MetS has been increasing worldwide,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> and it is higher in hypertensive patients than in general population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> In our study, we found a considerable prevalence of MetS in all hypertensive subjects (66%) - 73% in resistant and 60% in mild-to-moderate hypertensive patients. Similar data have been reported in the Global Cardiometabolic Risk Profile in Patients with hypertension disease (GOOD) study,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> in which 58% of essential hypertensive patients had MetS. Indeed, other similar study also indicated a high proportion of RHTN among patients with MetS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> This high prevalence may be explained by the older age of the population in the studies, since prevalence of MetS is highly age-dependent.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> In our study, RHTN was associated with MetS independently of potential confounders. Although our study does not affirm causality between this association, it seems reasonable to say that the metabolic derangements associated with MetS promote alterations in the vasculature and the kidney that might lead to RHTN and chronic kidney disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Furthermore, the increased renal impairment in patients with MetS is probably linked to the underlying condition of prior hypertension in these patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). In this context, our findings highlighted the importance of improving strategies to prevent cardiovascular and renal outcomes. Still, it points out that not only RHTN patients require a close clinical attention, but also mild to moderate hypertensive subjects, who demonstrated a high prevalence of MetS comparable to RHTN patients.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Diagrammatic representation of the metabolic syndrome effects on hypertension and resistant hypertension (RHTN). Abbreviations: renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); central nervous system (CNS).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0514-80076-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Finally, pharmacological approaches should be carried out in order to improve obesity, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia and hypertension<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> for renal protection. However, the cornerstone of treating MetS remains lifestyle modification,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> which mainly involves healthy diet, aerobic exercise, and behavioral counseling. To date, current guidelines do not specifically address the management of mild to moderate hypertension and RHTN in the patient with MetS. However, considering the increased risk of developing diabetes in these patients, it seems reasonable that the first consideration in antihypertensive treatment is to be focused on the inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system with either angiotensin converting enzyme or angiotensin II receptor inhibitors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> There has been increasing interest in combination strategies of antihypertensive agents in RHTN patients with MetS to reduce the pill burden. Future works are still needed to define the best antihypertensive therapy in this group of high-risk patients.</p>
      <p>The limitations of this study include: (i) the cross-sectional design with no cause-effect inference; (ii) a small sample size and (iii) inclusion of patients from one outpatient clinic only. Although studies have shown significant differences between patients with mild to moderate hypertension and RHTN,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> we did not dichotomize the hypertensive population because they both had a high prevalence of SMet with similar metabolic profile, then contributing to the objective of evaluating the influence of SMet on all these subjects together.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>In summary, our study showed that MetS is significantly associated with MA, RHTN and adipokines levels. These findings suggest that hypertensive patients with MetS tend to develop early manifestations of end-organ damage with metabolic/hormonal changes, culminating in increased cardiovascular risk and renal impairment. However, as we mentioned earlier, we cannot infer from this cross-sectional study the exact nature of the association between MetS, MA, RHTN and adipokines levels. Early diagnosis of MetS in hypertensive patients may enable more accurate prediction of adverse cardiovascular events and renal impairment, as well as the implementation of more efficient strategies in terms of primary prevention. Besides that, prompt identification of MetS in resistant hypertensive patients allows modification of multiple risk factors that promote resistance to antihypertensive therapy, as well as guide the treatment to individual components of the syndrome. Thus, targeted treatment to individual components of the syndrome along with weight loss and lifestyle modifications can prevent resistance to antihypertensive treatment, as well as contribute to effective therapy in resistant hypertensive patients with MetS. Given the alterations that MetS confers on RHTN, future clinical trials can begin to address this important topic. Once the syndrome is identified, lifestyle changes and a different therapeutic approach can enhance the prognosis of the disease. Indeed, further studies on LAR in a larger hypertensive population with MetS is needed to assess whether this marker is sensitive and specific for identifying those who are at risk for developing MetS. The LAR could be used as a relatively easy, minimally-invasive tool for early MetS diagnosis and, consequently, decrease the chance of maladaptive effects caused by this syndrome.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was partially funded by FAPESP, CNPq and CAPES.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Estadual de Campinas under the protocol number 188.161 (CAAE: 11189712.8.0000.5404). All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
          <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
            <subject>Hipertens&#227;o Arterial</subject>
          </subj-group>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Caracter&#237;sticas Relacionadas &#224; S&#237;ndrome Metab&#243;lica em Indiv&#237;duos com Hipertens&#227;o Controlada e Hipertens&#227;o Resistente</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Catharina</surname>
            <given-names>Arthur Santa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
