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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="editorial" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.6" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">YzSwsXhqFz7nwytHb3JJkVf</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2017001300275</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20170139</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>G-Proteins Agonists and NO/cGMP Blockers: Unexplored Frontiers in the Pharmaceutical Industry</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Evora</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Roberto B.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cirurgia e Anatomia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cirurgia e Anatomia - Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Paulo Roberto B. Evora,</bold> Rua Rui Barbosa, 367 apt.15. CEP 14015-120, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>prbevora@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>109</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>275</fpage>
      <lpage>276</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>GTP-Binding Proteins</kwd>
        <kwd>Nitric Oxide</kwd>
        <kwd>Endothelial Cells</kwd>
        <kwd>Technology Pharmaceutical</kwd>
        <kwd>Reference Drugs</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Two unexplored therapeutic frontiers the pharmaceutical industry still must address: 1) to answer the questions about the G-proteins&#8217; signal transduction to keep the NO release normal, and 2) to block the amine-resistant inflammatory vasoplegia mediated by NO overproduction. It is important to remember that two Nobel prizes are involved.</p>
    <sec>
      <title>G-proteins: potential therapeutic role</title>
      <p>The release of nitric oxide (NO) can occur by different pathways involving G-proteins. The Gi-protein is responsible for the mediation of inhibitory effects of receptors in the adenylate cyclase and guanylate cyclase pathways. An early stage of the majority of the responses mediated by receptors is the activation of G-proteins in the cell membrane, which is the target of the modulation of a variety of intracellular events. The role of G-proteins in the pathophysiology of vasospasm after global ischemia and reperfusion is still a matter of investigations. Their participation was documented in a comparative study of vascular relaxation induced by sodium fluoride, which produces biphasic responses in human, bovine, and porcine coronary arteries, causing an endothelium-dependent relaxation and an endothelium-independent contraction. G-protein dysfunction in the endothelium has also been postulated as responsible for the endothelial dysfunction in conditions of endothelial cell regeneration after injury, atherosclerosis, and coronary vasospasm. Myocardial ischemia and reperfusion selectively impair receptor-mediated NO release. However, the ability of the endothelial cell to produce NO or generate endothelium-dependent relaxation to nonnitric oxide-dependent agonists remains intact.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In summary: 1. Endothelial cells maintain their capacity to release NO based on their ability in receiving the transduction signal through the membrane; 2. G-proteins have a fundamental role in the signal transduction; 3. This paradigm is extended to all vasotonic cardiovascular diseases that coexist with platelet dysfunction. These data would be highly relevant in the research of G-protein-targeting drugs.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The cGMP/cAMP &#8220;crosstalk&#8221; is underestimated</title>
      <p>At present, clinical management of inflammatory vasoplegia associated with sepsis or anaphylaxis is symptomatic. Volume is expanded using administration of fluids, and low blood pressure is managed using administration of positive inotropes and vasoconstrictors. However, circulatory shock is frequently refractory to high amine concentrations.</p>
