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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.6" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Zq4rQ4rwTXY46v55dxP4Wpk</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2017001300331</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20170126</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2017005017102</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Minimally Invasive Epicardial Pacemaker Implantation in Neonates with Congenital Heart Block</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Katia Regina da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martinelli</surname>
            <given-names>Martino</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carrillo</surname>
            <given-names>Roger</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil;</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">University of Miami</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Miller School of Medicine</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Miami</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="US">USA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">University of Miami - Miller School of Medicine, Miami - USA</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">University of Miami</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Roberto Costa.</bold> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44, CEP: 05403-900, Cerqueira C&#233;sar, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>rcosta@incor.usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript: Costa R, Silva KR; Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Costa R, Silva KR, Martinelli Filho M, Carrillo R.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>04</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>109</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>331</fpage>
      <lpage>339</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Few studies have characterized the surgical outcomes following epicardial pacemaker implantation in neonates with congenital complete atrioventricular block (CCAVB).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>This study sought to assess the long-term outcomes of a minimally invasive epicardial approach using a subxiphoid access for pacemaker implantation in neonates.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Between July 2002 and February 2015, 16 consecutive neonates underwent epicardial pacemaker implantation due to CCAVB. Among these, 12 (75.0%) had congenital heart defects associated with CCAVB. The patients had a mean age of 4.7 &#177; 5.3 days and nine (56.3%) were female. Bipolar steroid-eluting epicardial leads were implanted in all patients through a minimally invasive subxiphoid approach and fixed on the diaphragmatic ventricular surface. The pulse generator was placed in an epigastric submuscular position.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>All procedures were successful, with no perioperative complications or early deaths. Mean operating time was 90.2 &#177; 16.8 minutes. None of the patients displayed pacing or sensing dysfunction, and all parameters remained stable throughout the follow-up period of 4.1 &#177; 3.9 years. Three children underwent pulse generator replacement due to normal battery depletion at 4.0, 7.2, and 9.0 years of age without the need of ventricular lead replacement. There were two deaths at 12 and 325 days after pacemaker implantation due to bleeding from thrombolytic use and progressive refractory heart failure, respectively.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Epicardial pacemaker implantation through a subxiphoid approach in neonates with CCAVB is technically feasible and associated with excellent surgical outcomes and pacing lead longevity.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Heart Defects, Congenital</kwd>
        <kwd>Infants, Newborns</kwd>
        <kwd>Pacemaker, Artificial</kwd>
        <kwd>Atrioventricular Block</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Permanent pacemaker implantation in neonates with congenital complete atrioventricular block (CCAVB) is technically challenging due to the small size of the patients, presence of concomitant structural heart defects, and rapid child growth. This results in a high complication rate, including lead fracture and pacing/sensing dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Fortunately, the number of children requiring pacemaker implantation in the first month of life is extremely low.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> This is one reason why the surgical outcomes in this subset of patients remain poorly elucidated.</p>
      <p>Several age-specific factors may contribute to the occurrence of pacemaker-related complications in pediatric patients. First, pulse generators and leads are primarily designed for adults. Second, small vessel size and associated intracardiac defects make transvenous implantation difficult or impossible. Third, there is a significant disproportion between the size of the permanent device and the child's body size. Furthermore, the effects of growth on the leads and on the lead-myocardial junction result in a high incidence of exit block and lead fractures.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Deciding on the best surgical approach for pacemaker implantation in neonates requires a thorough assessment and a highly experienced cardiac surgery team, as evidence-based guidelines are still unavailable.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> The purpose of this study was to assess the long-term outcomes of a minimally invasive epicardial approach using a subxiphoid access for pacemaker implantation in this patient population.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Patients</title>
        <p>Between July 2002 and February 2015, a total of 16 consecutive neonates underwent epicardial pacemaker implantation in a cardiovascular referral center (Sao Paulo, Brazil). The Institutional Review Board of the institution approved this study. Device implantation was achieved through a minimally invasive subxiphoid incision.</p>
        <p>Among the 16 patients included in the study, nine (56.3%) were female. Mean patient age was 4.7 &#177; 5.3 days (range, 1 to 23 days). Indications for cardiac pacing included signs of low cardiac output in four (25%), heart rate &lt; 55 beats/minute in three (18.7%), and both conditions in nine (56.3%) patients. Patent foramen ovale or patent ductus arteriosus were detected in 12 (75.0%) infants, and atrial septal defects were detected in four (25.0%) of them. In four (25.0%) neonates, congenital heart defects were not detected before pacemaker implantation. One child had moderate-to-severe tricuspid regurgitation, and another had pulmonary stenosis. Baseline characteristics of these patients are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Baseline characteristics of neonates with congenital complete atrioventricular block who underwent epicardial pacemaker implantation</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="center">Pt</th>
                <th align="center">Sex</th>
                <th align="center">Fetal diagnosis</th>
                <th align="center">GA at birth</th>
                <th align="center">Birth weight (g)</th>
                <th align="center">Heart rate at birth (bpm)</th>
                <th align="center">Cardiac defect</th>
                <th align="center">Age (days) at PM implant</th>
                <th align="center">Maternal lupus/ autoantibodies +</th>
                <th align="center">PM indication</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">1</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">36</td>
                <td align="center">2630</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">4</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">38</td>
                <td align="center">3046</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
                <td align="center">PFO, PDA</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia, HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">3</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">36</td>
                <td align="center">1950</td>
                <td align="center">48</td>
                <td align="center">PFO, PDA, PS</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">4</td>
                <td align="center">M</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">37</td>
                <td align="center">3895</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">5</td>
                <td align="center">M</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">32</td>
                <td align="center">2680</td>
                <td align="center">42</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia, HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">6</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">37</td>
                <td align="center">2720</td>
                <td align="center">45</td>
                <td align="center">ASD, PDA</td>
                <td align="center">9</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia, HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">7</td>
                <td align="center">M</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">38</td>
                <td align="center">2700</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">PFO, PDA</td>
                <td align="center">23</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia, HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">8</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">38</td>
                <td align="center">2655</td>
                <td align="center">42</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia, HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">9</td>
                <td align="center">M</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">39</td>
                <td align="center">3200</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
                <td align="center">PFO, PDA</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia, HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">10</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">36</td>
                <td align="center">2780</td>
                <td align="center">56</td>
                <td align="center">PFO, PDA</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia, HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">11</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">37</td>
                <td align="center">2340</td>
                <td align="center">42</td>
                <td align="center">ASD, PDA</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">12</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">38</td>
                <td align="center">3340</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">PFO, PDA</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia, HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">13</td>
                <td align="center">M</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">38</td>
                <td align="center">3060</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
                <td align="center">PFO, PDA</td>
                <td align="center">4</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">14</td>
                <td align="center">M</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">38</td>
                <td align="center">2360</td>