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            <surname>Modolo</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo</given-names>
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        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
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            <given-names>Alessandra Mileni Versuti</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sabbatini</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;a Rodrigues</given-names>
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          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
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            <given-names>Heno Ferreira</given-names>
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          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
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            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
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        </contrib>
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        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas - Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Arthur Santa Catharina.</bold> Rua Manoel Avelino, 09. CEP 13450-445, Vila Lin&#243;polis, Santa B&#225;rbara d'Oeste, Campinas, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>arthurscatharina@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Catharina AS, Faria AP; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Catharina AS, Ritter AMV, Sabbatini AR, Faria AP; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Catharina AS, Modolo R, Ritter AMV, Faria AP; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Catharina AS, Modolo R, Ritter AMV, Sabbatini AR, Lopes HF, Moreno Junior H, Faria AP.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamentos:</title>
          <p>A s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (SM) &#233; comum em pacientes hipertensos. As caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e os potenciais biomarcadores da SM na presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o e hipertens&#227;o resistente (HR) representam uma ampla &#225;rea de interesse a ser investigada.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a preval&#234;ncia de SM e as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas associadas &#224; s&#237;ndrome em indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o resistente e leve a moderada.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Este estudo transversal incluiu 236 pacientes, (i) 129 pacientes com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada e (ii) 107 pacientes com HR. Medimos a press&#227;o arterial (PA), par&#226;metros bioqu&#237;micos e os n&#237;veis de adipocinas dos pacientes, al&#233;m de microalbumin&#250;ria (MA), hipertrofia card&#237;aca e rigidez arterial. Foi adotado o n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de alfa 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>A SM esteve presente em 73% dos pacientes com HR e 60% daqueles com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada. Na an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o m&#250;ltipla, a MA (odds ratio = 8,51; p = 0,01), a raz&#227;o leptina/adiponectina (RLA) (odds ratio = 4,13; p = 0,01) e a HR (odds ratio = 3,75; p = 0,03) foram independentemente associadas com a presen&#231;a de SM, excluindo-se potenciais fatores de confus&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es:</title>
          <p>Nossos resultados sugerem que tanto hipertensos resistentes como hipertensos controlados apresentam alta preval&#234;ncia de SM. Al&#233;m disso, dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos relacionados &#224; SM podem causar altera&#231;&#245;es precoces renais e hormonais, e a RLA parece ser &#250;til como biomarcador confi&#225;vel para identificar indiv&#237;duos hipertensos em risco de desenvolverem SM.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome Metab&#243;lica / diagn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares / mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Colesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>Circunfer&#234;ncia da Cintura</kwd>
        <kwd>Triglic&#233;rides</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A S&#237;ndrome Metab&#243;lica (SM) &#233; um grupo de dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos que acomete aproximadamente um quarto da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta em todo o mundo, o que a torna um s&#233;rio desafio na sa&#250;de p&#250;blica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> A SM foi descrita em 1988<sup>(2 )</sup>e, desde ent&#227;o, v&#225;rias organiza&#231;&#245;es cient&#237;ficas tentam formular uma defini&#231;&#227;o geral para a s&#237;ndrome. A defini&#231;&#227;o do Programa Nacional de Educa&#231;&#227;o sobre o Colesterol - Painel de Tratamento do Adulto III (<italic>National Cholesterol Education Program - Adult Treatment Panel</italic> III (NCEP-ATPIII)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> tornou-se a mais utilizada, provavelmente porque ela prop&#245;e uma abordagem simples para o diagn&#243;stico de SM a partir de fatores de risco facilmente mensur&#225;veis.</p>
        <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre a SM e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCVs) &#233; not&#225;vel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Na maior meta-an&#225;lise sobre o tema envolvendo quase um milh&#227;o de pacientes, a SM associou-se com um risco duas vezes maior para DCV, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, acidente vascular cerebral, e mortalidade por DCV, e 1,5 vez maior risco de mortalidade por todas as causas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O impacto progn&#243;stico negativo da SM tamb&#233;m foi observado em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Estudos demonstraram uma alta preval&#234;ncia de les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo em pacientes com SM assintom&#225;ticos, tais como hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE), elevada taxa de excre&#231;&#227;o de albumina urin&#225;ria e enrijecimento arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> A maioria desses pacientes apresentaram uma produ&#231;&#227;o desregulada de adipocinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> A adiponectina, uma adipocina com atividade antiaterog&#234;nica, de sensibiliza&#231;&#227;o &#224; insulina, oxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica e vasodilatadora<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> est&#225; diminu&#237;da em obesos e em indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o essencial e resistente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Contudo, existem poucos dados sobre SM, hipertens&#227;o resistente (HR) e hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada. Assim, este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a preval&#234;ncia de SM e caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas associadas com SM em pacientes com HR e hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo</title>