      <p>Since 1994, blockade of guanylate cyclase by methylene blue (MB) in distributive shock has been the subject of study in our Laboratory of Endothelial Function and has been clinically used by the Cardiovascular Surgery Group, both at Ribeirao Preto Medical School of the University of Sao Paulo (FMRP-USP). There is strong evidence that MB, a guanylate cyclase inhibitor, is a therapeutic option for the treatment of the vasoplegic syndrome. Based on our clinical and laboratory experience, accumulated over a period of 20 years, classic concepts about the use of MB in this condition have been established: 1) Heparin and ACE inhibitors are risk factors; 2) At recommended doses, MB is considered a safe drug (the lethal dose is 40 mg/kg); 3) MB does not cause endothelial dysfunction; 4) The effects of MB appear only in the case of nitric oxide (NO) upregulation; 5) MB is not a vasoconstrictor <italic>per se</italic>; by blocking the cGMP system, it "releases" the cAMP system in a kind of &#8220;crosstalk&#8221;, facilitating the vasoconstrictor effect of noradrenaline; 6) The most commonly used dosage is 2 mg/kg intravenous bolus followed by continuous infusion, since plasma concentration decreases markedly in the first 40 minutes; 7) There is a possible "window of opportunity" for the effectiveness of the MB.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In this milieu, one main question comes up: &#8216;What can we do when circulatory shock becomes refractory to the classical therapeutic measures including fluid administration, inotropes, and vasoconstrictors? Responses to this question are currently limited to the accumulated evidence regarding three cAMP-independent vasoconstriction mechanisms: 1) cGMP/NO-dependent vasoconstriction (the most important mechanism); 2) vasopressin administration and; 3) hyperpolarization-dependent vasoconstriction. Why these therapeutic alternatives do not always work?&#8217; We believe that there are at least, five aspects pertaining to this inquiry: 1) The lack of consideration of existing &#8216;guidelines&#8217; or &#8216;evidence based medicine&#8217; regarding the accepted treatment options available; 2) lack of knowledge of different vasodilatation mechanisms; 3) the possibility of a crosstalk between different vasodilatation mechanisms; 4) the soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) enzymatic activity and; 5) the common use of MB as a &#8216;rescue&#8217; or &#8216;ultimate&#8217; therapeutic attempt.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Although there are no definitive multicentric studies, the use of MB is currently the unique, safest, cheapest treatment option for vasoplegic syndrome in cardiac surgery. Nevertheless, the MB "affair&#8221; masks the real problem of vasoplegic endothelial dysfunction, whose blockade could be the target of current drugs other than MB.</p>
      <p>However, in the scope of an editorial, it must be considered that there is no simple answer to the questions addressed above, since there are multiple factors that influence the decision making in multimillion dollar investments. Even considering the actual and potentialy clinical benefits, one must consider the patent situation of the product and its development, as well as the potential of present and future market. In addition, according to executives of the pharmaceutical industry, there is also a possible competition for funding that often entails internal competition between many lines of research.</p>
      <p>These considerations would be speculative, but in our opinion the pharmaceutical industry owes us explanations on: 1) questions about the G-proteins signal transduction to keep NO release normal, and 2) blockage of the amine-resistant inflammatory vasoplegia mediated by NO overproduction. It is important to remember that two Nobel prizes are involved (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Endothelial nitric oxide synthase converts L-arginine to nitric oxide, which activates guanylate cyclase, responsible for the conversion of GTP to cGMP that causes endothelium-dependent vasodilatation commonly associated with circulatory shock mediated by membrane receptors (Adapted from Evora &amp; Simon; Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2007;99:306-313.)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
						</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-04-0275-70139-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <title>References</title>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Agonistas de Prote&#237;nas G e Bloqueadores da via NO/cGMP: Duas Fronteiras n&#227;o Exploradas pelas Ind&#250;strias Farmac&#234;uticas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Evora</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Roberto B.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cirurgia e Anatomia - Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Paulo Roberto B. Evora</bold>, Rua Rui Barbosa, 367 apt.15. CEP 14015-120, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>prbevora@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Proteinas de Liga&#231;&#227;o ao GTP</kwd>
        <kwd>Celulas Endoteliais</kwd>
        <kwd>Tecnologia Farmac&#234;utica</kwd>