                <td align="center">64</td>
                <td align="center">PFO, ASD</td>
                <td align="center">4</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">HF</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">15</td>
                <td align="center">M</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">39</td>
                <td align="center">3500</td>
                <td align="center">49</td>
                <td align="center">PFO, PDA</td>
                <td align="center">4</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">16</td>
                <td align="center">F</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">37</td>
                <td align="center">2600</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
                <td align="center">ASD, PDA</td>
                <td align="center">6</td>
                <td align="center">Y</td>
                <td align="center">Bradycardia, HF</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>ASD: atrial septal defect; bpm: beats per minute; F: female; g: grams; GA: gestational age (in weeks); HF: heart failure; M: male; N: no/absence; PDA: patent ductus arteriosus; PFO: patent foramen ovale; PM: pacemaker; PS: pulmonary stenosis; Pt: patient; Y: yes/presence.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>CCAVB was diagnosed prenatally in 15 (93.8%) patients and after birth in one. Fetal echocardiography, performed in 15 (93.8%) cases, confirmed the diagnosis of CCAVB and also detected structural heart defects in two (12.5%) fetuses. Maternal dexamethasone or beta-sympathomimetic agents were administered in six (37.5%) cases due to signs of fetal myocardial dysfunction and/or fetal hydrops.</p>
        <p>Eight infants were delivered preterm (32-37 weeks gestational age). Cesarean section was carried out in all cases, except the one case in which there was no previous diagnosis of CCAVB. Gestational age, weight, and heart rate at birth are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>Clinical diagnosis of autoimmune disease was present in 12 (75.0%) mothers (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). Among them, eight (50.0%) tested positive for systemic lupus erythematosus and four (25.0%) had Sj&#246;gren&#8217;s syndrome. Neonatal lupus erythematosus was diagnosed in two infants. Increased levels of anti-Ro/SSA and anti-La/SSB antibodies were detected in 10 (62.5%) mothers, while in four (25.0%) mothers this test was not performed.</p>
        <p>None of the neonates underwent temporary pacing. Two neonates had a pacemaker placed immediately after birth due to low cardiac output and severe bradycardia. The remaining cases were monitored closely in the neonatal intensive care unit. If the neonate had evidence of heart failure, low cardiac output, or heart rate &lt; 55-beats/minute, infusion of dopamine was administered to postpone the time to pacemaker implantation.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Surgical technique</title>
        <p>All procedures were performed with patients under general anesthesia in the operating room. A 3 cm longitudinal incision was made at the insertion of the xiphoid process and advanced inferiorly toward the umbilicus. After resection of the xiphoid process, an inverted T-shaped pericardiotomy was performed.</p>
        <p>A bipolar steroid-eluting epicardial lead (CapSure Epi 4968-35; Medtronic Inc., Minnesota, USA) was implanted in all neonates. Each of the two poles of the lead was affixed to the visceral epicardium with 5-0 polypropylene sutures. One of the poles was positioned on the diaphragmatic wall of the right ventricle. The other pole was implanted either on the anterior wall of the right ventricle or the inferior wall of the left ventricle.</p>
        <p>Measurements of sensing, impedance, and capture threshold were obtained for both unipolar and bipolar configurations. Once satisfactory pacing and sensing parameters were achieved, the ventricular lead and the pulse generator (VVIR) were connected and placed within a pocket located in the submuscular region of the epigastrium (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Lead excess was carefully accommodated under the pulse generator to leave its trajectory rectilinear to avoid excess in the pericardial sac or in the retrosternal space. The pulse generator was attached to the left rectus abdominis muscle. Pericardial drainage tubes were not used, and postoperative chest radiography confirmed proper lead location (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Epicardial pacemaker implantation in neonates through a subxiphoid approach. A: Midline incision in the skin, subcutaneous tissue, and aponeurosis of the rectus abdominis muscle; B: Xiphoid process view, which approximately occupies the upper half of the incision; C: Resection of the xiphoid process; D: Pericardial sac closed (PC), between the right pleura (RP), left pleura (LP) and the parietal peritoneum (PT); E: Inverted T-shaped pericardiotomy incision; F: Heart view after opening the pericardial sac and traction in the caudal direction; G: The bipolar steroid-eluting ventricular lead is directly affixed to the epicardium with two 5-0 polypropylene sutures; H: Position of the two poles of the lead: the cathode was positioned on the diaphragmatic wall of the right ventricle; the anode was implanted on the anterior wall of the right ventricle or on the inferior wall of the left ventricle; I: Pericardial sac already closed with the bipolar lead externalized in a rectilinear trajectory toward the epigastrium; J: Epigastric submuscular pulse generator pocket; K: Pulse generator positioned within the epigastric submuscular pocket and connected to the bipolar ventricular lead; L: Final aspect of the operation.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-04-0331-70126-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Chest radiographic projections displaying the radiologic appearance of epicardial pacemaker implantation immediately after the procedure (A) and 3 years later, in anteroposterior (B) and lateral projections (C).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-04-0331-70126-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Patients&#8217; follow-up</title>
        <p>All patients were followed up by a pediatric cardiology team and a cardiac pacing specialist. During follow-up, clinical assessment of all patients was performed, including careful evaluation of signs and symptoms related to heart failure. Patients with congenital heart defects were also evaluated regarding the optimal time for surgical repair.</p>
        <p>Clinical follow-up and device interrogation visits were conducted every 6 months. In addition, subjects were periodically contacted by telephone and their medical records were regularly monitored.</p>
        <p>Pacemaker programming was carried out according to individual patient clinical characteristics, and pacing energy was adjusted to allow for an optimal safety margin with respect to the ventricular pacing threshold. In the early follow-up period, the pacemaker was programmed at 110 to 120 beats per minute and this minimal heart rate was incrementally decreased in the chronic period, according to the individual characteristics and the childhood phase.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Data collection and outcome variables</title>
        <p>Study data were collected and managed using Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap) software hosted in our institution&#8217;s server.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The outcomes evaluated in the study included (1) intraoperative and immediate postoperative complications, or complications during the clinical follow-up period and (2) mortality from any cause. Quantitative variables are described as mean and standard deviation and qualitative variables as absolute and relative frequencies.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>All procedures were successful with no perioperative lead dislodgment, bleeding, arrhythmias, or early deaths. Mean operating time was 90.2 &#177; 16.8 minutes (range, 65 to 120 minutes; median, 89 minutes). Four patients had hemodynamic instability, which was treated by decreasing the pacing rate and intravenous infusion of epinephrine (0.01 &#181;g/kg/min).</p>
      <p>The cathode of the ventricular lead was implanted on the inferior wall of the left ventricle and the diaphragmatic wall of the right ventricle in 10 (62.5%) and six (37.5%) neonates, respectively. The anode was implanted on the diaphragmatic or anterior wall of the right ventricle in 13 (81.3%) and three (18.8%) patients, respectively. One neonate underwent concomitant surgical closure of the patent ductus arteriosus by an independent incision (extra-pleural posterolateral thoracotomy). Excellent intraoperative pacing and sensing thresholds were obtained in all patients, as described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t2">
        <label>Table 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Perioperative patient details</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Pt</th>
              <th align="center">Total procedure time (minutes)</th>
              <th align="center">Pulse generator</th>
              <th align="center">Ventricular lead</th>
              <th align="center">Pacing site</th>
              <th align="center">R wave (mV)Uni/ Bi</th>
              <th align="center">Ventricular threshold at 0.5 ms (V)Uni/ Bi</th>
              <th align="center">Ventricular impedance (Ohms)Uni/ Bi</th>
              <th align="center">Endotracheal intubation(hours)</th>
              <th align="center">LOS in the ICU (days)</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">1</td>
              <td align="center">85</td>
              <td align="center">Altrua S601</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">LV</td>
              <td align="center">12.5 / 12.5</td>
              <td align="center">0.5 / 0.5</td>
              <td align="center">695 / 896</td>
              <td align="center">28</td>
              <td align="center">16</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">2<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">&#8224;</xref>
							</td>
              <td align="center">76</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">LV</td>
              <td align="center">10.5 / 8.3</td>
              <td align="center">0.6 / 0.4</td>
              <td align="center">540 / 958</td>
              <td align="center">30</td>
              <td align="center">16</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">3</td>
              <td align="center">88</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">LV</td>
              <td align="center">9.4 / 13.0</td>
              <td align="center">0.6 / 0.5</td>
              <td align="center">505 / 730</td>
              <td align="center">7</td>
              <td align="center">17</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">4</td>
              <td align="center">92</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">RV</td>
              <td align="center">16.2 / 26.0</td>
              <td align="center">0.4 / 0.5</td>
              <td align="center">614 / 708</td>
              <td align="center">4</td>
              <td align="center">22</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">5</td>
              <td align="center">72</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">RV</td>
              <td align="center">8.3 / 9.6</td>
              <td align="center">0.7 / 0.8</td>
              <td align="center">647 / 775</td>
