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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">qzLHqGqBtRjQcWBBscr7Q8K</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2018000500402</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2018005005102</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20180058</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Frequency of Subclinical Atherosclerosis in Brazilian HIV-Infected Patients</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Salmazo</surname>
            <given-names>P&#233;ricles Sidnei</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bazan</surname>
            <given-names>Silm&#233;ia Garcia Zanati</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Shiraishi</surname>
            <given-names>Fl&#225;vio Gobbis</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bazan</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Katashi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Hueb</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <city>Botucatu</city>
            <state>SP</state>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu (UNESP), Botucatu, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Silm&#233;ia Garcia Zanati Bazan,</bold> Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Unesp - Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica. Distrito de Rubi&#227;o Jr., s/n. Postal Code 18618-687, Botucatu, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>sgzanati@fmb.unesp.br</email>, <email>sgzanati@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Salmazo PS; Acquisition of data: Salmazo PS, Shiraishi FG; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Salmazo PS, Bazan SGZ, Shiraishi FG, Bazan R, Okoshi K, Hueb JC; Statistical analysis: Bazan SGZ, Bazan R; Writing of the manuscript: Salmazo PS, Bazan SGZ, Shiraishi FG, Bazan R; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Okoshi K, Hueb JC.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>09</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>5</month>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>110</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>402</fpage>
      <lpage>410</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background: </title>
          <p>AIDS as well as atherosclerosis are important public health problems. The longer survival among HIV-infected is associated with increased number of cardiovascular events in this population, and this association is not fully understood.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives:</title>
          <p>To identify the frequency of subclinical atherosclerosis in HIV-infected patients compared to control subjects; to analyze associations between atherosclerosis and clinical and laboratory variables, cardiovascular risk factors, and the Framingham coronary heart disease risk score (FCRS).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Prospective cross-sectional case-control study assessing the presence of subclinical atherosclerosis in 264 HIV-infected patients and 279 controls. Clinical evaluation included ultrasound examination of the carotid arteries, arterial stiffness by pulse wave velocity (PWV) and augmentation index (AIx), laboratory analysis of peripheral blood, and cardiovascular risk according to FCRS criteria. The significance level adopted in the statistical analysis was p &lt; 0.05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>Plaques were found in 37% of the HIV group and 4% of controls (p &lt; 0.001). Furthermore, carotid intima-media thickness was higher in the HIV group than in controls (p &lt; 0.001). Patients with carotid plaque had higher fasting glucose, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides than those without plaques. The presence of HIV, adjusted for age, overweight/obesity, and smoking increased by almost fivefold the risk of atherosclerotic carotid plaque (OR: 4.9; 95%CI: 2.5-9.9; p &lt; 0.001). Exposure to protease inhibitors did not influence carotid intima-media thickness, was not associated with carotid plaque frequency, and did not alter the mechanical characteristics of the arterial system (PWV and AIx).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions:</title>
          <p>HIV-infected patients are at increased risk of atherosclerosis in association with classical cardiovascular risk factors. Treatment with protease inhibitors does not promote functional changes in the arteries, and shows no association with increased frequency of atherosclerotic plaques in carotid arteries. The FCRS may be inappropriate for this population.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Atherosclerosis / complications</kwd>
        <kwd>HIV</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases / mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>Carotid Intima Media Carotideo</kwd>
        <kwd>Vascular Stiffness</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>By the end of 2012, about 35 million people were HIV positive worldwide. By June 2012 in Brazil, 656,701 cases had been identified since the first one detected in S&#227;o Paulo in 1980; this includes 253,706 lethal cases between 1980 and 2011.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> In the mid-1990s rates were increasing, but the current situation indicates a stable epidemic,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> with signs of a reduction in mortality rate in the last decade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> The most important contributing factors were the introduction and easy access to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). However, over the years, observations have shown that HAART may alter the patient's lipid profile, thereby accelerating atherosclerosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Despite this, cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide (World Health Organization, 2013) and represents the foremost cause of preventable death.</p>
      <p>There is some indication of a possible direct effect from viral protein particles or infected cells liberating proteins in the receptors present in the vascular endothelium, thus favoring the presence of pro-coagulants, platelet activation, reduced nitric oxide production from the destruction of CD4 T lymphocytes (CD4<sup>+</sup> cell), and the production of inflammatory cytokines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Recent publications have indicated that viral effect on the vascular endothelium can contribute to a reduction in the number of primary endothelial cells, which leads to endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Nevertheless, there is no consensus on the relationship between HAART and atherosclerosis; this may be due to the complexity of the factors involved.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> In light of these facts, new strategies have been suggested to prevent cardiovascular events, including subclinical atherosclerosis research.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Carotid intima-media thickness rate (CIMT) and the presence of atherosclerotic plaque (PL) in the carotid have been associated with the Framingham coronary heart disease risk score (FCRS); individuals with this index elevated have a higher risk of developing CVD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Another marker of CVD is high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP). In HIV-positive patients, hs-CRP, although low in sensitivity, is known to be a possible marker of disease progression and atherosclerosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Arterial stiffness by pulse wave velocity (PWV), augmentation index (AIx), and ascending aortic pressure (AP) have been studied as promising indices of early endothelial dysfunction diagnosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Few publications have evaluated these indices in HIV-positive patients and the number of cases has been limited.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The objectives of the present study were: 1- To identify the frequency of subclinical atherosclerosis in HIV-positive patients, comparing it with that of control subjects; 2- To associate the diagnosis of subclinical atherosclerosis with viral load, CD4 levels and antiretroviral treatment in HIV-positive patients; 3- To associate the presence of carotid atherosclerosis with cardiovascular risk factors and with the FCRS in HIV-positive patients.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <p>Written informed consent was obtained from all participants, and the study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the university.</p>
      <p>This is a prospective cross-sectional case-control study with consecutively selected patients.</p>
      <p>All HIV-infected patients from the Infectious Diseases outpatient clinic were included in the study. Exclusion criteria were evidence of atherosclerosis (interview, chart review and physical examination), age under 18 years, pregnancy, evidence of other causes of immunosuppression, and data acquisition failure due to technical difficulties.</p>
      <p>Healthy controls were prospectively included.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Data source</title>
        <p>Invitation to participate in the study was offered after exposure to the project in the waiting room during a routine visit.</p>