        <kwd>Medicamentos de Refer&#234;ncia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>H&#225; duas fronteiras terap&#234;uticas ainda inexploradas sobre as quais a ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica deve esclarecer: 1) responder quest&#245;es sobre a transdu&#231;&#227;o do sinal das prote&#237;nas G para manter a libera&#231;&#227;o normal de NO e 2) bloquear a vasoplegia inflamat&#243;ria resistente &#224; a&#231;&#227;o de aminas, mediada pela superprodu&#231;&#227;o de NO. &#201; importante lembrar que dois pr&#234;mios Nobel est&#227;o envolvidos.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Prote&#237;nas G: potencial papel terap&#234;utico</title>
        <p>A libera&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) pode ocorrer por diferentes vias envolvendo prote&#237;nas G. A prote&#237;na Gi &#233; respons&#225;vel pela media&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos inibit&#243;rios dos receptores nas vias adenilato ciclase e guanilato ciclase. Um est&#225;gio inicial da maioria das respostas mediadas por receptores &#233; a ativa&#231;&#227;o das prote&#237;nas G na membrana celular, alvo da modula&#231;&#227;o de uma variedade de eventos intracelulares. O papel das prote&#237;nas G na fisiopatologia do vasoespasmo ap&#243;s isquemia global e reperfus&#227;o ainda &#233; quest&#227;o de investiga&#231;&#245;es. Sua participa&#231;&#227;o foi documentada em um estudo comparativo do relaxamento vascular causado por est&#237;mulo com fluoreto de s&#243;dio, que produz respostas bif&#225;sicas nas art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, humanas, bovinas e su&#237;nas, relaxamento dependente do endot&#233;lio e contra&#231;&#227;o independente do endot&#233;lio. A disfun&#231;&#227;o das prote&#237;nas G no endot&#233;lio tamb&#233;m foi indicada como respons&#225;vel pela disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial em condi&#231;&#245;es de regenera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas endoteliais ap&#243;s les&#227;o, aterosclerose e vasoespasmo coronariano. A isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e a reperfus&#227;o prejudicam seletivamente a libera&#231;&#227;o de NO mediada por receptor. No entanto, a capacidade de as c&#233;lulas endoteliais produzirem NO ou gerarem relaxamento em resposta a agonistas dependentes de &#243;xido n&#227;o n&#237;trico permanece intacta.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em resumo: 1. As c&#233;lulas endoteliais mant&#234;m a capacidade de liberar NO com base na sua capacidade de receber o sinal de transdu&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s da sua membrana; 2. As prote&#237;nas G t&#234;m um papel fundamental na transdu&#231;&#227;o do sinal; 3. Este paradigma &#233; estendido a todas as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares vasot&#244;nicas que coexistem com a disfun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. Esses dados seriam altamente relevantes ao sugerir a pesquisa de drogas moduladoras de prote&#237;nas - G.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>O "crosstalk" entre cGMP e cAMP &#233; subestimado</title>
        <p>Atualmente, o tratamento cl&#237;nico da vasoplegia inflamat&#243;ria associada &#224; sepse ou anafilaxia &#233; sintom&#225;tica. Expande-se a volemia pela administra&#231;&#227;o de fluidos e a baixa press&#227;o arterial &#233; gerenciada pela administra&#231;&#227;o de inotr&#243;picos positivos e vasoconstritores. No entanto, o choque circulat&#243;rio &#233; frequentemente refrat&#225;rio a altas concentra&#231;&#245;es de aminas.</p>
        <p>Desde 1994, o bloqueio de guanilato ciclase pelo azul de metileno (AM) em choque distributivo tem sido objeto de estudo em nosso Laborat&#243;rio de Fun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial e clinicamente utilizado pelo Grupo de Cirurgia Cardiovascular, ambos pertencentes &#224; Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMRP-USP). Existem fortes evid&#234;ncias de que o AM, um inibidor da guanilato ciclase, seja uma op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica para o tratamento da s&#237;ndrome vasopl&#233;gica. Com base em nossa experi&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica e laboratorial, acumulada ao longo de 20 anos, alguns conceitos cl&#225;ssicos sobre o uso de AM nessa condi&#231;&#227;o foram estabelecidos: 1) Os inibidores de heparina e da ECA s&#227;o fatores de risco; 2) Nas doses recomendadas, o AM &#233; considerado um medicamento seguro (a dose letal &#233; de 40 mg/kg); 3) O AM n&#227;o causa disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial; 4) Os efeitos do AM aparecem apenas no caso de suprarregula&#231;&#227;o do &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO); 5) O AM n&#227;o &#233; um vasoconstritor em si; ao bloquear o sistema GMPc, o AM "libera" o sistema AMPc por uma esp&#233;cie de &#8220;conversa&#231;&#227;o cruzada&#8221; (<italic>crosstalk</italic>), facilitando o efeito vasoconstritor da noradrenalina; 6) A dosagem mais utilizada &#233; de 2 mg/kg de <italic>bolus</italic> intravenoso, seguida de infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua, uma vez que a concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica diminui acentuadamente nos primeiros 40 minutos; 7) Existe uma poss&#237;vel "janela de oportunidade" para a efic&#225;cia do MB.