              <td align="center">672</td>
              <td align="center">32</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">6</td>
              <td align="center">85</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">LV</td>
              <td align="center">12.5 / 12.5</td>
              <td align="center">0.6 / 1.5</td>
              <td align="center">636 / 926</td>
              <td align="center">25</td>
              <td align="center">10</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">7</td>
              <td align="center">90</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">LV</td>
              <td align="center">13.0 / 15.2</td>
              <td align="center">1.1 / 1.2</td>
              <td align="center">800 / 930</td>
              <td align="center">48</td>
              <td align="center">18</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">8</td>
              <td align="center">95</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">RV</td>
              <td align="center">7.2 / 7.8</td>
              <td align="center">0.8 / 0.9</td>
              <td align="center">845 / 885</td>
              <td align="center">4</td>
              <td align="center">2</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">9</td>
              <td align="center">120</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">RV</td>
              <td align="center">10.5 / 12.5</td>
              <td align="center">0.5 / 0.6</td>
              <td align="center">770 / 879</td>
              <td align="center">192</td>
              <td align="center">10</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">10</td>
              <td align="center">115</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">LV</td>
              <td align="center">5.3 / 9.7</td>
              <td align="center">0.8 / 1.0</td>
              <td align="center">745 / 944</td>
              <td align="center">168</td>
              <td align="center">10</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">11</td>
              <td align="center">70</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">LV</td>
              <td align="center">12.5 / 9.2</td>
              <td align="center">0.8 / 0.7</td>
              <td align="center">862 / 970</td>
              <td align="center">120</td>
              <td align="center">18</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">12</td>
              <td align="center">115</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">RV</td>
              <td align="center">8.3 / 11.0</td>
              <td align="center">0.5 / 0.8</td>
              <td align="center">590 / 902</td>
              <td align="center">336</td>
              <td align="center">14</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">13</td>
              <td align="center">65</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">LV</td>
              <td align="center">14.5 / 17.4</td>
              <td align="center">1.0 / 0.9</td>
              <td align="center">510 / 816</td>
              <td align="center">26</td>
              <td align="center">11</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">14</td>
              <td align="center">105</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">LV</td>
              <td align="center">12.5/ 17.1</td>
              <td align="center">0.6 / 0.7</td>
              <td align="center">823 / 920</td>
              <td align="center">168</td>
              <td align="center">13</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">15</td>
              <td align="center">95</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">RV</td>
              <td align="center">7.8 / 8.5</td>
              <td align="center">0.7 / 0.9</td>
              <td align="center">780 / 950</td>
              <td align="center">24</td>
              <td align="center">19</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">16</td>
              <td align="center">75</td>
              <td align="center">Microny</td>
              <td align="center">4968-35</td>
              <td align="center">LV</td>
              <td align="center">7.3 /9.6</td>
              <td align="center">0.6 /0.7</td>
              <td align="center">810 / 880</td>
              <td align="center">23</td>
              <td align="center">13</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN2">
            <p>Bi: bipolar; LOS in the ICU: length of stay in the intensive care unit; LV: left ventricle; mV: millivolts; Pt: patient; RV: right ventricle; Uni: unipolar; V: volts</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN3">
            <label>&#8224;</label>
            <p>Neonate underwent concomitant surgical closure of the patent ductus arteriosus.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>A Microny II SR (St Jude Medical, California, USA) pulse generator was used in almost all patients. In only one case, an Altrua S601 SSIR (Boston Scientific, Minnesota, USA) pulse generator was chosen due to unavailability of the Microny device.</p>
      <p>After pacemaker implantation, mechanical pulmonary ventilation was maintained for a minimum of 4 hours and a maximum of 30 days (mean, 117.2 &#177; 174.9 hours). One neonate was maintained on mechanical pulmonary ventilation for 30 days due to lung maturation problems. The length of stay in the neonatal intensive care unit ranged from 2 to 32 days (mean, 13.8 &#177; 7.0 days) and the total hospitalization length ranged from 7 to 49 days (mean, 23.4 &#177; 12.0 days).</p>
      <p>Minimal superficial wound infection was the only procedure-related complication observed in our patients, occurring in three (18.8%) neonates. Other complications observed included pulmonary infection in two (12.5%), atelectasis in one (6.3%), urinary tract infection in one (6.3%), and renal failure in one (6.3%) neonate who also had superior vena cava thrombus treated with thrombolysis.</p>
      <p>The patients were followed individually for 4.1 &#177; 3.9 years (range, 12 days - 12.7 years, median, 3.7 years). There were two deaths. One occurred 12 days after pacemaker implantation due to bleeding complications secondary to thrombolytic use. The other patient, who was being followed in another hospital, died of progressive refractory heart failure 325 days postoperatively.</p>
      <p>Overall, 11 children remain without signs/symptoms of heart failure or need for cardiovascular medication. Two children underwent surgical repair of congenital heart defects. Percutaneous pulmonic valvuloplasty was performed in a 2-month-old girl with pulmonary valve stenosis. This resulted in rupture of a tricuspid valve papillary muscle and required urgent surgical repair of the pulmonic and tricuspid valve. A 4-year-old girl underwent surgical mitral valve repair and closure of an atrial septal defect. Concomitantly, this child was upgraded from a single-chamber to a dual-chamber pacemaker by using the previous ventricular lead and the same epigastric pulse generator pocket. Finally, a 5-year-old boy presented with refractory heart failure and was upgraded from a single-chamber device to a biventricular device for cardiac resynchronization therapy and 7 months later underwent heart transplantation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t3">
        <label>Table 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Long-term outcomes after epicardial pacemaker implantation in neonates with congenital heart block</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Pt</th>
              <th align="center">Follow-up time (years)</th>
              <th align="center">Surgical complications</th>
              <th align="center">Clinical complications</th>
              <th align="center">Medication use</th>
              <th align="center">NYHAFC</th>
              <th align="center">Generator replacement</th>
              <th align="center">Upgrade</th>
              <th align="center">LVEF</th>
              <th align="center">Surgical repair of intracardiac defect</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">1</td>
              <td align="center">4.2</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.51</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">2</td>
              <td align="center">1.1</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.67</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">3</td>
              <td align="center">0.8</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">Furosemide, spironolactone</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.61</td>
              <td align="center">Y</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">4</td>
              <td align="center">10.7</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">Y (7.2 years after PM implant)</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.66</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">5</td>
              <td align="center">5.0</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.71</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">6</td>
              <td align="center">4.2</td>
              <td align="center">Superficial wound infection</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">Furosemide, spironolactone</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">Y (4.0 years after PM implant)</td>
              <td align="center">DDD (4.0 years after PM implant)</td>
              <td align="center">0.67</td>
              <td align="center">Y</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">7</td>
              <td align="center">2.5</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.66</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">8</td>
              <td align="center">12.7</td>
              <td align="center">Superficial wound infection</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">Y (9.0 years after PM implant)</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.74</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">9</td>
              <td align="center">5.9</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">Heart transplant (5.9 years after PM implant)</td>
              <td align="center">Furosemide, spironolactone, carvedilol, captopril</td>
              <td align="center">III</td>
              <td align="center">Y (5.2 years after PM implant)</td>
              <td align="center">CRT-P(5.2 years after PM implant)</td>
              <td align="center">0.33</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">10</td>
              <td align="center">10.2</td>
              <td align="center">Superficial wound infection</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">Y (3.9 years after PM implant)</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.71</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">11</td>
              <td align="center">4.0</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.64</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">12</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">Death(12 days after PM implant)</td>
              <td align="center">Furosemide, amiodarone</td>
              <td align="center">IV</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">-</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">13</td>
              <td align="center">3.5</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.75</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">14</td>
              <td align="center">0.9</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">Death (325 days after PM implant)</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.65</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">15</td>