        <p>Those who accepted were referred to a clinic where they received more information, had their doubts clarified, and underwent an interview guided by a structured questionnaire, a physical examination, and a carotid ultrasound assessment followed by a referral to collect a blood sample for laboratory tests.</p>
        <p>HAART information, time since diagnosis and treatment, HIV-RNA viral load, and CD4<sup>+</sup> and CD8<sup>+</sup> cell counts were obtained from a review of medical records. Cardiovascular risk was calculated by FCRS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Carotid artery ultrasound</title>
          <p>Carotid artery ultrasound was performed by the same appropriately trained expert using a Vivid I or Vivid S6 (General Electric Healthcare, USA) equipped with 7.0 MHz linear transducer and an image acquisition system. Images were obtained and analyzed according to the Consensus Statement from the American Society of Echocardiography and Mannheim Carotid Intima-Media Thickness Consensus recommendations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Carotid intima-media images were obtained by an automated method using GE developed software, to determine average thickness of the left and right carotid arteries.</p>
          <p>A PL was defined as a focal structure that encroached into the arterial lumen at least 0.5 mm, or 50% of surrounding CIMT, or carotid thickness &gt; 1.5 mm.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Arterial stiffness</title>
          <p>Arterial stiffness indices (PWV, AIx, and AP) were obtained by the same experienced operator using Sphygmocor CPV System equipment (AtCor Medical, Australia) and following current recommendations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Laboratory tests</title>
          <p>A sample of 12-hour fasting peripheral blood was obtained from all patients to analyze hs-CRP, glucose, albumin, complete blood count, urea, creatinine, total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-c), and triglycerides (TGL). LDL-c was estimated using the Friedewald equation when TGL were lower than 400 mg/dL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analyses</title>
        <p>All statistical analysis was performed using SAS/STAT (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina, USA).</p>
        <p>Continuous variables with normal distribution were presented as mean and standard deviation, and continuous variables with non-normal distribution were presented as medians and interquartile ranges. Categorical variables were presented as proportions. The Shapiro-Wilk test was performed as a normality test.</p>
        <p>Multivariate logistic regression was used to estimate associations between carotid atherosclerosis and clinical variables.</p>
        <p>Multiple linear regression was utilized to analyze associations between arterial stiffness and clinical variables or the presence of carotid atherosclerosis.</p>
        <p>The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test was used to compare two groups of non-parametric results. The unpaired Student <italic>t</italic> test was applied for parametric results.</p>
        <p>One-way ANOVA was employed to compare the groups in FCRS classification.</p>
        <p>All tests were two-tailed, and significance was set at p &lt; 0.05.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Study population</title>
        <p>The study included 264 HIV-infected patients and 279 healthy volunteers (control group). In the HIV-infected group, median time since HIV diagnosis was 96 months (35-149 months) and treatment duration was 78 months (15-142 months). Viral load ranged from undetectable to 397,155 copies/mL (median: undetectable; 75<sup>th</sup> percentile: 253 copies/mL). CD4<sup>+</sup> counts ranged from 442 to 16,338 cells/&#181;L (median: 1,739 cells; interquartile range: 1,350-2,212 cells). Of the HIV-infected patients, 35 were without HAART.</p>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> shows the demographic and clinical variables of the HIV-infected patients and controls. Compared to controls, HIV-infected patients were six years older (43.2 &#177; 10.5 vs. 37.9 &#177; 11.5 years; p &lt; 0.001), had lower BMI (25.5 &#177; 4.5 vs. 27.4 &#177; 5.4 kg/m<sup>2</sup>; p &lt; 0.001), lower frequency of overweight/obesity (51.1 vs. 63.1%; p = 0.005), and higher active smoking incidence (43.6 vs. 16.1%; p &lt; 0.001).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Demographic and clinical variables of HIV-infected patients and the control group.</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Variables</th>
                <th align="center">HIV group (n = 264)</th>
                <th align="center">Control group (n = 279)</th>
                <th align="center">p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Age (years)</td>
                <td align="center">43.2 &#177; 10.5</td>
                <td align="center">37.9 &#177; 11.5</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Sex (F/M)</td>
                <td align="center">125/139</td>
                <td align="center">144/135</td>
                <td align="center">0.321</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">O_ob (yes/no)</td>
                <td align="center">135 (51,1%)/129</td>
                <td align="center">176 (63.1%)/103</td>
                <td align="center">0.005</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SAH (yes/no)</td>
                <td align="center">28/236</td>
                <td align="center">23/256</td>
                <td align="center">0.360</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Smoking (yes/no)</td>
                <td align="center">115 (43.6%)/149</td>
                <td align="center">45(16.1%)/234</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Diabetes (yes/no)</td>
                <td align="center">10/254</td>
                <td align="center">6/273</td>
                <td align="center">0.263</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">BMI (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">25.5 &#177; 4.5</td>
                <td align="center">27.4 &#177; 5.4</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SBP (mm Hg)</td>
                <td align="center">121 (111;133)</td>
                <td align="center">120 (110;130)</td>
                <td align="center">0.535</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DBP (mm Hg)</td>
                <td align="center">77 (71;85)</td>
                <td align="center">80 (70;80)</td>
                <td align="center">0.616</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>F: female; M: male; O_ob: overweight/obesity; SAH: systemic arterial hypertension; BMI: body mass index; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> shows clinical and laboratory variables of the patients, separated in treatment with protease inhibitors (PI). Those exposed to PI showed longer time since diagnosis [140 (74-175) vs. 72.5 (20-120) months; p &lt; 0.001] and disease treatment duration [124 (56-155) vs. 44 (4-101) months; p &lt; 0.001] and elevated TGL levels [190 (119-280) vs. 140 (100-188.5) mg/dL; p &lt; 0.001]; but PI exposure had no effect on LDL-c, HDL-c, fasting glucose, creatinine, or hs-CRP levels.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Clinical and laboratory variables of the patients treated or not with protease inhibitors</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Variables</th>
                <th align="center">PI + (n=116)</th>
                <th align="center">PI - (n=148)</th>
                <th align="center">p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Time since diagnosis (months)</td>
                <td align="center">140 (74;175)</td>
                <td align="center">72.5 (20;120)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Disease treatment duration (months)</td>
                <td align="center">124 (56;155)</td>
                <td align="center">44 (4;101)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDL-c (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">103.2 (80.8;132.4)</td>
                <td align="center">102 (83.4;132.8)</td>
                <td align="center">0.796</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HDL-c (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">42 (35;56)</td>
                <td align="center">45 (37;53)</td>
                <td align="center">0.626</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">TGL (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">190 (119;280)</td>
                <td align="center">140 (100;188.5)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Fasting glucose (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">83 (77;91)</td>
                <td align="center">83 (77;94)</td>
                <td align="center">0.764</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Creatinine (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">0.80 (0.70;1.0)</td>
                <td align="center">0.80 (0.70;0.90)</td>
                <td align="center">0.067</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Hs-CRP (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">0.50 (0.30;0.70)</td>
                <td align="center">0.50 (0.30;0.80)</td>