          <p>Neste estudo transversal, uma amostra de conveni&#234;ncia de 107 pacientes com HR e 129 com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada, acompanhados regularmente no Ambulat&#243;rio de HR e no Ambulat&#243;rio de Hipertens&#227;o da Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Campinas, SP, Brasil), foram inclu&#237;dos e classificados em pacientes com SM (n = 157) e sem SM (n = 79). Indiv&#237;duos eleg&#237;veis que concordaram em participar do estudo foram rastreados para serem acompanhados por um per&#237;odo de 6 meses a fim de se excluir (i) hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria (feocromocitoma, coarcta&#231;&#227;o da aorta, s&#237;ndrome de Cushing, s&#237;ndrome de Conn, estenose da art&#233;ria renal e apneia obstrutiva do sono) e (ii) hipertens&#227;o pseudorresistente, incluindo baixa ades&#227;o medicamentosa (verificada por contagem de comprimidos) e hipertens&#227;o do jaleco branco (verificada por monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial - MAPA).</p>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico de HR foi realizado de acordo com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es mais recentes da Associa&#231;&#227;o Americana do Cora&#231;&#227;o (American Heart Association Scientific Statement),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> que definem (1) os n&#237;veis da press&#227;o arterial (PA) caracterizados como hipertens&#227;o apesar do uso de pelo menos tr&#234;s agentes anti-hipertensivos de diferentes classes ou (2) PA controlada ap&#243;s o uso de quatro ou mais medicamentos. Um dos tr&#234;s medicamentos deve ser um diur&#233;tico, e todos os medicamentos deveriam ser prescritos em doses &#243;timas. Hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada (est&#225;gios 1 e 2) foi definida de acordo com as diretrizes da Sociedade Europeia de Hipertens&#227;o (2013) (2013 <italic>European Society of Hypertension</italic>, ESH),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> sua &#250;ltima publica&#231;&#227;o sobre hipertens&#227;o essencial. Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana ou doen&#231;a cerebrovascular com evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica, disfun&#231;&#227;o renal ou hep&#225;tica importante, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, e doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diagn&#243;stico de SM</title>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico de SM foi determinado segundo crit&#233;rios propostos pelo NCEP-ATPIII, revisados em 2005,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> como a presen&#231;a de pelo menos tr&#234;s dos seguintes crit&#233;rios: (i) circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura &#8805; 88 cm para mulheres e &#8805; 102 cm para homens, (ii) colesterol HDL &lt; 50 mg/dL para mulheres ou 40 mg/dL para homens, (iii) triglicer&#237;deos &#8805; 150 mg/dL (ou em uso de fibratos), (iv) pontos de corte para PA de &#8805; 130/85 mmHg (em uso de anti-hipertensivos), e (v) glicose de jejum &#8805; 100 mg/dL (ou em tratamento para diabetes tipo 2).</p>
          <sec>
            <title>Bioimped&#226;ncia el&#233;trica (BIA)</title>
            <p>Medidas de massa magra (MM), massa gorda (MG) &#225;gua corporal total (ACT) e taxa metab&#243;lica basal (TMB) foram determinadas por BIA pelo aparelho Bioimpedance Analyser 450 (Biodynamics Corporation, Seattle, EUA). As medidas foram realizadas ap&#243;s 4 horas de jejum. Ainda, os pacientes foram orientados a evitar atividade f&#237;sica e a n&#227;o fumarem antes do exame.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Medida da press&#227;o arterial no consult&#243;rio e no ambulat&#243;rio</title>
            <p>A press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) e a press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica (PAD) foram aferidas aproximadamente &#224;s 8 horas da manh&#227; no bra&#231;o direito, utilizando-se um esfigmoman&#244;metro digital validado (HEM-907XL, OMRON Healthcare Inc., Bannockburn, IL, EUA).</p>
            <p>A MAPA de 24 horas foi realizada utilizando-se um aparelho autom&#225;tico validado (Spacelabs 90217, Spacelabs Inc, Redmon, WA, EUA), e as medidas foram tomadas a cada 20 minutos. Os pacientes foram orientados a manterem suas atividades di&#225;rias habituais e as registrarem em um di&#225;rio pessoal. Tanto a PA de consult&#243;rio como a PA ambulatorial foram medidas de acordo com as diretrizes da ESH de 2013.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Exames laboratoriais</title>
            <p>Os exames laboratoriais analisados foram: glicose de jejum, insulina, hemoglobina glicada (HbA1c), s&#243;dio e pot&#225;ssio s&#233;ricos, cortisol plasm&#225;tico, colesterol total, lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL), lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL), triglicer&#237;deos, ureia, creatinina e renina. Os valores entre 30 e 300 mg/g para albumina/creatinina urin&#225;rias foram usados para classificar os pacientes como apresentando microalbumin&#250;ria (MA) para compara&#231;&#245;es de dano renal precoce. As concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de adiponectina e leptina (R&amp;D Systems, Mine&#225;polis, EUA) foram determinadas por ELISA, e a aldosterona (Immunotech SAS, Marselha, Fran&#231;a) por quimioluminesc&#234;ncia, de acordo com as instru&#231;&#245;es do fabricante.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Velocidade de onda de pulso</title>
            <p>A rigidez arterial foi determinada por velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP), em metros por segundo (m/s), dividindo-se a dist&#226;ncia entre as art&#233;rias car&#243;tida e femoral direitas pelo tempo de tr&#226;nsito de pulso nesses dois locais de interesse. Usamos o aparelho Sphygmocor (AtCor Medical, EUA), sincronizado com o eletrocardiograma. N&#243;s usamos a m&#233;dia de dois valores de VOP nas an&#225;lises, ou a mediana de tr&#234;s leituras consecutivas caso a diferen&#231;a entre as duas medidas fosse superior a 0,5 m/s. Rigidez arterial foi considerada se VOP &#8805; 10 m/s, para compara&#231;&#245;es do dano vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ecocardiografia</title>