              <td align="center">0.4</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">Furosemide</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.75</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">16</td>
              <td align="center">0.8</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">I</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
              <td align="center">0.68</td>
              <td align="center">N</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN4">
            <p>CRT-P: cardiac resynchronization therapy; DDD: dual-chamber pacemaker; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; N: no; NYHA FC: New York Heart Association Functional Class; PM: pacemaker; Pt: patient; Y: yes.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>During follow-up, none of the subjects experienced loss of capture, lead dislodgement, or lead fracture. None of the patients displayed pacing or sensing dysfunction, and all pacemaker parameters remained stable throughout the follow-up period. Three children underwent pulse generator replacement due to normal battery depletion at 4.0, 7.2, and 9.0 years of age without the need for ventricular lead replacement (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <p>An echocardiogram confirmed normal cardiac anatomy and normal left ventricular function in five (31.3%) children. Among the cases with intracardiac defects, only two underwent surgical repair due to hemodynamic compromise. Of the 13 (81.3%) patients who remain in follow-up, only one was found to have reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF = 0.51).</p>
      <p>At the last follow-up, the electrocardiogram confirmed sinus rhythm with atrioventricular dissociation in all patients. Chest radiography revealed proper device location, lead integrity, and cardiac silhouettes within normal limits (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Chest radiographic projections displaying the appearance of epicardial pacemaker 10 years later, in anteroposterior (A) and lateral projections (B).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-04-0331-70126-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>The use of cardiac pacing in neonates is still an area of significant controversy. Opinions differ with respect to the ideal pacing mode, the best surgical approach to pace the heart of small infants, the optimal lead choice which provides the best short and long-term outcomes, and the appropriate strategy to accommodate the pulse generator in this subset of patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Traditionally, an epicardial approach has been preferred, though access options (sternotomy, lateral thoracotomy, subxiphoid) may vary.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> On the other hand, the feasibility of transvenous pacemaker implantation has been described in neonates, either by the tributaries of the superior vena cava or via the branches of the iliac veins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> The disproportion between the small body size and the device dimensions prevents placement of the pulse generator in the chest wall. Therefore, to prevent pocket-related problems in neonates, pulse generators are usually placed in the abdominal wall.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The debate regarding the optimal pacing mode for neonates is still ongoing. In most experts' opinion, a single-chamber ventricular system is the first choice, reserving dual-chamber systems or even cardiac resynchronization therapy for children with impaired left ventricular function or poor adjustment to single-site ventricular pacing.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> To date, few studies have recommended the use of more sophisticated pacing modes or cardiac resynchronization therapy as an initial strategy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Regardless of the surgical approach and pacing mode, device-related complications are common during follow-up. Although pocket-related complications, in particular, erosions or thinning of the skin are more frequent when the device is implanted in the chest wall, abdominal pockets may also be associated with complications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
			</p>
      <p>It is worth highlighting that lead fracture remains an important determinant of lead survival and is directly associated with the patient's growth.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Overall, standard epicardial penetrating leads have been associated with a high incidence of increased pacing thresholds following implantation, requiring early lead or pulse generator replacement. Recent studies have shown that steroid-eluting leads are associated with a lower rate of lead failure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The technique described in this article aims to increase the safety of pacemaker use in neonates in four main ways: (1) reduction in surgical trauma by not opening the sternum or intercostal spaces; (2) safe approach and good cosmetic result for pulse generator accommodation in the preperitoneal space submuscularly; (3) reduction in fibrosis at the lead-myocardial junction by the use of steroid-eluting leads; (4) reduction in the effect of the child's growth on the leads and on the lead-myocardial junction by using a rectilinear trajectory and by ensuring proximity between the lead and pulse generator.</p>
      <p>In our study, all operations were successful, and there were no perioperative complications. In addition, there were no complications related to surgical technique during the follow-up period (maximum of 12 years). In particular, there were no pocket-related complications (infection or skin erosion); lead-related complications (lead fracture), increases in pacing thresholds, or early battery depletion. Finally, measurements of sensing, pacing, and impedance remained satisfactory during the follow-up period.</p>
      <p>Despite the use of single-site ventricular pacing, clinical signs of heart failure or echocardiographic abnormalities were not observed at last follow-up evaluation in 13 of the 16 neonates included in this study. In cases where hemodynamic compromise secondary to intracardiac defects was detected, surgical repair completely reversed this condition. Two patients developed severe ventricular dysfunction; one underwent a heart transplant and another died.</p>
      <p>Within our study, there are several limitations. The main one is the small number of cases, inherent to the rarity of CCAVB and other causes of bradyarrhythmias requiring pacemaker implantation during the neonatal period. Second, the lack of a gold-standard surgical technique for pacemaker implantation in neonates does not allow for the formation of a control group with which to compare results. Even in larger centers, it is nearly impossible to conduct a study to compare outcomes between different techniques of pacemaker implantation in this subset of patients. Finally, all procedures were performed by the same surgeon. This lack of operator variability may have influenced surgical results.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Epicardial pacemaker implantation through a subxiphoid approach in neonates with CCAVB is technically feasible and results in excellent surgical outcomes and pacing lead longevity. In addition, this surgical approach solves two of the main challenges related to permanent cardiac pacing in neonates: pocket and lead-related complications.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Implante de Marca-Passo Epic&#225;rdico por Acesso Minimamente Invasivo em Neonatos com Bloqueio Atrioventricular Cong&#234;nito</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Katia Regina da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martinelli</surname>
            <given-names>Martino</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carrillo</surname>
            <given-names>Roger</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">University of Miami - Miller School of Medicine, Miami - USA</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Roberto Costa.</bold> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44, CEP: 05403-900, Cerqueira C&#233;sar, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil E-mail: <email>rcosta@incor.usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Costa R, Silva KR; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Costa R, Silva KR, Martinelli Filho M, Carrillo R.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>H&#225; poucos estudos caracterizando os desfechos cir&#250;rgicos ap&#243;s implante de marca-passo em neonatos com bloqueio atrioventricular total cong&#234;nito (BAVTC).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos:</title>
          <p>Este estudo procurou avaliar os resultados a longo prazo de uma abordagem epic&#225;rdica minimamente invasiva com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de acesso subxifoide para implante de marca-passo em neonatos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Entre julho de 2002 a fevereiro de 2015, 16 neonatos consecutivos foram submetidos a implante de marca-passo epic&#225;rdico devido a BAVTC. Entre eles, 12 (75,0%) apresentavam defeitos card&#237;acos cong&#234;nitos associados ao BAVTC. Os pacientes tinham uma m&#233;dia de idade de 4,5 &#177; 5,3 dias e nove (56,3%) eram do sexo feminino. Cabo-eletrodo bipolar revestido com esteroide foi implantado em todos os pacientes atrav&#233;s de uma abordagem subxifoide minimamente invasiva e fixado na superf&#237;cie ventricular diafragm&#225;tica. O gerador de pulsos foi alojado em uma posi&#231;&#227;o epig&#225;strica submuscular.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>Todos os procedimentos foram realizados com sucesso, sem complica&#231;&#245;es intraoperat&#243;rias ou mortes. O tempo m&#233;dio de dura&#231;&#227;o das opera&#231;&#245;es foi de 90,2 &#177; 16,8 minutos. Ap&#243;s seguimento m&#233;dio de 4,1 &#177; 3,9 anos e m&#225;ximo de 12,2 anos, n&#227;o foram observadas complica&#231;&#245;es de loja do gerador de pulsos, aumento cr&#244;nico do limiar de comando, fratura de cabo-eletrodo ou outros problemas relacionados ao sistema de estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Tr&#234;s crian&#231;as foram submetidas &#224; troca do gerador de pulsos por deple&#231;&#227;o normal de bateria aos 4,0, 7,2 e 9,0 anos de idade, sem necessidade de troca do cabo-eletrodo ventricular. Houve duas mortes aos 12 e 325 dias ap&#243;s o implante do marca-passo devido a sangramento decorrente do uso de trombol&#237;tico e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca refrat&#225;ria progressiva, respectivamente.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es:</title>
          <p>O implante de marca-passo epic&#225;rdico atrav&#233;s de abordagem subxifoide em neonatos com BAVTC com alojamento epig&#225;strico do gerador de pulsos &#233; tecnicamente vi&#225;vel e associado a excelentes desfechos cir&#250;rgicos e longevidade do cabo-eletrodo de estimula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Cardiopatias Cong&#234;nitas</kwd>
        <kwd>Neonatos</kwd>
        <kwd>Marca-Passo Artificial</kwd>
