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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.6" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">X7QnQ6PfFvW7vRq6NRmW5NH</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2017000900253</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20170091</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2017005001204</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Vascular Aging and Arterial Stiffness</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mikael</surname>
            <given-names>Luana de Rezende</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Anelise Machado Gomes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Mota</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Luiza Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo C&#233;sar Brand&#227;o Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vitorino</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila Valverde de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Euz&#233;bio</surname>
            <given-names>Maicon Borges</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>W&#225;tila de Moura</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Kunz Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">UFG</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Liga de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Liga de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial - Faculdade de Medicina - UFG, Goi&#226;nia, GO - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Macei&#243;</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AL</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o, Macei&#243;, AL - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Goi&#225;s</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso de Souza,</bold> Rua 70, n. 250, apt 1801, ed. Lyon. Postal Code 74810-350, Jardim Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO - Brazil. E-mail: <email>weimarsb@cardiol.br</email>, <email>sebbabarroso@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and writing of the manuscript: Mikael LR, Paiva AMG, Barroso WKS; Acquisition of data: Mikael LR, Paiva AMG; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Mikael LR, Paiva AMG, Euz&#233;bio MB, Sousa WM, Barroso WKS; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Gomes MM, Sousa ALL, Jardim PCBV, Vitorino PVO, Euz&#233;bio MB, Sousa WM, Barroso WKS.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>109</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>253</fpage>
      <lpage>258</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) account annually for almost one third of all deaths worldwide. Among the CVD, systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) is related to more than half of those outcomes. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is an independent risk factor for SAH because it causes functional and structural damage to the arterial wall, leading to stiffness. Several studies have related oxidative stress, production of free radicals, and neuroendocrine and genetic changes to the physiopathogenesis of vascular aging. Indirect ways to analyze that aging process have been widely studied, pulse wave velocity (PWV) being considered gold standard to assess arterial stiffness, because there is large epidemiological evidence of its predictive value for cardiovascular events, and it requires little technical knowledge to be performed. A pulse wave is generated during each cardiac contraction and travels along the arterial bed until finding peripheral resistance or any bifurcation point, determining the appearance of a reflected wave. In young individuals, arteries tend to be more elastic, therefore, the reflected wave occurs later in the cardiac cycle, reaching the heart during diastole. In older individuals, however, the reflected wave occurs earlier, reaching the heart during systole. Because PWV is an important biomarker of vascular damage, highly valuable in determining the patient&#8217;s global cardiovascular risk, we chose to review the articles on vascular aging in the context of cardiovascular risk factors and the tools available to the early identification of that damage.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Blood Pressure</kwd>
        <kwd>Pulse Wave Analysis</kwd>
        <kwd>Vascular Stiffness</kwd>
        <kwd>Vascular Remodeling</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title>Physiopathogenesis of vascular aging</title>
      <p>Currently 17 million deaths per year are estimated to occur due to cardiovascular diseases (CVD), representing one third of all deaths worldwide. Of those CVD, 9.4 million are related to arterial hypertension (AH),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> a highly relevant risk factor for stroke, coronary artery disease, heart failure and occlusive peripheral arterial disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Arterial hypertension is often associated with other cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF), such as smoking, obesity, high cholesterol levels and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM), and that association, mainly with DM, significantly increases the risk for micro- and macrovascular complications, as well as the incidence of CVD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Several studies have shown that DM is an independent and important risk factor for functional and structural damage to the arterial wall, resulting in early arterial stiffness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> The combination of those CVRF, mainly AH and DM, contributes to potentiate vascular damage and early arterial aging.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Some theories explain the normal aging process, and, can be generally divided into evolution and physiological or structural theories. From the cardiovascular viewpoint, the major theories include oxidative stress, production of free radicals, neuroendocrine changes and genetic predisposition. The confluence of those factors, acting mainly on myocytes and arterial media-intima layer, increases ventricular and vascular stiffness, a phenomenon closely related to the cardiovascular aging process<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Pathophysiology of vascular aging.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