                <td align="center">0.344</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>PI +: in use of protease inhibitors; PI -: no use of protease inhibitors; LDL-c: low-density lipoprotein; HDL-c: high-density lipoprotein; TGL: triglycerides; hs&#8209;CRP: high&#8209;sensitivity C reactive protein.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Atherosclerotic plaques in carotid arteries and carotid intima-media thickness</title>
        <p>Plaques were detected in 37% of the HIV group and 4% of the control group (p &lt; 0.001), as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Frequency of carotid artery plaque in HIV-infected patients and non-HIV-infected controls.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-05-0402-80058-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated that the presence of HIV, adjusted for age, overweight/obesity, and smoking, had an almost five-fold increase in the risk of carotid PL (OR 4.9, 95% CI 2.5 to 9.8; p &lt; 0.001).</p>
        <p>Patients with PL were 11 years older than those without PL (51.4 &#177; 9.21 vs. 40.2 &#177; 9.40 years, p &lt; 0.001), and had higher levels of fasting blood glucose [90 (78-100) vs. 83 (76.5-90) mg/dL; p = 0.012], TC [200 (178-244) vs. 181 (156-208.5) mg/dL; p &lt; 0.001], LDL-c [120.1 (96.2-148.4) vs. 96.8 (80-125) mg/dL; p &lt; 0.001], TGL [188.5 (125.5-288.5) vs. 150.5 (108-226) mg/dL; p = 0.010] and creatinine [0.80 (0.70-1.10) vs. 0.80 (0.70-0.90) mg/dL; p = 0.027].</p>
        <p>Patients with PL also had higher systolic (SBP: 132 &#177; 21 vs. 121 &#177; 16 mm Hg; p &lt; 0.001) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP: 83 &#177; 12 vs. 77 &#177; 11 mm Hg, p &lt; 0.001). In addition, PL was detected in approximately 34% of men versus 17.4% of women.</p>
        <p>Regarding treatment with PI, exposure to this drug class was not associated with higher PL frequency. Nevertheless, results show significant interaction between PI and elevated TGL, even though no association with the presence of PL.</p>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref> illustrates the significant association between age and CIMT in both groups, indicating that the oldest individuals have a higher CIMT, regardless of the presence of HIV infection. However, there was a significant interaction between age and the presence of HIV towards increasing CIMT (p &lt; 0.001).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Association between carotid intima-media thickness and age in the control and HIV-infected group.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-05-0402-80058-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Arterial stiffness</title>
        <p>Comparing patients exposed and not exposed to PI, this drug class had no effect on arterial mechanical characteristics, expressed by PWV [7.10 (6.20-8.20) vs. 7.20 (6.30-8.40) m/s; p = 0.727] and AIx [28 (17-37) vs. 26 (13-38)%; p=0.315]. In addition, no effect was observed on CIMT [0.645 (0.570-0.765) vs. 0.625 (0.565-0.740) mm; p=0.331].</p>
        <p> Pulse wave velocity was associated with age (R = 0.573, p &lt; 0.001), CIMT (R = 0.449, p &lt; 0.001) and SBP (R = 0.557, p &lt; 0.001), as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Association between pulse wave velocity and systolic blood pressure (panel A) and age (panel B).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-05-0402-80058-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>The association between PWV and age persisted in the model corrected for smoking. However, smoking interacted with age to increase PWV (p = 0.05). The AIx was also associated with age (R = 0.411, p &lt; 0.001), CIMT (R = 0.274, p &lt; 0.001), and SBP (R = 0.348, p &lt; 0.001).</p>
        <p>Arterial stiffness index was elevated in patients with PL compared to no-plaque individuals with PWV [7.90 (7.0-9.5) vs. 6.80 (6.10-8.0) m/s; p &lt; 0.001] and AIx [37 (25-42) vs. 24 (12-35) %; p &lt; 0.001]. Furthermore, PL patients showed median CIMT about 0.170 mm greater than patients without injury [0.770 (0.680-0.910) vs. 0.597 (0.550-0.690) mm; p = 0.003].</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Framingham coronary heart disease risk score</title>
        <p>The FCRS was estimated in 252 HIV-infected patients. Of those, 207 were classified as low-risk (82.1%), 31 as intermediate-risk (12.3%), and 14 (5.56%) as high-risk for developing CVD within 10 years.</p>
        <p>By grouping patients into two subgroups, low-risk (207 patients) and moderate/high-risk subgroups (45 patients), the PL frequency was 62.8% in the moderate/high-risk and 18.2% in the low-risk (p &lt; 0.001) subgroup, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Frequency of plaques in HIV-positive patients according to risk stratification by Framingham risk score.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-05-0402-80058-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Low-risk individuals were 11 years younger than their moderate/high-risk counterparts (52.5 &#177; 10.3 years); p &lt; 0.001.</p>
        <p>Compared to the low-risk subgroup, the moderate/high-risk subgroup had higher CIMT [0.780 (0.710-0.935) vs. 0.605 (0.550-0.710) mm; p &lt; 0.001], PWV [8.45 (7.15-10.05) vs. 6.90 (6.10-8.00) m/s; p &lt; 0.001], TC [223 (188-253) vs. 182 (155-208) mg/dL; p &lt; 0.001], LDL-c [130 (103-151) vs. 97.1 (79.6-126) mg/dL; p &lt; 0.001], TGL [222 (160-309) vs. 143 (102-208) mg/dL; p &lt; 0.001], fasting glucose [90 (80-102) vs. 83 (76-90) mg/dL; p = 0.002], and serum creatinine [0.90 (0.70-1.10) vs. 0.80 (0.70-0.90) mg/dL; p &lt; 0.001], and lower HDL-c [38 (32-45) vs. 46 (37-56) mg/dL; p = 0.002].</p>
        <p>From the 207 low-risk individuals, 83 had LDL-c lower than 130 mg/dL and were not using PI, and, of those, 14 (16.9%) were diagnosed with carotid artery PL (p = 0.036).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>According to the Brazilian Ministry of Health data, the prevalence of overweight individuals in the general population is around 50%, while that of obesity is 12% to 17%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> In the HIV-infected population, some studies have reported a prevalence of fat distribution changes of around 50%, with highly variable lipodystrophy data (20-80%) and obesity in 4-14%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> In this study, BMI was lower in the HIV-group than in the control group (25.5 &#177; 4.5 vs. 27.4 &#177; 5.4 kg/m<sup>2</sup>). The overweight and obesity frequency was 51.1%, similar to that in the literature and lower than that found in the control group (63.1%).</p>
      <p>The literature shows a higher frequency of smoking among HIV-infected individuals, reaching approximately 50%, than in the general population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> We confirmed this in our series, finding active smoking in 43.6% of the patients and 16.1% of the control group (p &lt; 0.001). Smoking had an effect on CIMT only in control subjects. This result could suggest that patients with HIV have other atherogenic factors that would neutralize the effects of smoking on intima-media thickness, with a tendency toward larger CIMT, independently of smoking.</p>
      <p>LDL-c was associated with age (R = 0.252, p &lt; 0.001) and time since HIV diagnosis (R = 0.293; p = 0.041), in direct association with increased serum levels.</p>
      <p>These results suggest that atherosclerosis in the HIV population is influenced by other infection-related risk factors, in addition to presenting similar characteristics to the process classically described in other populations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Plaques were found in 37% of the HIV-infected individuals, slightly lower than the 55% reported in some publications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
			</p>
      <p>This study found that the presence of HIV produced an almost fivefold increase in the risk of carotid PL in the model adjusted for age, overweight/obesity, and smoking. We may therefore suppose that the presence of HIV infection is a contributory factor to the development of atherosclerosis, in addition to the traditional risk factors, and in agreement with other studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
			</p>
      <p>There was no association between the presence of carotid PL and time since diagnosis or treatment duration, abdominal circumference, BMI, HDL-c, and CD4<sup>+</sup> or CD8<sup>+</sup> cell count. Other studies have reported similar results, suggesting that the increased risk of atherosclerosis in the presence of HIV is not directly associated with time since diagnosis, but with conditions involved in HIV infection.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Patients with PL were 11 years older than those without PL, and predominantly male. Fasting glucose, TC, LDL-c, and TGL were significantly higher in patients with the diagnosis of PL. In patients with PL compared to patients without PL, SBP and DBP were 10 and 6 mm Hg higher, respectively. These results agree with those of other studies and strengthen the concept that atherogenesis in HIV-infected patients follows the classical risk factors described in other populations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Our results indicate that older individuals had higher CIMT, regardless of the presence of HIV infection; however, there was an interaction between age and the presence of HIV to increase CIMT (p &lt; 0.001). Although time since diagnosis did not affect PL frequency, HIV infection appears to enhance the effect of age on CIMT. In this case, younger individuals with HIV could have vascular changes compatible with those of older patients. Understanding this behavior is important in screening for atherosclerosis in HIV-infected patients, because the protective effect of lower age would have less relevance.</p>