          <p>Medidas do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) foram realizadas segundo recomenda&#231;&#245;es da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia (<italic>American Society of Echocardiography</italic>) por ecocardiografia bidimensional em modo M.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Os exames foram realizados por dois profissionais especialistas em ecocardiografia e revisados por dois pesquisadores cegos, seguindo-se t&#233;cnica padr&#227;o e aparelho de ultrassom cardiovascular (Siemens Acuson CV70, Munique, Bavaria, Alemanha) com transdutor setorial de multifrequ&#234;ncia (2-4 MHz). O &#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (IMVE) foi calculado, e valores de IMVE &gt; 95 g/m<sup>2</sup> para mulheres e &gt; 115 g/m<sup>2</sup> para homens foram considerados como hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE). Os coeficientes de varia&#231;&#227;o intra-observador e entre observadores foram menores que 9,5% para o IMVE.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Para as vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas, foram calculadas m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o ou mediana (primeiro e terceiro quartis), e comparadas pelo teste t de Student ou o teste de Mann-Whitney, de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados cuja normalidade foi testada pelo teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov,. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram apresentadas em n&#250;meros absolutos e/ou porcentagens, e comparadas pelo teste do qui-quadrado. Um modelo de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica foi aplicado para determinar a associa&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas com a presen&#231;a de SM, excluindo-se os potenciais fatores de confus&#227;o. Todos os testes estat&#237;sticos foram realizados usando-se o programa SigmaPlot, vers&#227;o 12,5 (Systat software, Inc.) um n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de alfa = 0,05 foi adotado.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>As caracter&#237;sticas basais de indiv&#237;duos hipertensos com e sem SM est&#227;o apresentadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref>. N&#243;s encontramos uma preval&#234;ncia de SM de 66% na popula&#231;&#227;o hipertensa. N&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as entre os grupos quanto &#224; idade, ra&#231;a e g&#234;nero. Como o esperado, o IMC, a CC, a MG e a ACT foram maiores em pacientes hipertensos com SM. A frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) de consult&#243;rio foi significativamente maior em pacientes com SM. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos quanto &#224; PA de consult&#243;rio, &#224; PA ambulatorial ou &#224; propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com PA de consult&#243;rio n&#227;o controlada (&#8805; 140/90 mmHg). Os pacientes com SM apresentaram maior preval&#234;ncia de MA em compara&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes sem SM. A medica&#231;&#227;o utilizada pelos pacientes foi similar entre os grupos, com exce&#231;&#227;o dos bloqueadores de canal de c&#225;lcio e hipoglicemiantes, que foi maior no grupo com SM (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Caracter&#237;sticas gerais de pacientes hipertensos com e sem s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">Pacientes com SM (n = 157)</th>
                <th align="center">Pacientes sem SM (n = 79)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Dados cl&#237;nicos</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Idade (anos)</td>
                <td align="center">63 (56 &#8211; 70)</td>
                <td align="center">65 (56 &#8211; 71)</td>
                <td align="center">0,39</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Ra&#231;a branca (%)</td>
                <td align="center">122 (77)</td>
                <td align="center">52 (65)</td>
                <td align="center">0,05</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">G&#234;nero feminino (%)</td>
                <td align="center">106 (67)</td>
                <td align="center">47 (59)</td>
                <td align="center">0,23</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IMC (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">31 (27 &#8211; 34)</td>
                <td align="center">26 (23 &#8211; 28)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">CC (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">100 &#177; 13</td>
                <td align="center">89 &#177; 12</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MM (Kg)</td>
                <td align="center">54 (46 &#8211; 62)</td>
                <td align="center">52 (44 &#8211; 63)</td>
                <td align="center">0,13</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MG (Kg)</td>
                <td align="center">24 (19 &#8211; 31)</td>
                <td align="center">17 (13 &#8211; 23)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ACT (%)</td>
                <td align="center">74 (72 &#8211; 75)</td>
                <td align="center">73 (72 &#8211; 75)</td>
                <td align="center">0,03</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">TMB (kcal/dia)</td>
                <td align="center">1672 (1436 &#8211; 1947)</td>
                <td align="center">1616 (1369 &#8211; 1954)</td>
                <td align="center">0,23</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAS consult&#243;rio (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">142 (134 &#8211; 150)</td>
                <td align="center">146 (132 &#8211; 154)</td>
                <td align="center">0,39</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAD consult&#243;rio (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">82 (75 &#8211; 89)</td>
                <td align="center">82 (80 &#8211; 88)</td>
                <td align="center">0,44</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FC consult&#243;rio (bpm)</td>
                <td align="center">67 (61 &#8211; 76)</td>
                <td align="center">64 (58 &#8211; 72)</td>
                <td align="center">0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAS MAPA 24h (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">128 (118 &#8211; 139)</td>
                <td align="center">129 (118 &#8211; 136)</td>