						</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-03-0253-70091-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>In the arterial bed, the major structural and functional changes result from calcification, wall diameter increase and elasticity loss, leading to collagen deposition and elastin fragmentation in the media layer. That phenomenon is more evident in large arteries, but also occurs in the peripheral vascular bed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> All such changes contribute to reduce arterial compliance and its capacity to resist stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The physiopathogenesis of that process is related to changes in the mechanical stretching of the arterial wall and its structural changes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> In addition, there is evidence on the association of inflammatory markers and biomarkers with proatherogenic phenomena, which participate in the pathogenesis of vascular damage. Increased levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), an inflammation marker, are present in hypertensive individuals and contribute to target-organ lesions. In addition, adiponectin, a plasma protein derived from adipocytes that is reduced in hypertensive individuals and related to the glucose metabolism, acts as an antiatherogenic endogenous factor, its reduction being associated with increased cardiovascular risk. Other inflammatory markers and biomarkers described are nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-KB) and insulin growth factor-1 (IGF-1).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In addition, age-related changes are associated with the generation of oxygen-reactive species, inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and calcium and phosphate metabolism disorders.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Those changes depend on genetic characteristics, and vary in different populations. They reflect differences in nutritional characteristics, physical activity, smoking habit, cholesterol and glucose blood levels, and other risk factors known to affect arterial stiffness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Inflammatory mediators participate actively in mechanisms of vascular damage and atherosclerotic disease, their levels being increased in all AH stages. That association accelerates the vascular aging process. In addition, increased CRP levels can reduce the levels of endogenous nitric oxide, an important vasodilator related to the functional regulation of the compliance of large arteries <italic>in vivo</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Thus, the inflammatory and proatherogenic activation, mediated by several biomarkers in the presence of classical CVRF, contributes to worsen CV outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The association of genetic, metabolic and inflammatory characteristics with cardiovascular risk phenotypes has been increasingly studied, and some genes that catalyze the process of early vascular aging have been identified.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Finally, the aging phenomenon comprises changes related to a decrease in arterial elasticity and consequent increase in both arterial stiffness and systolic blood pressure (BP) levels. From the physiopathological viewpoint, the decrease in elastin amount, and the increase in collagen amount and in arterial intima-media thickness precede the endothelial damage, and can indirectly identify vascular damage at an initial phase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Arterial stiffness as a consequence of vascular aging</title>
      <p>At each heartbeat, a pulse wave is generated and travels along the arterial bed until finding peripheral resistance or any bifurcation point, generating a new reflected wave back to the heart. The velocity of that reflected wave and the phase of the cardiac cycle in which it happens (systole or diastole) depend on peripheral vascular resistance, elasticity, mainly of large arteries, and central BP, being related to major cardiovascular outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In young individuals, arteries are more elastic. Thus, the reflected wave is slow and reaches the heart during diastole, increasing the diastolic pressure and improving coronary perfusion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> In addition, the reflection of the wave returns part of the pulsatile energy to the central aorta, where it is dissipated, limiting the transmission of the pulsatile energy to the periphery and preventing damage to microcirculation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> With vascular aging, pulse wave velocity (PWV) increases, resulting in an early reflection of that wave, which reaches the heart during systole. This increases systolic BP, with a consequent increase in cardiac workload and a reduction in coronary perfusion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The arterial stiffness role in the development of CVD has been more emphatically studied in the past years, its use being recommended in guidelines to improve cardiovascular risk stratification.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Assessment of vascular aging</title>
      <p>Vascular aging can be assessed by use of arterial stiffness analysis. Several invasive and non-invasive methods have been described for that purpose. The most widely used and validated techniques involve PWV assessment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The PWV measurement is considered gold standard to evaluate arterial stiffness. Other methods, such as measuring central systolic BP (cSBP) and augmentation index (AI) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>), are under greater influence of pathophysiological conditions, medications, heart rate and age, which make them less reliable.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