        <kwd>Bloqueio Atrioventricular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O implante de marca-passo definitivo em neonatos com bloqueio atrioventricular total cong&#234;nito (BAVTC) &#233; tecnicamente desafiador devido ao pequeno tamanho dos pacientes, presen&#231;a concomitante de defeitos card&#237;acos estruturais e r&#225;pido crescimento da crian&#231;a. Isto resulta em altas taxas de complica&#231;&#245;es, incluindo fratura de cabo-eletrodo e disfun&#231;&#227;o nas propriedades de estimula&#231;&#227;o e sensibilidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Felizmente, o n&#250;mero de crian&#231;as que necessitam de implante de marca-passo definitivo no primeiro m&#234;s de vida &#233; extremamente baixo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Esta &#233; uma raz&#227;o pela qual os resultados cir&#250;rgicos neste subgrupo de pacientes permanecem pouco conhecidos.</p>
        <p>V&#225;rios fatores espec&#237;ficos da idade podem contribuir para a ocorr&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao marca-passo em pacientes pedi&#225;tricos. Primeiro, os geradores de pulso e os eletrodos s&#227;o desenhados primariamente para adultos. Segundo, o tamanho reduzido dos vasos e defeitos intracard&#237;acos associados tornam o implante transvenoso dif&#237;cil ou imposs&#237;vel. Terceiro, h&#225; uma despropor&#231;&#227;o significativa entre o tamanho do dispositivo permanente e o tamanho do corpo da crian&#231;a. Al&#233;m disso, os efeitos do crescimento nos eletrodos e na jun&#231;&#227;o eletrodo-mioc&#225;rdio resultam em uma alta incid&#234;ncia de bloqueio de sa&#237;da e fraturas de cabo-eletrodo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A decis&#227;o sobre a melhor abordagem cir&#250;rgica para implante de marca-passo em neonatos requer uma avalia&#231;&#227;o criteriosa e uma equipe cir&#250;rgica altamente experiente, visto que, ainda n&#227;o dispomos de diretrizes baseadas em evid&#234;ncias para este subgrupo de pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os resultados a longo prazo de uma abordagem epic&#225;rdica minimamente invasiva com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de acesso subxifoide para implante de marca-passo nesta popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Pacientes</title>
          <p>Entre julho de 2002 e fevereiro de 2015, um total de 16 neonatos consecutivos foram submetidos a implante de marca-passo epic&#225;rdico em um centro de refer&#234;ncia cardiovascular (S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil). O Comit&#234; de &#201;tica Institucional da institui&#231;&#227;o aprovou o presente estudo. O implante do dispositivo foi realizado atrav&#233;s de uma incis&#227;o subxifoide minimamente invasiva.</p>
          <p>Dentre os 16 pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo, nove (56,3%) eram do sexo feminino. A m&#233;dia de idade dos pacientes foi de 4,7 &#177; 5,3 dias (varia&#231;&#227;o, 1 a 23 dias). Indica&#231;&#245;es para a estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca inclu&#237;ram sinais de baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco em quatro (25%), frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &lt; 55 batimentos/minuto em tr&#234;s (18,7%) e ambas as condi&#231;&#245;es em nove (56,3%) pacientes. Forame oval patente ou persist&#234;ncia do canal arterial foram detectados em 12 (75,0%) crian&#231;as e defeitos do septo atrial foram detectados em quatro (25,0%) delas. Em quatro (25,0%) neonatos, os defeitos cong&#234;nitos card&#237;acos n&#227;o haviam sido detectados antes do implante do marca-passo. Uma crian&#231;a apresentava regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide moderada a severa e outra apresentava estenose pulmonar. As caracter&#237;sticas basais dos pacientes est&#227;o resumidas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Caracter&#237;sticas basais dos neonatos com bloqueio atrioventricular total cong&#234;nito submetidos a implante de marca-passo epic&#225;rdico</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Pcte</th>
                  <th align="center">Sexo</th>
                  <th align="center">Diagn&#243;stico fetal</th>
                  <th align="center">IG ao nascimento</th>
                  <th align="center">Peso ao nascimento (g)</th>
                  <th align="center">Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ao nascimento (bpm)</th>
                  <th align="center">Defeito card&#237;aco</th>
                  <th align="center">Idade (dias) ao implante do MP</th>
                  <th align="center">Autoanticorpos + / l&#250;pus materno</th>
                  <th align="center">Indica&#231;&#227;o de MP</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">1</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">36</td>
                  <td align="center">2630</td>
                  <td align="center">40</td>
                  <td align="center">N</td>
                  <td align="center">4</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">2</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">38</td>
                  <td align="center">3046</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                  <td align="center">FOP, PCA</td>
                  <td align="center">3</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia, IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">3</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">36</td>
                  <td align="center">1950</td>
                  <td align="center">48</td>
                  <td align="center">FOP, PCA, EP</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                  <td align="center">N</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">4</td>
                  <td align="center">M</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">37</td>
                  <td align="center">3895</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                  <td align="center">N</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">5</td>
                  <td align="center">M</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">32</td>
                  <td align="center">2680</td>
                  <td align="center">42</td>
                  <td align="center">N</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia, IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">6</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">37</td>
                  <td align="center">2720</td>
                  <td align="center">45</td>
                  <td align="center">CIA, PCA</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia, IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">7</td>
                  <td align="center">M</td>
                  <td align="center">N</td>
                  <td align="center">38</td>
                  <td align="center">2700</td>
                  <td align="center">40</td>
                  <td align="center">FOP, PCA</td>
                  <td align="center">23</td>
                  <td align="center">N</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia, IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">8</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">38</td>
                  <td align="center">2655</td>
                  <td align="center">42</td>
                  <td align="center">N</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia, IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">9</td>
                  <td align="center">M</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">39</td>
                  <td align="center">3200</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                  <td align="center">FOP, PCA</td>
                  <td align="center">3</td>
                  <td align="center">N</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia, IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">10</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">36</td>
                  <td align="center">2780</td>
                  <td align="center">56</td>
                  <td align="center">FOP, PCA</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia, IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">11</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">37</td>
                  <td align="center">2340</td>
                  <td align="center">42</td>
                  <td align="center">CIA, PCA</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">12</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">38</td>
                  <td align="center">3340</td>
                  <td align="center">40</td>
                  <td align="center">FOP, PCA</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia, IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">13</td>
                  <td align="center">M</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">38</td>
                  <td align="center">3060</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                  <td align="center">FOP, PCA</td>
                  <td align="center">4</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">14</td>
                  <td align="center">M</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">38</td>
                  <td align="center">2360</td>
                  <td align="center">64</td>
                  <td align="center">FOP, CIA</td>
                  <td align="center">4</td>
                  <td align="center">N</td>
                  <td align="center">IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">15</td>
                  <td align="center">M</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">39</td>
                  <td align="center">3500</td>
                  <td align="center">49</td>
                  <td align="center">FOP, PCA</td>
                  <td align="center">4</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">16</td>
                  <td align="center">F</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">37</td>
                  <td align="center">2600</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                  <td align="center">CIA, PCA</td>
                  <td align="center">6</td>
                  <td align="center">S</td>
                  <td align="center">Bradicardia, IC</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN5">
                <p>Bpm: batimentos por minuto; CIA: comunica&#231;&#227;o interatrial; EP: estenose pulmonar; F: feminino; FOP: forame oval patente; g: gramas; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; IG: idade gestacional (em semanas); M: masculino; MP: marca-passo; N: N&#227;o/aus&#234;ncia; PCA: persist&#234;ncia do canal arterial; Pcte: paciente; S: Sim/presen&#231;a.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>O BAVTC foi diagnosticado antes do nascimento em 15 (93,8%) pacientes e ap&#243;s o nascimento em um deles. A ecocardiografia fetal, realizada em 15 (93,8%) casos, confirmou o diagn&#243;stico de BAVTC e tamb&#233;m detectou defeitos estruturais card&#237;acos em dois (12,5%) fetos. Dexametasona ou agentes beta-simpaticomim&#233;ticos foram administradas &#224; m&#227;e em seis (37,5%) casos devido a sinais de disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica fetal e/ou hidropisia fetal.</p>
          <p>Oito crian&#231;as nasceram pr&#233;-termo (32-37 semanas de idade gestacional). A cesariana foi realizada em todos os casos, exceto em um caso no qual n&#227;o houve diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de BAVTC. A idade gestacional, peso e frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ao nascimento est&#227;o descritos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico de doen&#231;a autoimune esteve presente em 12 (75,0%) m&#227;es (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref>). Dentre elas, oito (50,0%) apresentavam l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico e quatro (25,0%) apresentavam s&#237;ndrome de Sj&#246;gren. L&#250;pus eritematoso neonatal foi diagnosticado em duas crian&#231;as. Aumento dos n&#237;veis de anticorpos anti-Ro/SSA e anti-La/SSB foram detectados em 10 (62,5%) m&#227;es, enquanto que em quatro (25,0%) delas, esse teste n&#227;o foi realizado.</p>