      <p>In the HIV group, CIMT was associated with age (p &lt; 0.001), BMI (p = 0.053), LDL-c (p = 0.005), and serum creatinine (p = 0.004); this was also seen in other studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> There were no associations with gender, smoking, diabetes, hypertension, statin therapy, HDL-c, or TGL. Interestingly, vessels may have PL with normal CIMT, which means that increased intima-media thickness and PL are not necessarily directly associated processes. However, both reflect the presence of endothelial dysfunction and are considered to favor cardiovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Treatment with PI showed significant interaction with age and time since HIV diagnosis to increase TGL. Moreover, PI exposure was not associated with higher frequency of PL, in accordance with recent studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In our study HAART showed correlation with unfavorable lipid profile, but without interfering in PL frequency or arterial stiffness.</p>
      <p>The PWV was directly associated with age, CIMT, and SBP. These results are consistent with those from recent studies describing arterial stiffness indexes associated with age, hypertension, and vascular disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> In addition, AIx showed a direct association with age, CIMT, and SBP, with no interaction between age and smoking to increase AIx.</p>
      <p>The elevation of PWV and AIx in patients with PL suggests that atherosclerosis is associated with functional alterations in the vessels; stiffer vessels have a higher risk of developing PL. Furthermore, patients with PL showed higher CIMT than patients without lesions, supporting the hypothesis that CIMT and atherosclerosis are associated, even when excluding the evolutionary nature of an alteration in the other.</p>
      <p>This study included 207 patients classified as low risk (82.1%), 31 as moderate (12.3%) and 14 as high risk (5.56%) according to FCRS. The literature shows that the greater the FCRS, the greater the CIMT.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In relation to age, younger patients were seen to have lower scores. This is in accordance with the concept that the FCRS, when applied to young individuals, can result in a low risk score, without implying that these individuals are not at risk of future cardiovascular events. It is important to note that almost 20% of the low-risk patients had carotid PL.</p>
      <p>Patients in the moderate/high-risk subgroup showed unfavorable lipid profile with low HDL-c and elevated TC and LDL-c, as described in the literature, but no difference in hs-CRP, when compared to those classified as low risk by the FCRS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> In addition, those classified as moderate/high-risk had higher intima-media thickness and PWV (p &lt; 0.001), consistent with the hypothesis of a higher chance of vascular disease in the group.</p>
      <p>Plaques were detected in 16% of the patients who were not treated with PI and had LDL-c lower than 130 mg/dL. This result, associated with the presence of PL in almost 20% of the low-risk patients classified by the FCRS, would indicate that they are at risk of developing atherosclerosis. Thus, the group with such characteristics would be exposed to major cardiovascular events, such as myocardial infarction and stroke, even without symptoms.</p>
      <p>The IV Brazilian Guidelines on Dyslipidemia and Atherosclerosis Prevention recommend that evaluation of cardiovascular risk in HIV-infected patients should be performed assessing lipid profile and FCRS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Patients classified as low-risk have normal lipids and are not using HAART, and should undergo cardiovascular reevaluation in 2 years. In those with HAART, reevaluations are recommended one month after initiation of therapy and then every three months.</p>
      <p>It is thus noted that the criteria established by the guidelines fail to consider the risks of this particular HIV-infected population, and that these patients have not been properly and specifically assessed for early CVD detection.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limitations</title>
        <p>There are some limitations in this study. The data are only observational. There is a gap between this study population and the population from Framingham in the original description of the risk score. The pathophysiological determinants of multifactorial conditions involved in the association between HIV-infection or HAART use and atherosclerosis were not analyzed in this study. Information on previous CVD and other causes of immunosuppression were obtained by medical record review only, without specific evaluation for each condition.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusions</title>
      <p>The data suggest that HIV-infected patients are at increased risk of atherosclerosis in association with the classical cardiovascular risk factors. In addition, HAART interacts with time since HIV infection diagnosis and patient age to modify lipid levels, but is not associated with higher PL frequency and does not promote functional changes in the arteries. Smoking, more prevalent in the HIV-infected population, influences the effect of age on the mechanical properties of arteries and may have an additional atherogenic effect in those patients. The FCRS may be inappropriate for this population.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by P&#233;ricles Sidnei Salmazo, from Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Experimental work involving human beings</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu under the protocol number CEP 3451-2010. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Choi</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Li</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Deeks</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Grunfeld</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Volberding</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shlipak</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Association between kidney function and albuminuria with cardiovascular events in HIV-infected persons</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <year>2010</year>
          <volume>121</volume>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <fpage>651</fpage>
          <lpage>658</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.898585</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Frequ&#234;ncia de Aterosclerose Subcl&#237;nica em Brasileiros Infectados pelo HIV</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Salmazo</surname>
            <given-names>P&#233;ricles Sidnei</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bazan</surname>
            <given-names>Silm&#233;ia Garcia Zanati</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Shiraishi</surname>
            <given-names>Fl&#225;vio Gobbis</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bazan</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Katashi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Hueb</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu (UNESP), Botucatu, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Silm&#233;ia Garcia Zanati Bazan,</bold> Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Unesp - Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica. Distrito de Rubi&#227;o Jr., s/n. CEP 18618-687, Botucatu, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>sgzanati@fmb.unesp.br</email>, <email>sgzanati@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Salmazo PS; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Salmazo PS, Shiraishi FG; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Salmazo PS, Bazan SGZ, Shiraishi FG, Bazan R, Okoshi K, Hueb JC; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Bazan SGZ, Bazan R; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Salmazo PS, Bazan SGZ, Shiraishi FG, Bazan R; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Okoshi K, Hueb JC.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>Aterosclerose e AIDS s&#227;o importantes problemas de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica. A maior sobrevida de indiv&#237;duos infectados pelo HIV acha-se associada com maior n&#250;mero de eventos cardiovasculares nessa popula&#231;&#227;o, mas tal associa&#231;&#227;o ainda n&#227;o foi completamente esclarecida.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos:</title>