                <td align="center">0,78</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAD MAPA 24h (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">77(70 &#8211; 81)</td>
                <td align="center">78 (70 &#8211; 86)</td>
                <td align="center">0,28</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FC MAPA (bpm)</td>
                <td align="center">64 &#177; 14</td>
                <td align="center">64 &#177; 13</td>
                <td align="center">0,94</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PA consult&#243;rio n&#227;o controlada (%)</td>
                <td align="center">96 (61)</td>
                <td align="center">48 (60)</td>
                <td align="center">0,97</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>LOAs</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MA &#8805; 30 (mg.g<sup>-1</sup>), n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">31 (20)</td>
                <td align="center">3 (4)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">VOP &#8805; 10 (m.s<sup>-1</sup>), n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">68 (43)</td>
                <td align="center">35 (44)</td>
                <td align="center">0,94</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HVE, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">83 (53)</td>
                <td align="center">44 (55)</td>
                <td align="center">0,96</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Medicamentos</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Anti-hipertensivos (total)</td>
                <td align="center">3 (2 &#8211; 4)</td>
                <td align="center">3 (2 &#8211; 4)</td>
                <td align="center">0,27</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Diur&#233;ticos, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">123 (78)</td>
                <td align="center">64 (80)</td>
                <td align="center">0,75</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">BCCs, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">112 (71)</td>
                <td align="center">42 (52)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IECAs, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">36 (22)</td>
                <td align="center">26 (32)</td>
                <td align="center">0,13</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ARAs, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">108 (69)</td>
                <td align="center">48 (60)</td>
                <td align="center">0,27</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Betabloqueadores, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">67 (43)</td>
                <td align="center">28 (35)</td>
                <td align="center">0,39</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Espironolactona, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">33 (21)</td>
                <td align="center">8 (10)</td>
                <td align="center">0,06</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">&#945;-agonista central, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">24 (15)</td>
                <td align="center">8 (10)</td>
                <td align="center">0,37</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Antidiab&#233;ticos orais, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">90 (57)</td>
                <td align="center">16 (20)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Estatinas, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">111 (70)</td>
                <td align="center">51 (63)</td>
                <td align="center">0,41</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Drogas antiplaquet&#225;rias, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">67 (43)</td>
                <td align="center">23 (29)</td>
                <td align="center">0,06</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN04">
              <p>Valores expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o ou mediana (1&#186;, 3&#186; quartis), de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram comparadas pelo teste t de Student n&#227;o pareado ou o teste de Mann-Whitney, de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram comparadas pelo teste de qui&#8209;quadrado. IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; CC: circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura; MM: massa magra; MG: massa de gordura; ACT: &#225;gua corporal total; TMB: taxa metab&#243;lica basal; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; MAPA: monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial; HVE: hipertrofia ventricular esquerda; MA: microalbumin&#250;ria; LOAs: les&#245;es de &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo; VOP: velocidade de onda de pulso; BCCs: bloqueadores de canal de c&#225;lcio; IECAs, inibidores de enzima conversora de angiotensina; ARAs, antagonista de receptor de angiotensina II.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Conforme o esperado, a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos par&#226;metros bioqu&#237;micos mostrou n&#237;veis aumentados de triglicer&#237;deos, glicose de jejum e HbA1c em pacientes com SM (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Par&#226;metros bioqu&#237;micos de pacientes hipertensos com e sem s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="30%"/>
              <col width="26%"/>
              <col width="19%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">Pacientes com SM (n = 157)</th>
                <th align="center">Pacientes sem SM (n = 79)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Colesterol (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">166 (139 &#8211; 192)</td>
                <td align="center">179 (150 &#8211; 200)</td>
                <td align="center">0,06</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">c-LDL (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">88 (70 &#8211; 111)</td>
                <td align="center">98 (73 &#8211; 118)</td>
                <td align="center">0,19</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">c-HDL (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">43 (37 &#8211; 49)</td>
                <td align="center">57 (51 &#8211; 65)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Triglicer&#237;deos (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">142 (97 &#8211; 199)</td>
                <td align="center">81 (68 &#8211; 115)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Glicose de jejum (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">107 (95 &#8211; 130)</td>
                <td align="center">91 (86 &#8211; 97)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HbA1c (%)</td>