          <p>Nenhum dos neonatos foi submetido &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o tempor&#225;ria. Em dois neonatos, o marca-passo foi colocado imediatamente ap&#243;s o nascimento devido a sinais de baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e bradicardia grave. Os demais de casos foram monitorados na unidade de cuidados intensivos neonatal. Nos casos em que se detectavam sinais cl&#237;nicos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou quando a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca era menor do que 55 bpm, era realizada a infus&#227;o de dopamina, com o objetivo de postergar ao m&#225;ximo momento do implante de marca-passo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>T&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica</title>
          <p>Todos os procedimentos foram realizados com os pacientes sob anestesia geral. Uma incis&#227;o longitudinal de 3 cm era realizada na inser&#231;&#227;o do processo xifoide e estendida inferiormente em dire&#231;&#227;o ao umbigo. Ap&#243;s ressec&#231;&#227;o do processo xifoide, era realizada pericardiotomia em T invertido.</p>
          <p>Eletrodos epic&#225;rdicos bipolares revestidos com esteroide (CapSure Epi 4968-35; Medtronic Inc., Minnesota, EUA) foram implantados em todos os neonatos. Cada um dos dois polos do cabo-eletrodo era afixado no epic&#225;rdio visceral com suturas de polipropileno 5-0. Um dos polos era posicionado na parede diafragm&#225;tica do ventr&#237;culo direito. O outro polo era implantado na parede anterior do ventr&#237;culo direito ou na parede inferior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
          <p>As medidas do limiar de estimula&#231;&#227;o, da imped&#226;ncia e da capta&#231;&#227;o dos potenciais el&#233;tricos espont&#226;neos foram obtidas para ambas as configura&#231;&#245;es unipolar e bipolar. Uma vez alcan&#231;ados os par&#226;metros satisfat&#243;rios de estimula&#231;&#227;o e sensibilidade, o eletrodo ventricular era conectado ao gerador de pulsos (VVIR) e o qual era alojado em posi&#231;&#227;o mediana do epig&#225;strio, no plano submuscular (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref>). O excesso de eletrodo era cuidadosamente acomodado sob o gerador de pulsos para manter a trajet&#243;ria retil&#237;nea e evitar excesso no saco peric&#225;rdico ou no espa&#231;o retroesternal. O gerador de pulsos era fixado ao m&#250;sculo reto-abdominal esquerdo com pontos transfixantes de fio inabsorvivel de Poliester 3-0. N&#227;o foi realizada drenagem da cavidade peric&#225;rdica. Ao t&#233;rmino do procedimento, a radiografia de t&#243;rax era utilizada para confirmar a posi&#231;&#227;o adequada do cabo-eletrodo.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Implante epic&#225;rdico de marca-passo em neonatos atrav&#233;s de abordagem subxifoide. A: Incis&#227;o na linha m&#233;dia na pele, tecido subcut&#226;neo e aponeurose do m&#250;sculo reto abdominal; B: Visualiza&#231;&#227;o do processo xifoide, que ocupa aproximadamente a metade superior da incis&#227;o; C: Ressec&#231;&#227;o do processo xifoide; D: Saco peric&#225;rdico fechado (PC), entre a pleura direita (RP), pleura esquerda (LP) e o perit&#244;nio parietal (PT); E: Incis&#227;o de pericardiotomia em T invertido; F: Visualiza&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s abertura do saco peric&#225;rdico e tra&#231;&#227;o no sentido caudal; G: Eletrodo ventricular bipolar revestido com esteroide &#233; fixado diretamente no epic&#225;rdio com duas suturas de polipropileno 5-0; H: Posi&#231;&#227;o dos dois polos do eletrodo: c&#225;todo posicionado na parede diafragm&#225;tica do ventr&#237;culo direito; &#226;nodo implantado na parede anterior do ventr&#237;culo direito ou na parede inferior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; I: Saco peric&#225;rdico j&#225; fechado com o eletrodo bipolar exteriorizado em uma trajet&#243;ria retil&#237;nea em dire&#231;&#227;o ao epig&#225;strio; J: Loja epig&#225;strica submuscular para o gerador de pulsos; K: Gerador de pulsos posicionado dentro da loja epig&#225;strica submuscular e conectado ao eletrodo ventricular bipolar; L: Aspecto final da opera&#231;&#227;o.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-04-0331-70126-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Acompanhamento dos pacientes</title>
          <p>Todos os pacientes foram acompanhados por uma equipe de cardiologia pedi&#225;trica e um especialista em estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Durante o seguimento, foi realizada avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de todos os pacientes, incluindo avalia&#231;&#227;o cuidadosa de sinais e sintomas relacionados &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Pacientes com defeitos card&#237;acos cong&#234;nitos tamb&#233;m foram avaliados quanto ao tempo ideal para a corre&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica.</p>
          <p>Seguimento cl&#237;nico e visitas para interroga&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo foram conduzidos a cada 6 meses. Al&#233;m disso, era realizado contato telef&#244;nico periodicamente e os registros m&#233;dicos eram monitorados regularmente.</p>
          <p>A programa&#231;&#227;o do marca-passo foi realizada de acordo com as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas individuais de cada paciente e a energia de estimula&#231;&#227;o era ajustada para permitir uma margem de seguran&#231;a ideal com rela&#231;&#227;o ao limiar de estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular. No in&#237;cio do per&#237;odo de seguimento, o marca-passo era programado a 110 a 120 batimentos por minuto e esta frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca m&#237;nima era progressivamente reduzida no per&#237;odo cr&#244;nico, de acordo com as caracter&#237;sticas individuais e a fase da inf&#226;ncia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Coleta de dados e vari&#225;veis de desfecho</title>
          <p>Os dados do estudo foram coletados e gerenciados pelo programa Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap), hospedado no servidor da nossa institui&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Os desfechos avaliados no estudo inclu&#237;ram (1) complica&#231;&#245;es intraoperat&#243;rias e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias imediatas, ou complica&#231;&#245;es durante o per&#237;odo de seguimento cl&#237;nico e (2) mortalidade por qualquer causa. As vari&#225;veis quantitativas foram descritas como m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o e as vari&#225;veis qualitativas como frequ&#234;ncias absolutas e relativas.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>Todos os procedimentos foram bem-sucedidos, sem deslocamento perioperat&#243;rio do cabo-eletrodo, sangramento, arritmias, ou &#243;bito precoce. A m&#233;dia de dura&#231;&#227;o das cirurgias foi de 90,2 &#177; 16,8 minutos (varia&#231;&#227;o, 65 a 120 minutos; mediana, 89 minutos). Quatro pacientes apresentaram instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, a qual foi tratada com uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia de estimula&#231;&#227;o e infus&#227;o endovenosa de epinefrina (0,01 &#181;g/kg/min).</p>
        <p>O c&#225;todo do eletrodo ventricular foi implantado na parede inferior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e na parede diafragm&#225;tica do ventr&#237;culo direito em 10 (62,5%) e seis (37,5%) neonatos, respectivamente. O &#226;nodo foi implantado no diafragma ou na parede anterior do ventr&#237;culo direito em 13 (81,3%) e tr&#234;s (18,8%) pacientes, respectivamente. Um neonato foi submetido a fechamento cir&#250;rgico concomitante de canal arterial persistente por uma incis&#227;o independente (toracotomia p&#243;stero-lateral extrapleural). Excelentes limiares de estimula&#231;&#227;o e sensibilidade intraoperat&#243;rios foram obtidos em todos os pacientes, conforme descrito na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 2</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Detalhes perioperat&#243;rios dos pacientes</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Pcte</th>
                <th align="center">Tempo total do procedimento (minutos)</th>
                <th align="center">Gerador de pulsos</th>
                <th align="center">Eletrodo ventricular</th>
                <th align="center">Local de estimula&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center">Onda R (mV)Uni/Bi</th>
                <th align="center">Limiar ventricular 0,5 ms (V)Uni/Bi</th>
                <th align="center">Imped&#226;ncia ventricular (Ohms)Uni/Bi</th>
                <th align="center">Entuba&#231;&#227;o endotraqueal(horas)</th>
                <th align="center">TDE na UTI (dias)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">1</td>
                <td align="center">85</td>
                <td align="center">Altrua S601</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VE</td>
                <td align="center">12,5 - 12,5</td>
                <td align="center">0,5 - 0,5</td>
                <td align="center">695 / 896</td>
                <td align="center">28</td>
                <td align="center">16</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">2<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">&#8224;</xref>
								</td>
                <td align="center">76</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VE</td>
                <td align="center">10,5 / 8,3</td>
                <td align="center">0,6 / 0,4</td>
                <td align="center">540 / 958</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
                <td align="center">16</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">3</td>
                <td align="center">88</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VE</td>
                <td align="center">9,4 / 13,0</td>
                <td align="center">0,6 / 0,5</td>
                <td align="center">505 / 730</td>
                <td align="center">7</td>
                <td align="center">17</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">4</td>
                <td align="center">92</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VD</td>
                <td align="center">16,2 / 26,0</td>
                <td align="center">0,4 / 0,5</td>
                <td align="center">614 / 708</td>
                <td align="center">4</td>
                <td align="center">22</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">5</td>
                <td align="center">72</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VD</td>
                <td align="center">8,3 / 9,6</td>
                <td align="center">0,7 / 0,8</td>
                <td align="center">647 / 775</td>
                <td align="center">672</td>
                <td align="center">32</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">6</td>
                <td align="center">85</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VE</td>
                <td align="center">12,5 / 12,5</td>
                <td align="center">0,6 / 1,5</td>