          <p>Identificar a frequ&#234;ncia de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica em pacientes infectados pelo HIV em compara&#231;&#227;o a controles; analisar as associa&#231;&#245;es entre aterosclerose e vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas e laboratoriais, fatores de risco cardiovascular e escore de risco de Framingham (ERF) para doen&#231;a coronariana.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Estudo prospectivo transversal caso-controle avaliando a presen&#231;a de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica em 264 pacientes infectados pelo HIV e 279 controles. A avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica incluiu ultrassonografia das art&#233;rias car&#243;tidas, an&#225;lise da rigidez arterial atrav&#233;s da velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP) e <italic>augmentation index</italic> (AIx), exames laboratoriais do sangue perif&#233;rico e determina&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular segundo os crit&#233;rios do ERF. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia adotado na an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica foi p &lt; 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>Placas foram identificadas em 37% do grupo infectado pelo HIV e em 4% dos controles (p &lt; 0,001). A espessura m&#233;dio-intimal carot&#237;dea foi maior no grupo HIV do que nos controles (p &lt; 0,001). Pacientes com placa carot&#237;dea apresentaram maiores n&#237;veis de glicemia de jejum, colesterol total, colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade e triglic&#233;rides do que aqueles sem placas. A presen&#231;a do HIV, ajustada por idade, sobrepeso/obesidade e tabagismo aumentou em quase cinco vezes o risco de placa ateroscler&#243;tica carot&#237;dea (OR: 4,9; IC95%: 2,5-9,9; p &lt; 0,001). Exposi&#231;&#227;o aos inibidores da protease n&#227;o influenciou a espessura m&#233;dio-intimal carot&#237;dea, n&#227;o se associou com frequ&#234;ncia de placa carot&#237;dea e n&#227;o alterou as caracter&#237;sticas mec&#226;nicas do sistema arterial (VOP e AIx).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es:</title>
          <p>Pacientes infectados pelo HIV apresentam maior risco de aterosclerose na associa&#231;&#227;o com os cl&#225;ssicos fatores de risco cardiovascular. Tratamento com os inibidores da protease n&#227;o promove altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais nas art&#233;rias, nem se associa com maior frequ&#234;ncia de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas carot&#237;deas. O ERF pode ser inadequado para essa popula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Aterosclerose / complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>HIV</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares / mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Espessura Intima-M&#233;dia Carot&#237;dea</kwd>
        <kwd>Rigidez Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Ao final de 2012, havia cerca de 35 milh&#245;es de indiv&#237;duos HIV positivos no mundo. At&#233; junho de 2012, 656.701 casos haviam sido identificados no Brasil desde a detec&#231;&#227;o do primeiro em S&#227;o Paulo em 1980, incluindo os 253.706 casos letais entre 1980 e 2011.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Em meados da d&#233;cada de 1990, as taxas aumentaram, mas a situa&#231;&#227;o atual indica uma epidemia est&#225;vel,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> com sinais de redu&#231;&#227;o na taxa de mortalidade na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Os mais importantes fatores que contribu&#237;ram para isso foram a introdu&#231;&#227;o da terapia antirretroviral de alta efic&#225;cia (HAART) e o f&#225;cil acesso a ela. Entretanto, com o passar dos anos, observou-se que a HAART pode alterar o perfil lip&#237;dico dos pacientes, acelerando a aterosclerose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> A despeito disso, a doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV) &#233; a principal causa de morte no mundo (Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de, 2013), al&#233;m de ser a principal causa de morte evit&#225;vel.</p>
        <p>H&#225; indica&#231;&#227;o de um poss&#237;vel efeito direto das part&#237;culas proteicas virais ou da libera&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas pelas c&#233;lulas infectadas nos receptores do endot&#233;lio vascular, favorecendo, assim, a presen&#231;a de pr&#243;-coagulantes, ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, diminui&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico a partir da destrui&#231;&#227;o de linf&#243;citos T CD4 (c&#233;lulas CD4<sup>+</sup>), e produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Publica&#231;&#245;es recentes indicaram que o efeito viral no endot&#233;lio vascular pode contribuir para reduzir o n&#250;mero de c&#233;lulas endoteliais prim&#225;rias, levando a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e aterosclerose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Entretanto, n&#227;o h&#225; consenso quanto &#224; rela&#231;&#227;o entre HAART e aterosclerose, o que pode ser atribu&#237;do &#224; complexidade dos fatores envolvidos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Portanto, novas estrat&#233;gias foram sugeridas para prevenir eventos cardiovasculares, incluindo a pesquisa de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A espessura m&#233;dio-intimal carot&#237;dea (EMIC) e a presen&#231;a de placa ateroscler&#243;tica (PL) na car&#243;tida foram associadas com o escore de risco de Framingham (ERF) para doen&#231;a coronariana; indiv&#237;duos com eleva&#231;&#227;o desse &#237;ndice apresentam maior risco de desenvolver doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Outro marcador de DCV &#233; a prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel (PCR-us). Em pacientes HIV positivos, sabe-se que a PCR-us, embora com baixa sensibilidade, &#233; um poss&#237;vel marcador de progress&#227;o de doen&#231;a e aterosclerose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A rigidez arterial &#233; avaliada atrav&#233;s de velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP), <italic>augmentation index</italic> (AIx) e press&#227;o na aorta ascendente (PAA), estudados como &#237;ndices promissores para o diagn&#243;stico de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial precoce.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Poucas publica&#231;&#245;es avaliaram esses &#237;ndices em pacientes HIV positivos, sendo limitado o n&#250;mero de casos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O presente estudo teve os seguintes objetivos: 1- identificar a frequ&#234;ncia de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica em pacientes HIV positivos, comparando-a com a de controles; 2- associar o diagn&#243;stico de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica com a carga viral, n&#237;veis de CD4 e tratamento antirretroviral em pacientes HIV positivos; 3- associar a presen&#231;a de aterosclerose carot&#237;dea com fatores de risco cardiovascular e ERF em pacientes HIV positivos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>Todos os participantes assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e informado, tendo o protocolo do estudo sido aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da universidade.</p>
        <p>Trata-se de estudo prospectivo transversal caso-controle com pacientes consecutivamente selecionados.</p>
        <p>Todos os pacientes infectados pelo HIV do ambulat&#243;rio de Doen&#231;as Infecciosas foram inclu&#237;dos no estudo. Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram evid&#234;ncia de aterosclerose (entrevista, revis&#227;o de prontu&#225;rio m&#233;dico e exame f&#237;sico), idade inferior a 18 anos, gravidez, evid&#234;ncia de outras causas de imunossupress&#227;o e falha na obten&#231;&#227;o de dados por dificuldades t&#233;cnicas.</p>
        <p>Controles saud&#225;veis foram prospectivamente inclu&#237;dos.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Coleta de dados</title>
          <p>Os pacientes foram convidados a participar do estudo ap&#243;s exposi&#231;&#227;o do projeto na sala de espera em consulta de rotina.</p>
          <p>Aqueles que aceitaram foram encaminhados para uma cl&#237;nica onde receberam mais informa&#231;&#227;o, tiveram suas d&#250;vidas esclarecidas e foram submetidos a entrevista guiada atrav&#233;s de question&#225;rio estruturado, exame f&#237;sico e avalia&#231;&#227;o das car&#243;tidas por ultrassonografia, seguindo-se coleta de amostra de sangue para exames laboratoriais.</p>
          <p>Informa&#231;&#227;o sobre HAART, tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico e tratamento, carga viral de RNA-HIV e contagem de CD4<sup>+</sup> e CD8<sup>+</sup> foram obtidas a partir da revis&#227;o dos prontu&#225;rios m&#233;dicos. Calculou-se o risco cardiovascular pelo ERF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
					</p>
          <sec>
            <title>Ultrassonografia das car&#243;tidas</title>
            <p>A ultrassonografia das car&#243;tidas foi realizada por um &#250;nico especialista adequadamente treinado, usando o equipamento Vivid I ou Vivid S6 (General Electric Healthcare, EUA) com transdutor linear de 7.0 MHz e sistema de aquisi&#231;&#227;o de imagem. As imagens foram obtidas e analisadas de acordo com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es do consenso da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia e do Consenso de Mannheim sobre EMIC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
						</p>
            <p>As imagens da EMIC foram obtidas por m&#233;todo autom&#225;tico usando um programa desenvolvido pela GE para determinar a espessura m&#233;dia das art&#233;rias car&#243;tidas esquerda e direita.</p>
            <p>Definiu-se PL como uma estrutura focal que invade a luz arterial em pelo menos 0,5 mm, ou 50% da EMIC circunjacente, ou espessura carot&#237;dea &gt; 1,5 mm.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Rigidez arterial</title>