                <td align="center">6,30 (6&#8211; 7,40)</td>
                <td align="center">5,90 (5,50 &#8211; 6)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PCR-us (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">0,39 (0,17 &#8211; 0,65)</td>
                <td align="center">0,25 (0,11 &#8211; 0,48)</td>
                <td align="center">0,02</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Na (mEq.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">141 (140 &#8211; 143)</td>
                <td align="center">142 (138 &#8211; 143)</td>
                <td align="center">0,61</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">K (mEq.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">4,40 (4,10 &#8211; 4,70)</td>
                <td align="center">4,30 (4,20 &#8211; 4,60)</td>
                <td align="center">0,82</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Aldosterona (ng.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">83 (48 &#8211; 162)</td>
                <td align="center">65 (41 &#8211; 125)</td>
                <td align="center">0,10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">CC (ml.min<sup>-1</sup>.(1,73 m<sup>2</sup>)<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">80 (55 &#8211; 97)</td>
                <td align="center">71 (53 &#8211; 94)</td>
                <td align="center">0,53</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Creatinina (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">0,93 (0,80 &#8211; 1,12)</td>
                <td align="center">0,95 (0,77 &#8211; 1,20)</td>
                <td align="center">0,97</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Renina (pg.ml<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">23 (12 &#8211; 64)</td>
                <td align="center">30 (11 &#8211; 80)</td>
                <td align="center">0,78</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Ureia (mg.mL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">35 (26 &#8211; 44)</td>
                <td align="center">36 (28 &#8211; 44)</td>
                <td align="center">0,81</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Cortisol (ug.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">14 (10 &#8211; 20)</td>
                <td align="center">14 (10 &#8211; 16)</td>
                <td align="center">0,44</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Leptina (ng.mL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">21,0 (14,40&#8211;41,60)</td>
                <td align="center">15,70 (6,30&#8211;33,20)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Adiponectina (&#181;g.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">5,30 (2,60&#8211; 7,80)</td>
                <td align="center">7,50 (3,80 &#8211; 11,90)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">RLA</td>
                <td align="center">4,81 (2,14 &#8211; 10,80)</td>
                <td align="center">2,22 (1,10 &#8211; 5,20)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">RLA &gt; 3,72, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">85 (54)</td>
                <td align="center">24 (30)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN05">
              <p>Valores expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o ou mediana (1&#186;, 3&#186; quartis), de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados. Vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram comparadas pelo teste t de Student n&#227;o pareado ou o teste Mann-Whitney, de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram comparadas pelo teste do qui&#8209;quadrado. SM: s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica; c-LDL: colesterol associado &#224; lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade; HDL: colesterol associado &#224; lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; HbA1C: hemoglogina glicada; PCR-us: prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel; CC: clearance de creatinina; RLA: raz&#227;o leptina/adiponectina; RLA: raz&#227;o leptina/ adiponectina &gt;3.7 (o ponto de corte foi determinado a partir da mediana).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Por fim, a regress&#227;o m&#250;ltipla log&#237;stica revelou que a MA, a RLA e a resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo foram independentemente associadas com a presen&#231;a de SM (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t6">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla para a presen&#231;a de s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref>
						</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="40%"/>
              <col width="20%"/>
              <col width="20%"/>
              <col width="20%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">Odds ratio</th>
                <th align="center">IC95%</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Raz&#227;o leptina/adiponectina &gt; 3,7</td>
                <td align="center">4,13</td>
                <td align="center">1,38 &#8211; 12,34</td>
                <td align="center">0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (bpm)</td>
                <td align="center">0,97</td>
                <td align="center">0,92 &#8211; 1,03</td>
                <td align="center">0,39</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Microalbumin&#250;ria &gt; 30 (mg.g<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">8,51</td>
                <td align="center">1,53 &#8211; 47,14</td>
                <td align="center">0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PCR-us (mg.dL<sup>-1</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">2,92</td>
                <td align="center">0,83 &#8211; 10,19</td>
                <td align="center">0,09</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Hipertens&#227;o resistente</td>
                <td align="center">3,75</td>
                <td align="center">1,09 &#8211; 12,92</td>