			</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Blood pressure curve with description of its major components. AI: Augmentation Index; MBP: Mean Blood Pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
						</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-03-0253-70091-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Carotid-femoral PWV is a clinically relevant measure of velocity along the aortoiliac trajectory, because the aorta and its first branches are closely related to the left ventricle, and correlate with most of the physiopathogenic effects of arterial stiffness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The carotid-femoral PWV analysis is gold standard for arterial stiffness assessment, because there is large epidemiological evidence of its predictive value for cardiovascular events, and it requires little technical knowledge to be performed. In addition, PWV can be measured in a point. The method for that has been validated, and consists in calculating, by use of transference with calibration, systolic BP/diastolic BP (SBP/DBP) with mean BP/DBP (MBP/DBP), being feasible and having better cost-benefit ratio for clinical practice.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In addition, PWV bears a strong correlation to age and BP, in which the elastic properties of the arterial wall are reduced, with consequent increase in vascular stiffness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Clinical applicability of vascular aging assessment</title>
      <p>Assessment of arterial elasticity (compliance) is clinically important as it correlates with the pathogenesis of a large spectrum of cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular outcomes, such as cerebral white matter lesions and several types of cognitive deficits, such as Alzheimer&#8217;s disease, and kidney dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI), a term created to comprise a heterogeneous group of cognitive disorders that share a vascular etiology, including both dementia and cognitive impairment without dementia, has gained importance. This might result from its likely increasing prevalence in next decades, due to population aging and increase in life expectancy consequent to better CVD control.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> In addition, VCI increases morbidity, disability and health costs for the elderly, reducing their quality of life and life expectancy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>
			</p>
      <p>As compared to Alzheimer&#8217;s disease, VCI is associated with 50% lower mean survival (6-7 years versus 3-4 years), higher health costs and comorbidity rates. Thus, its primary and secondary prevention is highly important, being usually approached as stroke prevention and changes in vascular risk factors, such as AH, dyslipidemia, DM, obesity and sedentary lifestyle. Better knowledge and early identification of the vascular aging process and of related biomarkers can contribute to improve prevention.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The biological aging process is always associated with arterial stiffness, which is accelerated by arterial hypertension. The relationship between arterial stiffness and BP is more complex, being currently understood as bidirectional, because an increase in the vascular distension pressure causes an increase in arterial stiffness, and, conversely, an increase in stiffness can lead to SBP elevation. The relationship between arterial stiffness and BP can also be influenced by antihypertensive drugs, which, by reducing BP, can benefit vascular health. Thus, the interpretation of arterial stiffness data has to consider the patients&#8217; clinical characteristics, such as age, prevalence of comorbidities, use of medications, lifestyle and genetic factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In addition to the dominant effect of aging, other physiological and pathophysiological conditions are associated with the increase in arterial stiffness and change in the behavior pattern of the reflected pulse wave: physiological conditions (low birth weight, menstrual cycle, menopause); genetic characteristics (family history of hypertension, DM or myocardial infarction, genetic polymorphisms); CVRF (sedentary lifestyle, obesity, smoking habit, AH, dyslipidemia, glucose intolerance, metabolic syndrome, types 1 and 2 DM); and CVD and non-cardiovascular diseases (different stages of kidney failure, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic vasculitis, systemic lupus erythematosus).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Regarding DM and AH, the arterial wall undergoes several biomechanical changes that, from the theoretical viewpoint, can increase arterial stiffness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> In addition, adiponectin has been associated with aortic stiffness in patients with DM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Another study comparing different procedures to measure PWV to evaluate arterial stiffness in patients with DM has concluded that further investigation is required to clarify its usefulness in those patients, reinforcing PWV as the gold-standard method in that population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> A systematic review assessing the relationship of PWV with several CVRF has shown that 52% of the studies found a positive association between increased PWV and DM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
			</p>