            <p>Os &#237;ndices de rigidez arterial (VOP, AIx e PAA) foram obtidos pelo mesmo operador experiente usando equipamento do sistema Sphygmocor CPV (AtCor Medical, Austr&#225;lia) e conforme as recomenda&#231;&#245;es vigentes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Exames laboratoriais</title>
            <p>Uma amostra de sangue ap&#243;s jejum de 12 horas foi obtida de todos os pacientes para analisar PCR-us, glicemia, albumina, hemograma completo, ureia, creatinina, colesterol total (CT), colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-c) e triglic&#233;rides (TGL). Estimou-se o colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL-c) atrav&#233;s da f&#243;rmula de Friedewald para n&#237;veis de TGL inferiores a 400 mg/dL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Toda a an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica foi realizada usando o programa SAS/STAT (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina, EUA).</p>
          <p>As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas com distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foram expressas como m&#233;dia e desvio-padr&#227;o, enquanto as vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas com distribui&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o normal foram expressas como mediana e intervalo interquartil. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram expressas como propor&#231;&#245;es. Realizou-se o teste de Shapiro-Wilk como teste de normalidade.</p>
          <p>Usou-se regress&#227;o log&#237;stica multivariada para estimar as associa&#231;&#245;es entre aterosclerose carot&#237;dea e vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas.</p>
          <p>Usou-se regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla para avaliar as associa&#231;&#245;es entre rigidez arterial e vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas ou a presen&#231;a de aterosclerose carot&#237;dea.</p>
          <p>O teste de Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney foi usado para comparar dois grupos de resultados n&#227;o param&#233;tricos. O teste <italic>t</italic> de Student n&#227;o pareado foi aplicado para os resultados param&#233;tricos.</p>
          <p>Empregou-se ANOVA de uma via para comparar os grupos na classifica&#231;&#227;o do ERF.</p>
          <p>Todos os testes eram bicaudais, adotando-se o n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de p &lt; 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo</title>
          <p>O estudo incluiu 264 pacientes infectados pelo HIV e 279 volunt&#225;rios saud&#225;veis (grupo controle). No grupo de infectados pelo HIV, a mediana do tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico de HIV foi de 96 meses (35-149 meses) e da dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento, 78 meses (15-142 meses). A carga viral variou de indetect&#225;vel at&#233; 397.155 c&#243;pias/ml (mediana: indetect&#225;vel; percentil 75: 253 c&#243;pias/ml). A contagem de CD4<sup>+</sup> variou de 442 at&#233; 16.338 c&#233;lulas/&#181;l (mediana: 1.739 c&#233;lulas; intervalo interquartil: 1.350-2.212 c&#233;lulas). Dos pacientes infectados pelo HIV, 35 n&#227;o faziam uso de HAART.</p>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref> mostra as vari&#225;veis demogr&#225;ficas e cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes infectados pelo HIV e dos controles. Comparados aos controles, os pacientes infectados pelo HIV eram 6 anos mais velhos (43,2 &#177; 10,5 vs. 37,9 &#177; 11,5 anos; p &lt; 0,001), tinham menor IMC (25,5 &#177; 4,5 vs. 27,4 &#177; 5,4 kg/m<sup>2</sup>; p &lt; 0,001), menor frequ&#234;ncia de sobrepeso/obesidade (51,1 vs. 63,1%; p = 0,005) e maior incid&#234;ncia de tabagismo ativo (43,6 vs. 16,1%; p &lt; 0,001).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Vari&#225;veis demogr&#225;ficas e cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes infectados pelo HIV e do grupo controle</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="25%"/>
                <col width="25%"/>
                <col width="25%"/>
                <col width="25%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                  <th align="center">grupo HIV (n = 264)</th>
                  <th align="center">grupo controle (n = 279)</th>
                  <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Idade (anos)</td>
                  <td align="center">43,2 &#177; 10,5</td>
                  <td align="center">37,9 &#177; 11,5</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Sexo (F/M)</td>
                  <td align="center">125/139</td>
                  <td align="center">144/135</td>
                  <td align="center">0,321</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">S_ob (sim/n&#227;o)</td>
                  <td align="center">135 (51,1%)/129</td>
                  <td align="center">176 (63,1%)/103</td>
                  <td align="center">0,005</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">HAS (sim/n&#227;o)</td>
                  <td align="center">28/236</td>
                  <td align="center">23/256</td>
                  <td align="center">0,360</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Tabagismo (sim/n&#227;o)</td>
                  <td align="center">115 (43,6%)/149</td>
                  <td align="center">45(16,1%)/234</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Diabetes (sim/n&#227;o)</td>
                  <td align="center">10/254</td>
                  <td align="center">6/273</td>
                  <td align="center">0,263</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">IMC (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">25,5 &#177; 4,5</td>
                  <td align="center">27,4 &#177; 5,4</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAS (mmHg)</td>
                  <td align="center">121 (111;133)</td>
                  <td align="center">120 (110;130)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,535</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PAD (mmHg)</td>
                  <td align="center">77 (71;85)</td>
                  <td align="center">80 (70;80)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,616</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>F: feminino; M: masculino; S_ob: sobrepeso/obesidade; HAS: hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref> apresenta as vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas e laboratoriais dos pacientes, divididos conforme o tratamento com os inibidores de protease (PI). Aqueles expostos aos PI apresentaram mais longo tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico [140 (74-175) vs. 72,5 (20-120) meses; p &lt; 0,001], maior dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento da doen&#231;a [124 (56-155) vs. 44 (4-101) meses; p &lt; 0,001] e n&#237;veis elevados de TGL [190 (119-280) vs. 140 (100-188,5) mg/dL; p &lt; 0,001]; no entanto, a exposi&#231;&#227;o aos PI n&#227;o teve efeito nos n&#237;veis de LDL-c, HDL-c, glicemia de jejum, creatinina e PCR-us.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas e laboratoriais dos pacientes tratados e n&#227;o tratados com inibidores de protease</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="25%"/>
                <col width="25%"/>
                <col width="25%"/>
                <col width="25%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                  <th align="center">PI + (n = 116)</th>
                  <th align="center">PI - (n = 148)</th>
                  <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico (meses)</td>
                  <td align="center">140 (74;175)</td>
                  <td align="center">72,5 (20;120)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento da doen&#231;a (meses)</td>
                  <td align="center">124 (56;155)</td>
                  <td align="center">44 (4;101)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">LDL-c (mg/dl)</td>
                  <td align="center">103,2 (80,8;132,4)</td>
                  <td align="center">102 (83,4;132,8)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,796</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">HDL-c (mg/dl)</td>
                  <td align="center">42 (35;56)</td>
                  <td align="center">45 (37;53)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,626</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">TGL (mg/dl)</td>
                  <td align="center">190 (119;280)</td>
                  <td align="center">140 (100;188,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Glicemia de jejum (mg/dl)</td>
                  <td align="center">83 (77;91)</td>
                  <td align="center">83 (77;94)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,764</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Creatinina (mg/dl)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,80 (0,70;1,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,80 (0,70;0,90)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,067</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PCR-us (mg/dl)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,50 (0,30;0,70)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,50 (0,30;0,80)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,344</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <p>PI +: em uso de inibidores de protease; PI -: sem uso de inibidores de protease; LDL-c: colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade; HDL-c: colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; TGL: triglic&#233;rides; PCR-us: prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Placas ateroscler&#243;ticas carot&#237;deas e espessura m&#233;dio-intimal carot&#237;dea</title>