                <td align="center">0,03</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN06">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>As vari&#225;veis neste modelo foram ajustadas quanto &#224; idade, g&#234;nero e ra&#231;a. PCR-us: prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel; RLA: raz&#227;o leptina/adiponectina &gt;3.7 (o ponto de corte foi determinado a partir da mediana).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Nossos principais achados sugerem que a MA e a RLA aumentada est&#227;o associadas com a presen&#231;a de SM na popula&#231;&#227;o hipertensa, excluindo-se os potenciais fatores de confus&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, a resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo est&#225; fortemente associada com a SM. A alta preval&#234;ncia dessas condi&#231;&#245;es coexistentes - hipertens&#227;o e SM - pode explicar a preval&#234;ncia aumentada de les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo relacionada com hipertens&#227;o, tais como excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria aumentada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Ainda, a les&#227;o renal precoce pode explicar em parte o risco cardiovascular aumentado ocasionado pela SM em pacientes hipertensos, uma vez que esse marcador de les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;o alvo &#233; um preditor bem conhecido de eventos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Nesse sentido, a identifica&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento de fatores de risco para DCVs e doen&#231;as renais, bem como a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo relacionada &#224; hipertens&#227;o podem afetar diretamente o progn&#243;stico de pacientes hipertensos com SM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Nosso resultado de MA aumentada em pacientes com SM hipertensos &#233; concordante com o relatado em estudos pr&#233;vios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Os mecanismos que explicam uma MA aumentada em pacientes com SM incluem: (i) superativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina; (ii) aumento no estresse oxidativo e (iii) inflama&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a presen&#231;a de MA pode ser um reflexo de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e vascular progressiva.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Vale mencionar que n&#243;s n&#227;o encontramos diferen&#231;a nos n&#237;veis de PA entre os grupos. Assim, em nosso estudo transversal, a MA est&#225; provavelmente associada com outros componentes que comp&#245;em a SM. Outra hip&#243;tese &#233; a de que o maior uso de bloqueadores de canal de c&#225;lcio pelos pacientes hipertensos com SM possa ter levado ao controle da PA, mas n&#227;o evitado a les&#227;o renal precoce, o que corroboraria v&#225;rios estudos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Outro aspecto a ser mencionado &#233; o fato de que, apesar do maior uso de drogas hipoglicemiantes pelos pacientes com SM, a HbA1c permaneceu mais elevada nesse grupo. Por outro lado, alguns estudos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> mostraram que n&#237;veis de HbA1c &lt; 7% est&#227;o associados com um menor risco de manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e estruturais da nefropatia diab&#233;tica em pacientes com diabetes 1 e 2. Por exemplo, o estudo <italic>U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study</italic> (UKPDS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> demonstrou uma redu&#231;&#227;o de quase 30% no risco de se desenvolver MA no grupo que recebeu tratamento mais intensivo contra hiperglicemia (HbA1c de 7%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A hipoadiponectinemia e a hiperleptinemia s&#227;o comumente encontradas em paciente obesos hipertensos. Estudos pr&#233;vios encontraram uma associa&#231;&#227;o inversa entre os n&#237;veis de adiponectina e albumin&#250;ria de baixa gravidade em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o essencial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> e HR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>Resultados similares foram encontrados em estudos experimentais. Ratos <italic>knockout</italic> para adiponectina apresentam n&#237;veis aumentados de albumin&#250;ria (duas vezes maior que os valores normais) e, ap&#243;s reposi&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na, a albumin&#250;ria retornou aos n&#237;veis normais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> A hiperleptinemia &#233; outro fator de risco independente para doen&#231;a arterial coronariana<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> e um forte preditor de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio. Al&#233;m disso, a leptina tem grande capacidade de ativar o sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico, associada com aumento na PA e taquicardia, o que contribui para a hipertens&#227;o relacionada &#224; obesidade e &#224; les&#227;o renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Ainda, um estudo apontou que a RLA &#233; superior que qualquer um desses componentes isoladamente para o diagn&#243;stico de SM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> O uso da RLA tem o potencial de avaliar a sensibilidade &#224; insulina e a SM em condi&#231;&#245;es fora do jejum, uma vez que a diferen&#231;a entre a adiponectina e a leptina tende a ser pequena no jejum <italic>versus</italic> estado p&#243;s-prandial. Nosso estudo mostrou que a RLA esteve independentemente associada com a presen&#231;a de SM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Apesar de v&#225;rios estudos terem correlacionado a SM a v&#225;rias citocinas e adiponectinas, n&#227;o h&#225; nenhum biomarcador utilizado atualmente na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica que contribua na predi&#231;&#227;o e no diagn&#243;stico de SM nos indiv&#237;duos. Portanto, n&#237;veis desregulados de adipocinas (RLA) pode ser uma ferramenta valiosa no diagn&#243;stico, no progn&#243;stico ou mesmo na detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de SM na popula&#231;&#227;o hipertensa em alto risco, apesar de que tais associa&#231;&#245;es devam ainda serem testadas. O uso dessa ferramenta poderia tamb&#233;m conduzir a uma abordagem terap&#234;utica racional, uma vez que modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida e medicamentos podem alterar os n&#237;veis de adipocinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A preval&#234;ncia de SM aumentou em todo o mundo,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> e &#233; maior em pacientes hipertensos que na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> Em nosso estudo, encontramos uma preval&#234;ncia consider&#225;vel de SM em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos (66%) - 73% em indiv&#237;duos com HR e 60% naqueles com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada. Dados similares foram relatados no estudo sobre perfil de risco cardiometab&#243;lico em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o - <italic>Global Cardiometabolic Risk Profile in Patients with hypertension disease (GOOD) study</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> - no qual 58% dos pacientes com hipertens&#227;o essencial apresentavam SM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Essa elevada preval&#234;ncia pode ser explicada pela idade mais avan&#231;ada das popula&#231;&#245;es estudadas, uma vez que a preval&#234;ncia da SM &#233; altamente dependente da idade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Em nosso estudo, a HR esteve associada com SM de maneira independente de fatores de confus&#227;o potenciais. Apesar de nosso estudo n&#227;o afirmar uma rela&#231;&#227;o de causa e efeito entre essa associa&#231;&#227;o, parece-nos razo&#225;vel afirmar que as altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas associadas &#224; SM promovem mudan&#231;as na vasculatura e no rim que possam levar &#224; HR e &#224; doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica.<sup>(32 )</sup>Al&#233;m disso, a maior disfun&#231;&#227;o renal encontrada nos pacientes com SM esteja provavelmente relacionada &#224; hipertens&#227;o pr&#233;via<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>). Nesse contexto, nossos achados destacaram a import&#226;ncia de se desenvolver melhores estrat&#233;gias visando a preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares e renais. Ainda, o estudo destaca o fato de que n&#227;o somente pacientes com HR requerem maior aten&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, como tamb&#233;m aqueles com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada, nos quais foi encontrada uma alta preval&#234;ncia de SM, compar&#225;vel a pacientes com HR.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Representa&#231;&#227;o diagram&#225;tica dos efeitos da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica sobre a hipertens&#227;o e hipertens&#227;o resistente. SRAA: sistema renina-angiotensina; SNC: sistema nervoso central.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-06-0514-80076-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Por fim, abordagens farmacol&#243;gicas devem ser conduzidas no tratamento da obesidade, dislipidemia, hiperglicemia e hipertens&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> a fim de se prevenir les&#227;o renal. Contudo, a base do tratamento da SM continua sendo a mudan&#231;a no estilo de vida,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> que envolve uma dieta saud&#225;vel, exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico, e aconselhamento comportamental. At&#233; o momento, as diretrizes publicadas n&#227;o abordam especificamente o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada ou da HR em pacientes com SM. No entanto, considerando o maior risco de diabetes nesses pacientes, &#233; plaus&#237;vel que a primeira considera&#231;&#227;o no tratamento anti-hipertensivo &#233; se focar na inibi&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina com o uso de enzima conversora de angiotensina ou de antagonistas do receptor da angiotensina II.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> H&#225; crescente interesse em estrat&#233;gias que combinam agentes anti-hipertensivos em pacientes com HR e SM para se reduzir o n&#250;mero de comprimidos. Ainda s&#227;o necess&#225;rios estudos para se definir a melhor terapia anti-hipertensiva nesse grupo de pacientes em alto risco.</p>
        <p>As limita&#231;&#245;es para este estudo incluem: (i) o delineamento transversal que n&#227;o permite a infer&#234;ncia sobre causa e efeito; (ii) o tamanho pequeno da amostra e (iii) inclus&#227;o de pacientes provenientes de apenas um ambulat&#243;rio. Apesar de estudos apresentarem diferen&#231;as significativas entre pacientes com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada e HR,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> n&#243;s n&#227;o separamos esses pacientes quanto ao tipo de hipertens&#227;o porque ambos os grupos apresentaram alta preval&#234;ncia de SM, com um perfil metab&#243;lico semelhante, contribuindo, assim, para o objetivo de se avaliar a influ&#234;ncia da SM nesse conjunto de pacientes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Em resumo, nosso estudo mostrou que a SM est&#225; significativamente associada com MA, HR e n&#237;veis de adipocinas. Esses achados sugerem que pacientes hipertensos com SM tendem a desenvolverem manifesta&#231;&#245;es iniciais de les&#245;es de &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo com mudan&#231;as metab&#243;licas/hormonais, resultando em risco cardiovascular aumentado e disfun&#231;&#227;o renal. No entanto, como mencionado anteriormente, este estudo transversal n&#227;o nos permite inferir a natureza exata da associa&#231;&#227;o entre SM, MA, HR e n&#237;veis de adipocinas. &#201; poss&#237;vel que um diagn&#243;stico precoce da SM em pacientes hipertensos permita uma predi&#231;&#227;o mais precisa de eventos cardiovasculares adversos e disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, e a implementa&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias mais eficientes para a preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria. Ainda, a identifica&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ndrome em pacientes com HR permitiria a modifica&#231;&#227;o de fatores de risco que promovessem resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo, bem como o direcionamento do tratamento para cada componente da s&#237;ndrome. Assim, o tratamento de cada um desses componentes em conjunto com perda de peso e mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida podem prevenir a resist&#234;ncia &#224; terapia anti-hipertensiva, e contribuir para uma terapia eficaz em pacientes com HR e SM. Dadas as altera&#231;&#245;es causadas pela SM sobre a HR, ensaios cl&#237;nicos futuros poderiam dar in&#237;cio &#224; abordagem nesse t&#243;pico. Uma vez que a s&#237;ndrome &#233; identificada, mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida e uma abordagem terap&#234;utica diferente podem melhorar o progn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a. Outros estudos sobre a RLA em uma popula&#231;&#227;o maior de hipertensos com SM s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para avaliar se esse marcador &#233; sens&#237;vel e espec&#237;fico para identificar indiv&#237;duos em risco para SM. A RLA poderia ser uma ferramenta relativamente f&#225;cil, minimamente invasiva para o diagn&#243;stico precoce de SM, que consequentemente, reduziria a chance de efeitos delet&#233;rios causados por essa s&#237;ndrome.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado pela FAPESP, CNPq e CAPES.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Universidade Estadual de Campinas sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 188.161 (CAAE: 11189712.8.0000.5404). Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