                <td align="center">636 / 926</td>
                <td align="center">25</td>
                <td align="center">10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">7</td>
                <td align="center">90</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VE</td>
                <td align="center">13,0 / 15,2</td>
                <td align="center">1,1 / 1,2</td>
                <td align="center">800 / 930</td>
                <td align="center">48</td>
                <td align="center">18</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">8</td>
                <td align="center">95</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VD</td>
                <td align="center">7,2 / 7,8</td>
                <td align="center">0,8 / 0,9</td>
                <td align="center">845 / 885</td>
                <td align="center">4</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">9</td>
                <td align="center">120</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VD</td>
                <td align="center">10,5 / 12,5</td>
                <td align="center">0,5 / 0,6</td>
                <td align="center">770 / 879</td>
                <td align="center">192</td>
                <td align="center">10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">10</td>
                <td align="center">115</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VE</td>
                <td align="center">5,3 / 9,7</td>
                <td align="center">0,8 / 1,0</td>
                <td align="center">745 / 944</td>
                <td align="center">168</td>
                <td align="center">10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">11</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VE</td>
                <td align="center">12,5 / 9,2</td>
                <td align="center">0,8 / 0,7</td>
                <td align="center">862 / 970</td>
                <td align="center">120</td>
                <td align="center">18</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">12</td>
                <td align="center">115</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VD</td>
                <td align="center">8,3 / 11,0</td>
                <td align="center">0,5 / 0,8</td>
                <td align="center">590 / 902</td>
                <td align="center">336</td>
                <td align="center">14</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">13</td>
                <td align="center">65</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VE</td>
                <td align="center">14,5 / 17,4</td>
                <td align="center">1,0 / 0,9</td>
                <td align="center">510 / 816</td>
                <td align="center">26</td>
                <td align="center">11</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">14</td>
                <td align="center">105</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VE</td>
                <td align="center">12,5 / 17,1</td>
                <td align="center">0,6 / 0,7</td>
                <td align="center">823 / 920</td>
                <td align="center">168</td>
                <td align="center">13</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">15</td>
                <td align="center">95</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VD</td>
                <td align="center">7,8 / 8,5</td>
                <td align="center">0,7 / 0,9</td>
                <td align="center">780 / 950</td>
                <td align="center">24</td>
                <td align="center">19</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">16</td>
                <td align="center">75</td>
                <td align="center">Microny</td>
                <td align="center">4968-35</td>
                <td align="center">VE</td>
                <td align="center">7,3 / 9,6</td>
                <td align="center">0,6 / 0,7</td>
                <td align="center">810 / 880</td>
                <td align="center">23</td>
                <td align="center">13</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN6">
              <p>Bi: bipolar; mV: milivolts; Pcte: paciente; TDE na UTI: tempo de estadia na unidade de cuidado intensivo; Uni: unipolar; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; V: volts.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN7">
              <label>&#8224;</label>
              <p>O neonato foi submetido concomitantemente a fechamento cir&#250;rgico de canal arterial persistente.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>O gerador de pulsos Microny II SR (St Jude Medical, Calif&#243;rnia, EUA) foi utilizado em quase todos os pacientes. Em apenas um caso, o gerador de pulsos Altrua S601 SSIR (Boston Scientific, Minnesota, EUA) foi escolhido devido &#224; indisponibilidade do dispositivo Microny.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Proje&#231;&#245;es radiogr&#225;ficas de t&#243;rax exibindo a apar&#234;ncia radiol&#243;gica do implante de marca-passo epic&#225;rdico imediatamente ap&#243;s o procedimento (A) e 3 anos mais tarde em proje&#231;&#245;es anteroposterior (B) e lateral (C).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-04-0331-70126-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Ap&#243;s o implante do marca-passo, a ventila&#231;&#227;o pulmonar mec&#226;nica foi mantida por um m&#237;nimo de 4 horas e m&#225;ximo de 30 dias (m&#233;dia de 117,2 &#177; 174,9 horas). Um neonato foi mantido em ventila&#231;&#227;o pulmonar mec&#226;nica por 30 dias devido a problemas de matura&#231;&#227;o pulmonar. O tempo de perman&#234;ncia na unidade de terapia intensiva neonatal variou de 2 a 32 dias (m&#233;dia, 13,8 &#177; 7,0 dias) e a dura&#231;&#227;o total de interna&#231;&#227;o variou de 7 a 49 dias (m&#233;dia, 23,4 &#177; 12,0 dias).</p>
        <p>Infec&#231;&#227;o m&#237;nima e superficial de ferida foi a &#250;nica complica&#231;&#227;o relacionada ao procedimento observada em nossos pacientes, ocorrendo em tr&#234;s (18,8%) neonatos. Outras complica&#231;&#245;es observadas inclu&#237;ram infec&#231;&#227;o pulmonar em dois (12,5%), atelectasia em um (6,3%), infec&#231;&#227;o do trato urin&#225;rio em um (6,3%) e insufici&#234;ncia renal em um (6,3%) neonato que tamb&#233;m apresentava trombo de veia cava superior tratado com tromb&#243;lise.</p>
        <p>Os pacientes foram acompanhados individualmente por 4,1 &#177; 3,9 anos (varia&#231;&#227;o, 12 dias - 12,7 anos, mediana, 3,7 anos). Houve dois &#243;bitos. Um ocorreu 12 dias ap&#243;s implante do marca-passo devido a complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas secund&#225;rias ao uso de trombol&#237;tico. O outro paciente, que estava em acompanhamento em outro hospital, faleceu de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca progressiva refrat&#225;ria aos 325 dias de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</p>
        <p>Ao todo, 11 crian&#231;as permanecem sem sinais/sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou necessidade de medica&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular. Duas crian&#231;as foram submetidas a corre&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica de defeitos card&#237;acos cong&#234;nitos. Valvuloplastia pulmonar percut&#226;nea foi realizada em uma menina de 2 meses de idade com estenose pulmonar valvar. Isto resultou na ruptura de um m&#250;sculo papilar da valva tric&#250;spide e exigiu reparo cir&#250;rgico urgente das valvas tric&#250;spide e pulmonar. Uma menina de 4 anos de idade foi submetida &#224; repara&#231;&#227;o da valva mitral e fechamento de uma comunica&#231;&#227;o interatrial. Concomitantemente, foi realizada a mudan&#231;a do modo de estimula&#231;&#227;o, de marca-passo de c&#226;mara &#250;nica para um marca-passo de dupla c&#226;mara com utiliza&#231;&#227;o do eletrodo ventricular pr&#233;vio e da mesma loja epig&#225;strica para o gerador de pulsos. Por &#250;ltimo, um menino de 5 anos de idade apresentou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca refrat&#225;ria e foi submetido &#224; terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e 7 meses depois, foi submetido a transplante card&#237;aco (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t6">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Resultados a longo prazo ap&#243;s implante de marca-passo epic&#225;rdico em neonatos com bloqueio card&#237;aco cong&#234;nito</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Pcte</th>
                <th align="center">Tempo de seguimento (anos)</th>
                <th align="center">Complica&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas</th>
                <th align="center">Complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas</th>
                <th align="center">Uso de medicamentos</th>
                <th align="center">CFNYHA</th>
                <th align="center">Troca do gerador</th>
                <th align="center">Mudan&#231;a do modo de estimula&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center">FEVE</th>
                <th align="center">Corre&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica do defeito intracard&#237;aco</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">1</td>
                <td align="center">4,2</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,51</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">2</td>
                <td align="center">1,1</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,67</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">3</td>
                <td align="center">0,8</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">Furosemida, espironolactona</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,61</td>
                <td align="center">S</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">4</td>
                <td align="center">10,7</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">S (7,2 anos ap&#243;s implante do MP)</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,66</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">5</td>
                <td align="center">5,0</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,71</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">6</td>
                <td align="center">4,2</td>
                <td align="center">Infec&#231;&#227;o superficial de ferida</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">Furosemida, espironolactona</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">S (4,0 anos ap&#243;s implante do MP)</td>
                <td align="center">DDD (4,0 anos ap&#243;s implante do MP)</td>
                <td align="center">0,67</td>
                <td align="center">S</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">7</td>
                <td align="center">2,5</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,66</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">8</td>
                <td align="center">12,7</td>
                <td align="center">Infec&#231;&#227;o superficial de ferida</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">S (9,0 anos ap&#243;s implante do MP)</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,74</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">9</td>
                <td align="center">5,9</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">Transplante de cora&#231;&#227;o (5,9 anos ap&#243;s implante do MP)</td>
                <td align="center">Furosemida, espironolactona, captopril, carvedilol</td>
                <td align="center">III</td>
                <td align="center">S (5,2 anos ap&#243;s implante do MP)</td>