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Nesse contexto, surge uma quest&#227;o principal: "O que podemos fazer quando o choque circulat&#243;rio se torna refrat&#225;rio &#224;s medidas terap&#234;uticas cl&#225;ssicas, incluindo administra&#231;&#227;o de fluidos, inotr&#243;picos e vasoconstritores? As respostas a esta quest&#227;o est&#227;o atualmente limitadas &#224; evid&#234;ncia acumulada em rela&#231;&#227;o a tr&#234;s mecanismos vasoconstritores independentes do AMPc: 1) vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o dependente de cGMP/NO (a mais importante); 2) administra&#231;&#227;o de vasopressina e; 3) vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o dependente da hiperpolariza&#231;&#227;o. Por que essas alternativas terap&#234;uticas nem sempre funcionam? "Acreditamos que existem, pelo menos, cinco aspectos relacionados a essa quest&#227;o: 1) A n&#227;o considera&#231;&#227;o de "diretrizes" ou de "medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias" em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s op&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis de tratamentos aceitos; 2) A falta de conhecimento dos diferentes mecanismos de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o; 3) a possibilidade de &#8220;crosstalk&#8221; entre os diferentes mecanismos de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o; 4) a atividade enzim&#225;tica da guanilil ciclase sol&#250;vel (GCs) e; 5) o uso comum do AM como uma tentativa terap&#234;utica &#8220;de resgate&#8221; ou &#8220;final".<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Embora n&#227;o existam estudos multic&#234;ntricos definitivos, o uso de AM atualmente, a op&#231;&#227;o &#250;nica, mais segura e mais barata para o tratamento da s&#237;ndrome vasopl&#233;gica na cirurgia card&#237;aca. Contudo, a pol&#234;mica sobre o AM atenua o problema real da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial vasopl&#233;gica, cujo bloqueio poderia ser alvo de outras drogas atuais al&#233;m do AM.</p>
        <p>No entanto, no &#226;mbito de um editorial, deve-se considerar que n&#227;o existe uma resposta simples &#224;s quest&#245;es apresentadas acima, uma vez que existem m&#250;ltiplos fatores que influenciam no processo de decis&#227;o nos investimentos multimilion&#225;rios. Mesmo considerando os benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos reais e potenciais, &#233; preciso considerar a situa&#231;&#227;o da patente do produto e seu desenvolvimento, bem como o potencial de mercado presente e futuro. Ainda, segundo executivos da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, existe uma poss&#237;vel competi&#231;&#227;o por financiamento que muitas vezes gera uma competi&#231;&#227;o interna entre v&#225;rias linhas de pesquisa.</p>
        <p>Essas considera&#231;&#245;es seriam especulativas, mas, em nossa opini&#227;o, a ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica ainda nos deve explica&#231;&#245;es sobre: 1) perguntas sobre a transdu&#231;&#227;o do sinal das prote&#237;nas G para manter a libera&#231;&#227;o de NO normal e; 2) bloqueio da vasoplegia inflamat&#243;ria resistente a aminas medida pela superprodu&#231;&#227;o de NO. &#201; importante lembrar que dois pr&#234;mios Nobel est&#227;o envolvidos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>A &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase endotelial converte L-arginina em &#243;xido n&#237;trico que ativa a enzima guanilato ciclase respons&#225;vel pela transforma&#231;&#227;o de GTP em cGMP, que causa vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente do endot&#233;lio comumente associada ao choque circulat&#243;rio mediado por receptores de membrana (Adaptado de Evora &amp; Simon; Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2007; 99: 306-313.)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
							</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-04-0275-70139-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
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