          <p>Placas foram detectadas em 37% do grupo infectado pelo HIV e em 4% do grupo controle (p &lt; 0,001), como mostra a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f5">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Frequ&#234;ncia de placa carot&#237;dea em pacientes infectados pelo HIV e controles.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-05-0402-80058-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>A an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica multivariada indicou que a presen&#231;a do HIV, ajustada por idade, sobrepeso/obesidade e tabagismo, aumentou em quase cinco vezes o risco de PL carot&#237;dea (OR 4,9; IC95%: 2,5 a 9,8; p &lt; 0,001).</p>
          <p>Os pacientes com PL eram 11 anos mais velhos do que os sem PL (51,4 &#177; 9,21 vs. 40,2 &#177; 9,40 anos, p &lt; 0,001) e apresentavam n&#237;veis mais altos de glicemia de jejum [90 (78-100) vs. 83 (76,5-90) mg/dl; p = 0,012], CT [200 (178-244) vs. 181 (156-208,5) mg/dl; p &lt; 0,001], LDL-c [120,1 (96,2-148,4) vs. 96,8 (80-125) mg/dl; p &lt; 0,001], TGL [188,5 (125,5-288,5) vs. 150,5 (108-226) mg/dl; p = 0,010] e creatinina [0,80 (0,70-1,10) vs. 0,80 (0,70-0,90) mg/dl; p = 0,027].</p>
          <p>Os pacientes com PL tinham mais altas press&#245;es arteriais sist&#243;lica (PAS: 132 &#177; 21 vs. 121 &#177; 16 mmHg; p &lt; 0,001) e diast&#243;lica (PAD: 83 &#177; 12 vs. 77 &#177; 11 mmHg, p &lt; 0,001). Al&#233;m disso, detectou-se PL em cerca de 34% dos homens e em 17,4% das mulheres.</p>
          <p>Quanto ao tratamento com PI, a exposi&#231;&#227;o a essa classe de medicamento n&#227;o foi associada com maior frequ&#234;ncia de PL. Entretanto, os resultados mostram significativa intera&#231;&#227;o entre PI e eleva&#231;&#227;o de TGL, embora sem associa&#231;&#227;o com a presen&#231;a de PL.</p>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref> ilustra a significativa associa&#231;&#227;o entre idade e EMIC nos dois grupos, indicando que indiv&#237;duos mais velhos t&#234;m maior EMIC, independentemente da presen&#231;a de infec&#231;&#227;o por HIV. No entanto, houve significativa intera&#231;&#227;o entre idade e presen&#231;a de HIV no sentido de aumentar a EMIC (p &lt; 0,001).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f6">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Associa&#231;&#227;o entre espessura m&#233;dio-intimal carot&#237;dea e idade nos grupos controle e de infectados pelo HIV.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-05-0402-80058-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Rigidez arterial</title>
          <p>Comparando-se pacientes expostos e n&#227;o expostos aos PI, essa classe de medicamento n&#227;o teve efeito nas caracter&#237;sticas mec&#226;nicas arteriais, expressas por VOP [7,10 (6,20-8,20) vs. 7,20 (6,30-8,40) m/s; p = 0,727] e AIx [28 (17-37) vs. 26 (13-38)%; p = 0,315]. Al&#233;m disso, n&#227;o se observou efeito na EMIC [0,645 (0,570-0,765) vs. 0,625 (0,565-0,740) mm; p = 0,331].</p>
          <p> A VOP foi associada com idade (R = 0,573, p &lt; 0,001), EMIC (R = 0,449, p &lt; 0,001) e PAS (R = 0,557, p &lt; 0,001), como mostra a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f7">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Associa&#231;&#227;o entre velocidade de onda de pulso e press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (painel A) e idade (painel B).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-05-0402-80058-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre VOP e idade persistiu no modelo corrigido para tabagismo. Entretanto, o tabagismo interagiu com idade para aumentar a VOP (p = 0,05). O AIx tamb&#233;m se associou com idade (R = 0,411, p &lt; 0,001), EMIC (R = 0,274, p &lt; 0,001) e PAS (R = 0,348, p &lt; 0,001).</p>
          <p>O &#237;ndice de rigidez arterial mostrou-se elevado nos pacientes com PL em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles sem PL: VOP [7,90 (7,0-9,5) vs. 6,80 (6,10-8,0) m/s; p &lt; 0,001] e AIx [37 (25-42) vs. 24 (12-35)%; p &lt; 0,001]. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com PL apresentaram mediana de EMIC 0,170 mm maior do que a dos pacientes sem les&#227;o [0,770 (0,680-0,910) vs. 0,597 (0,550-0,690) mm; p = 0,003].</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Escore de risco de Framingham para doen&#231;a coronariana</title>
          <p>Estimou-se o ERF em 252 pacientes infectados pelo HIV. Desses, 207 (82,1%) foram classificados como de baixo risco, 31 (12,3%) como de risco intermedi&#225;rio e 14 (5,56%) como de alto risco para o desenvolvimento de DCV em 10 anos.</p>
          <p>Ao reagrupar os pacientes em dois subgrupos, baixo risco (207 pacientes) e risco intermedi&#225;rio/alto (45 pacientes), a frequ&#234;ncia de PL foi de 18,2% e 62,8% (p &lt; 0,001), respectivamente, como mostra a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f8">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Frequ&#234;ncia de placas em pacientes HIV positivos de acordo com a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de Framingham.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-110-05-0402-80058-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Indiv&#237;duos de baixo-risco foram 11 anos mais jovens do que os seus correspondentes de risco intermedi&#225;rio/alto (52,5 &#177; 10,3 anos; p &lt; 0,001).</p>
          <p>Em compara&#231;&#227;o com o subgrupo de baixo risco, o de risco intermedi&#225;rio/alto apresentou maior EMIC [0,780 (0,710-0,935) vs. 0,605 (0,550-0,710) mm; p &lt; 0,001], VOP [8,45 (7,15-10,05) vs. 6,90 (6,10-8,00) m/s; p &lt; 0,001], CT [223 (188-253) vs. 182 (155-208) mg/dl; p &lt; 0,001], LDL-c [130 (103-151) vs. 97.1 (79.6-126) mg/dl; p &lt; 0,001], TGL [222 (160-309) vs. 143 (102-208) mg/dl; p &lt; 0,001], glicemia de jejum [90 (80-102) vs. 83 (76-90) mg/dl; p = 0,002] e creatinina s&#233;rica [0,90 (0,70-1,10) vs. 0,80 (0,70-0,90) mg/dl; p &lt; 0,001], e mais baixo HDL-c [38 (32-45) vs. 46 (37-56) mg/dl; p = 0,002].</p>
          <p>Dos 207 indiv&#237;duos de baixo risco, 83 apresentaram LDL-c inferior a 130 mg/dl e n&#227;o usavam PI, e, em 14 (16,9%) desses, diagnosticou-se PL carot&#237;dea (p = 0,036).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Segundo os dados do Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de do Brasil, a preval&#234;ncia de sobrepeso na popula&#231;&#227;o geral &#233; de cerca de 50%, enquanto a de obesidade varia de 12% a 17%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Na popula&#231;&#227;o infectada pelo HIV, alguns estudos relataram uma preval&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#227;o da distribui&#231;&#227;o de gordura de cerca de 50%, com dados altamente variados sobre lipodistrofia (20-80%) e obesidade em 4-14%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Neste estudo, o IMC foi menor no grupo infectado pelo HIV do que no controle (25,5 &#177; 4,5 vs. 27,4 &#177; 5,4 kg/m<sup>2</sup>). A frequ&#234;ncia de sobrepeso e obesidade foi 51,1%, similar &#224; da literatura e menor do que a do grupo controle (63,1%).</p>
        <p>A literatura mostra maior frequ&#234;ncia de tabagismo, quando comparada com a da popula&#231;&#227;o geral, entre infectados pelo HIV, chegando a 50%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Confirmamos isso na nossa s&#233;rie, encontrando tabagismo ativo em 43,6% dos pacientes e 16,1% do grupo controle (p &lt; 0,001). O tabagismo teve efeito na EMIC apenas no grupo controle. Esse resultado poderia sugerir que os pacientes infectados pelo HIV tenham outros fatores aterog&#234;nicos que neutralizariam os efeitos do tabagismo na EMIC, com tend&#234;ncia a aument&#225;-la, independentemente do tabagismo.</p>
        <p>O LDL-c mostrou-se associado com idade (R = 0,252, p &lt; 0,001) e tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV (R = 0,293; p = 0,041), em direta associa&#231;&#227;o com n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos elevados.</p>