                <td align="center">TRC-P(5,2 anos ap&#243;s implante do MP)</td>
                <td align="center">0,33</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">10</td>
                <td align="center">10,2</td>
                <td align="center">Infec&#231;&#227;o superficial de ferida</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">S (3,9 anos ap&#243;s implante do MP)</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,71</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">11</td>
                <td align="center">4,0</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,64</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">12</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">Morte(12 dias ap&#243;s implante do MP)</td>
                <td align="center">Furosemida, amiodarona</td>
                <td align="center">IV</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">13</td>
                <td align="center">3,5</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,75</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">14</td>
                <td align="center">0,9</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">Morte (325 dias ap&#243;s implante do MP)</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,65</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">15</td>
                <td align="center">0,4</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">Furosemida</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,75</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">16</td>
                <td align="center">0,8</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
                <td align="center">0,68</td>
                <td align="center">N</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN8">
              <p>DDD: marca-passo de dupla c&#226;mara; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; MP: marca-passo; N: N&#227;o; CF NYHA: classe funcional da New York Heart Association; Pcte: paciente; S: Sim; TRC: terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Durante o seguimento, nenhuma das crian&#231;as apresentou perda de captura, deslocamento ou fratura de eletrodo. Nenhum dos pacientes apresentou disfun&#231;&#227;o de estimula&#231;&#227;o ou sensibilidade e todos os par&#226;metros do marca-passo permaneceram est&#225;veis durante todo o per&#237;odo de seguimento. Tr&#234;s crian&#231;as foram submetidas a troca de gerador de pulsos devido &#224; deple&#231;&#227;o normal de bateria aos 4,0, 7,2, e 9,0 anos de idade sem a necessidade de substitui&#231;&#227;o do cabo-eletrodo ventricular (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>O estudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico confirmou a anatomia card&#237;aca normal e fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda normal em cinco (31,3%) crian&#231;as. Entre os casos com defeitos intracard&#237;acos, apenas dois foram submetidos a reparo cir&#250;rgico devido a comprometimento hemodin&#226;mico. Dos 13 (81,3%) pacientes que permanecem em seguimento, apenas uma apresentou disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, que foi considerada de leve repercuss&#227;o com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo estimada em 0,51.</p>
        <p>No &#250;ltimo seguimento, o eletrocardiograma confirmou a presen&#231;a de ritmo sinusal com dissocia&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular em todos os pacientes. O estudo radiol&#243;gico realizado na &#250;ltima visita, mostrou &#225;rea card&#237;aca dentro dos limites da normalidade, integridade dos cabos-eletrodos e gerador de pulsos alojado na regi&#227;o epig&#225;strica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Estudo radiogr&#225;fico de t&#243;rax mostrando o posicionamento de um marca-passo epic&#225;rdico implantado h&#225; 10 anos, em proje&#231;&#245;es anteroposterior (A) e lateral (B).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-04-0331-70126-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>O uso de estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca em neonatos &#233; ainda uma &#225;rea de controv&#233;rsias importantes. As opini&#245;es divergem no que diz respeito ao modo de estimula&#231;&#227;o, &#224; melhor abordagem cir&#250;rgica para estimular o cora&#231;&#227;o de crian&#231;as pequenas, a escolha do cabo-eletrodo ideal que forne&#231;a os melhores resultados a curto e longo prazo e a estrat&#233;gia adequada para acomodar o gerador de pulsos neste subgrupo de pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A abordagem epic&#225;rdica tem sido tradicionalmente preferida, embora as op&#231;&#245;es de acesso (esternotomia, toracotomia lateral, subxifoide) poderem variar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Por outro lado, a viabilidade do implante transvenoso de marca-passo tem sido descrita em neonatos, quer pelas tribut&#225;rias da veia cava superior ou atrav&#233;s de ramos da veias il&#237;acas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> A despropor&#231;&#227;o entre o pequeno tamanho corporal e as dimens&#245;es do dispositivo impedem o alojamento do gerador de pulsos na parede tor&#225;cica. Desse modo, para evitar problemas relacionados &#224; loja em neonatos, os geradores de pulso s&#227;o geralmente colocados na parede abdominal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O debate sobre o melhor modo de estimula&#231;&#227;o em neonatos ainda est&#225; em aberto. Na opini&#227;o da maioria dos especialistas, marca-passo ventricular de c&#226;mara &#250;nica &#233; a primeira escolha, reservando os sistemas de c&#226;mara dupla ou mesmo a terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca para crian&#231;as com fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda comprometida ou que manifestem sinais de m&#225; adapta&#231;&#227;o &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular exclusiva.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> At&#233; o momento, poucos estudos t&#234;m recomendado a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de modos de estimula&#231;&#227;o mais sofisticados ou terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca como uma estrat&#233;gia inicial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Independentemente da abordagem cir&#250;rgica e modo de estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao dispositivo s&#227;o comuns durante o seguimento. Embora complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; loja, em particular, eros&#245;es ou isquemia da pele, sejam mais frequentes quando o dispositivo &#233; implantado na parede tor&#225;cica, o alojamento abdminal tamb&#233;m &#233; suscet&#237;vel a esse tipo de complica&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Vale ressaltar que a fratura de eletrodo permanece como um importante determinante da longevidade do eletrodo e est&#225; diretamente associada com o crescimento do paciente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Em geral, eletrodos epic&#225;rdicos penetrantes t&#234;m sido associados com uma alta incid&#234;ncia de aumento de limiares de estimula&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o implante, requerendo substitui&#231;&#227;o precoce do eletrodo ou do gerador de pulsos. Estudos recentes t&#234;m demonstrado que eletrodos epic&#225;rdicos n&#227;o penetrantes com libera&#231;&#227;o de cortic&#243;ide est&#227;o associados a taxas mais baixas de complica&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A t&#233;cnica descrita no presente artigo visa aumentar a seguran&#231;a do uso de marca-passo em neonatos de quatro maneiras principais: (1) redu&#231;&#227;o no trauma cir&#250;rgico pela aus&#234;ncia de abertura do esterno ou espa&#231;os intercostais; (2) alojamento seguro e com boa est&#233;tica do gerador de pulsos no espa&#231;o pr&#233;-peritoneal submuscular; (3) redu&#231;&#227;o da fibrose na jun&#231;&#227;o do eletrodo com o mioc&#225;rdio com uso de cabo-eletrodos revestidos com esteroide; (4) redu&#231;&#227;o do efeito do crescimento da crian&#231;a sobre o cabo-eletrodo e na interface eletrodo-mioc&#225;rdio pela utiliza&#231;&#227;o de uma trajet&#243;ria retil&#237;nea por assegurar uma proximidade entre o eletrodo e o gerador de pulsos.</p>
        <p>Em nosso estudo, todas as opera&#231;&#245;es foram bem-sucedidas e n&#227;o houve complica&#231;&#245;es perioperat&#243;rias. Al&#233;m disso, n&#227;o houve complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; t&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica durante o per&#237;odo de seguimento (m&#225;ximo de 12 anos). Em particular, n&#227;o houve complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; loja (infec&#231;&#227;o ou eros&#227;o de pele), complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao eletrodo (fratura de eletrodo), aumento nos limiares de estimula&#231;&#227;o ou deple&#231;&#227;o precoce de bateria. Por &#250;ltimo, medidas de sensibilidade, estimula&#231;&#227;o e imped&#226;ncia permaneceram satisfat&#243;rias durante o per&#237;odo de seguimento.</p>
        <p>Apesar do uso de estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular unifocal, sinais cl&#237;nicos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou altera&#231;&#245;es ecocardiogr&#225;ficas n&#227;o foram observados na &#250;ltima avalia&#231;&#227;o do acompanhamento de 13 dos 16 neonatos inclu&#237;dos no estudo. Nos casos nos quais foi detectado comprometimento hemodin&#226;mico secund&#225;rio a defeitos intracard&#237;acos, o reparo cir&#250;rgico reverteu totalmente esta condi&#231;&#227;o. Dois pacientes desenvolveram disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular grave; um foi submetido a transplante card&#237;aco e o outro faleceu.</p>
        <p>Nosso estudo apresenta v&#225;rias limita&#231;&#245;es. A principal delas &#233; o pequeno n&#250;mero de casos, inerente &#224; raridade do BAVTC e outras causas de bradiarritmias que requerem implante de marca-passo durante o per&#237;odo neonatal. Segundo, a falta de um padr&#227;o-ouro para a t&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica de implante de marca-passo em neonatos n&#227;o permite a forma&#231;&#227;o de um grupo controle para compara&#231;&#227;o dos resultados. Mesmo em centros maiores, &#233; quase imposs&#237;vel realizar um estudo comparando resultados entre diferentes t&#233;cnicas de implante de marca-passo neste subgrupo de pacientes. Por &#250;ltimo, todos os procedimentos foram realizados pelo mesmo cirurgi&#227;o, dificultando a an&#225;lise da reprodutibilidade da t&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>O implante de marca-passo epic&#225;rdico atrav&#233;s de uma abordagem subxifoide em neonatos com BAVTC &#233; tecnicamente vi&#225;vel e resulta em excelentes resultados cir&#250;rgicos e longevidade do sistema de estimula&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, essa abordagem cir&#250;rgica resolve dois dos principais desafios relacionados &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca permanente em neonatos: os defeitos de loja do gerador de pulsos e a perda do comando por aumento do limiar ou fratura de cabo-eletrodo.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <ack>
        <title>Agradecimentos</title>
        <p>Os autores agradecem a contribui&#231;&#227;o significativa do Dr. Antonio Herrmann Andrade do Hospital S&#237;rio Liban&#234;s de S&#227;o Paulo (Brasil), que forneceu as ilustra&#231;&#245;es para este artigo.</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