        <p>Tais resultados sugerem que a aterosclerose na popula&#231;&#227;o infectada pelo HIV seja influenciada por outros fatores de risco relacionados &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m de apresentar caracter&#237;sticas similares &#224;s do processo classicamente descrito em outras popula&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>As PL foram observadas em 37% dos indiv&#237;duos infectados pelo HIV, um pouco menor do que os 55% relatados em algumas publica&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Este estudo descobriu que a presen&#231;a do HIV produziu um aumento de quase cinco vezes no risco de PL carot&#237;dea no modelo ajustado por idade, sobrepeso/obesidade e tabagismo. Podemos, portanto, supor que a presen&#231;a de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV seja fator que contribua para o desenvolvimento de aterosclerose, al&#233;m dos tradicionais fatores de risco, o que est&#225; em concord&#226;ncia com outros estudos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>N&#227;o houve associa&#231;&#227;o entre a presen&#231;a de PL carot&#237;dea e o tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico ou dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento, circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal, IMC, HDL-c e contagem de c&#233;lulas CD4<sup>+</sup> ou CD8<sup>+</sup>. Outros estudos relataram resultados semelhantes, sugerindo que o maior risco de aterosclerose na presen&#231;a de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV n&#227;o se acha diretamente associado ao tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico, mas &#224;s condi&#231;&#245;es envolvidas com a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Os pacientes com PL eram 11 anos mais velhos do que aqueles sem PL, al&#233;m de serem predominantemente do sexo masculino. Glicemia de jejum, CT, LDL-c e TGL foram significativamente mais altos nos pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de PL. Pacientes com PL em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles sem PL, apresentaram eleva&#231;&#227;o de PAS e de PAD de 10 e 6 mmHg, respectivamente. Tais resultados est&#227;o de acordo com os de outros estudos e refor&#231;am o conceito de que a aterog&#234;nese em pacientes infectados pelo HIV segue os cl&#225;ssicos fatores de risco descritos em outras popula&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Nossos resultados indicam que indiv&#237;duos mais idosos t&#234;m maior EMIC, independentemente da presen&#231;a de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV; entretanto, observou-se uma intera&#231;&#227;o entre idade e presen&#231;a de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV para aumentar a EMIC (p &lt; 0,001). Ainda que o tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico n&#227;o afete a frequ&#234;ncia de PL, parece que a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV incrementa o efeito da idade sobre a EMIC. Nesse caso, indiv&#237;duos mais jovens com infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV poderiam apresentar altera&#231;&#245;es vasculares compat&#237;veis com as de pacientes mais idosos. &#201; importante compreender esse comportamento ao fazer a triagem de aterosclerose em pacientes infectados pelo HIV, pois o efeito protetor da idade mais jovem teria menor relev&#226;ncia.</p>
        <p>No grupo infectado pelo HIV, a EMIC associou-se com idade (p &lt; 0,001), IMC (p = 0,053), LDL-c (p = 0,005) e creatinina s&#233;rica (p = 0,004), o que tamb&#233;m foi relatado em outros estudos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> N&#227;o houve associa&#231;&#227;o com g&#234;nero, tabagismo, diabetes, hipertens&#227;o, terapia com estatina, HDL-c e TGL. &#201; importante ressaltar que mesmo que os vasos tenham PL, a EMIC pode ser normal, significando que o aumento da espessura m&#233;dio-intimal e as PL n&#227;o s&#227;o necessariamente processos diretamente associados. Entretanto, ambos refletem a presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e considera-se que favore&#231;am eventos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O tratamento com PI mostrou significativa intera&#231;&#227;o com idade e tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV para aumentar TGL. Al&#233;m disso, a exposi&#231;&#227;o aos PI n&#227;o se associou com maior frequ&#234;ncia de PL, estando de acordo com estudos recentes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
        <p>No nosso estudo, a HAART correlacionou-se com um perfil lip&#237;dico desfavor&#225;vel, mas sem interferir na frequ&#234;ncia de PL ou rigidez arterial.</p>
        <p>A VOP associou-se diretamente com idade, EMIC e PAS. Tais resultados s&#227;o consistentes com os de recentes estudos que descrevem a associa&#231;&#227;o de &#237;ndices de rigidez arterial com idade, hipertens&#227;o e doen&#231;a vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Al&#233;m disso, o AIx apresentou associa&#231;&#227;o direta com idade, EMIC e PAS, n&#227;o havendo intera&#231;&#227;o entre idade e tabagismo para aumentar o AIx.</p>
        <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o da VOP e do AIx em pacientes com PL sugere que a aterosclerose esteja associada com altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais nos vasos; vasos mais r&#237;gidos t&#234;m maior risco de desenvolver PL. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com PL apresentaram maior EMIC do que aqueles sem les&#245;es, refor&#231;ando a hip&#243;tese de que EMIC e aterosclerose estejam associadas, mesmo quando se exclui a natureza evolutiva de uma altera&#231;&#227;o sobre a outra.</p>
        <p>Este estudo incluiu 207 pacientes classificados atrav&#233;s do ERF como de baixo risco (82,1%), 31 como de risco intermedi&#225;rio (12,3%) e 14 como de alto risco (5,56%). A literatura mostra que quanto maior o ERF, maior a EMIC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Quanto &#224; idade, os pacientes mais jovens apresentaram ERF mais baixos. Isso est&#225; de acordo com o conceito de que o ERF, quando aplicado a jovens, pode resultar em baixo risco sem implicar que tais indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o tenham risco de eventos cardiovasculares futuros. &#201; importante notar que quase 20% dos pacientes de baixo risco t&#234;m PL carot&#237;dea.</p>
        <p>O subgrupo de risco intermedi&#225;rio/alto, ao ser comparado &#224;quele classificado como de baixo risco pelo ERF, apresentou perfil lip&#237;dico desfavor&#225;vel com baixos n&#237;veis de HDL-c e elevados de CT e LDL-c, como descrito na literatura, mas sem diferen&#231;a quanto &#224; PCR-us.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Al&#233;m disso, os indiv&#237;duos classificados como de risco intermedi&#225;rio/alto apresentaram maior espessura m&#233;dio-intimal e VOP (p &lt; 0,001), consistente com a hip&#243;tese de maior chance de doen&#231;a vascular no grupo.</p>
        <p>Placas foram detectadas em 16% dos pacientes n&#227;o tratados com PI e que apresentavam LDL-c inferior a 130 mg/dl. Tal resultado, associado &#224; presen&#231;a de PL em quase 20% dos pacientes de baixo risco segundo o ERF, indicaria que eles teriam risco de desenvolver aterosclerose. Logo, o grupo com tais caracter&#237;sticas estaria sujeito a eventos cardiovasculares maiores, como infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico, mesmo sem sintomas.</p>
        <p>A IV Diretriz Brasileira sobre Dislipidemia e Preven&#231;&#227;o de Aterosclerose recomenda que a avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular de pacientes infectados pelo HIV deve ser realizada com a avalia&#231;&#227;o do perfil lip&#237;dico e ERF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Pacientes classificados como de baixo risco t&#234;m n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos normais e n&#227;o usam HAART, devendo ser submetidos a reavalia&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular em 2 anos. Para aqueles em uso de HAART, recomendam-se reavalia&#231;&#245;es um m&#234;s ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio da terapia e, ent&#227;o, a cada tr&#234;s meses.</p>
        <p>Percebe-se que os crit&#233;rios estabelecidos pela diretriz n&#227;o consideram os riscos desta popula&#231;&#227;o particular de infectados pelo HIV, e que tais pacientes n&#227;o t&#234;m sido adequadamente e especificamente avaliados para a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de DCV.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>Este estudo apresenta algumas limita&#231;&#245;es. Os dados s&#227;o apenas observacionais. H&#225; uma lacuna entre a popula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo e a do Framingham na descri&#231;&#227;o original do escore de risco. Os determinantes fisiopatol&#243;gicos das condi&#231;&#245;es multifatoriais envolvidas na associa&#231;&#227;o entre infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV ou uso de HAART e aterosclerose n&#227;o foram analisados nesse estudo. Obteve-se a informa&#231;&#227;o sobre DCV pr&#233;via e outras causas de imunossupress&#227;o a partir apenas da revis&#227;o dos prontu&#225;rios m&#233;dicos, sem avalia&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica para cada condi&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
        <p>Os dados sugerem que pacientes infectados pelo HIV apresentam maior risco de aterosclerose em associa&#231;&#227;o aos cl&#225;ssicos fatores de risco cardiovascular. Al&#233;m disso, a HAART interage com o tempo desde o diagn&#243;stico de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV e a idade do paciente para modificar os n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos, mas n&#227;o se associa com maior frequ&#234;ncia de PL e n&#227;o promove altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais nas art&#233;rias. O tabagismo, mais prevalente na popula&#231;&#227;o infectada pelo HIV, influencia o efeito da idade nas propriedades mec&#226;nicas das art&#233;rias, podendo desempenhar efeito aterog&#234;nico adicional nesses pacientes. O ERF pode ser inapropriado para essa popula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de P&#233;ricles Sidnei Salmazo pela Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Trabalhos experimentais envolvendo seres humanos</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa da Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo CEP: 3451-2010. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