      <p>It is worth noting that arterial stiffness data provide direct evidence of damages in target organs, PWV being considered a biomarker of vascular damage,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> which is important in determining the patient&#8217;s global cardiovascular risk, considering that the classical risk scores, mainly in the intermediate risk stratum, perform badly to predict cardiovascular outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Traditionally used scores are based on well-established risk factors easily obtained; however, although at least one of those traditional risk factors is present in most patients who have a cardiovascular event, they can be found in patients who will not have an early event.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Furthermore, CVD are preceded by an asymptomatic phase. Thus, patients with subclinical damages are at higher risk to develop symptomatic disease, reflecting a possible susceptibility to traditional risk factors. The most recent guidelines on AH have recommended the use of biomarkers to improve the accuracy of cardiovascular risk stratification, especially in patients at intermediate risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Of the major biomarkers, PWV stands out, which, when added to the classical cardiovascular risk stratification, can reclassify individuals to higher strata, implicating in changes in the management aimed at higher cardiovascular protection.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Thus, vascular aging analysis in the risk stratification context can improve the assessment and definition of the management of those patients, and can represent a useful strategy to reduce both absolute and residual risks, because it enables the identification of early damage and the proper treatment already in the cardiovascular <italic>continuum</italic> phase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by Funda&#231;&#227;o de Apoio &#224; Pesquisa de Goi&#225;s (FAPEG).</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the Institutional Scientific Initiation Scholarship Program submitted by Luana de Rezende Mikael, from Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ref-list>
      <title>References</title>
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        <label>1</label>
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          </person-group>
          <source>A global brief on hypertension: silent killer, global public health crisis</source>
          <publisher-loc>Geneva</publisher-loc>
          <year>2013</year>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
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        <label>2</label>
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          <article-title>Thresholds for pulse wave velocity, urine albumin creatinine ratio and left ventricular mass index using SCORE, Framingham and ESH/ESC risk charts</article-title>
          <source>J Hypertens</source>
          <year>2012</year>
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        <mixed-citation>42 Thomopoulos C, Parati G, Zanchetti A. Effects of blood pressure lowering on outcome incidence in hypertension: 3. Effects in patients at different levels of cardiovascular risk--overview and meta-analyses of randomized trials. J Hypertens. 2014;32(12):2305-14.</mixed-citation>
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              <surname>Parati</surname>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Envelhecimento Vascular e Rigidez Arterial</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mikael</surname>
            <given-names>Luana de Rezende</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Anelise Machado Gomes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Mota</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Luiza Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo C&#233;sar Brand&#227;o Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vitorino</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila Valverde de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Euz&#233;bio</surname>
            <given-names>Maicon Borges</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>W&#225;tila de Moura</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Kunz Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Liga de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial - Faculdade de Medicina - UFG, Goi&#226;nia, GO - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o, Macei&#243;, AL - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso de Souza,</bold> Rua 70, n. 250, apt 1801, ed. Lyon. CEP 74810-350, Jardim Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO - Brasil. E-mail: <email>weimarsb@cardiol.br</email>, <email>sebbabarroso@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Mikael LR, Paiva AMG, Barroso WKS; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Mikael LR, Paiva AMG; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Mikael LR, Paiva AMG, Euz&#233;bio MB, Sousa WM, Barroso WKS; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Gomes MM, Sousa ALL, Jardim PCBV, Vitorino PVO, Euz&#233;bio MB, Sousa WM, Barroso WKS.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares s&#227;o anualmente respons&#225;veis por quase um ter&#231;o do total de mortes no mundo. Dentre elas, a hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS) est&#225; relacionada com mais da metade desses desfechos. O diabetes mellitus tipo 2 &#233; visto com um fator de risco independente para HAS por causar les&#245;es funcionais e estruturais na parede arterial, ocasionando-lhe enrijecimento. Diversos estudos relacionam o stress oxidativo, a produ&#231;&#227;o de radicais livres, as altera&#231;&#245;es neuroend&#243;crinas e gen&#233;ticas com a fisiopatogenia do envelhecimento vascular. Formas indiretas para analisar esse processo de envelhecimento t&#234;m sido amplamente estudadas, dentre elas, a velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP) &#233; vista como o padr&#227;o-ouro para avaliar a rigidez arterial por existir maior n&#250;mero de evid&#234;ncias epidemiol&#243;gicas do seu valor preditivo para eventos cardiovasculares al&#233;m de requerer pouco conhecimento t&#233;cnico para sua realiza&#231;&#227;o. A onda de pulso &#233; gerada durante cada contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e percorre o leito arterial at&#233; encontrar resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica ou algum ponto de bifurca&#231;&#227;o, ocasionando o surgimento de uma onda refletida. Em indiv&#237;duos jovens, as art&#233;rias tendem a ser mais el&#225;sticas, em consequ&#234;ncia, a onda &#233; refletida mais tardiamente no ciclo card&#237;aco e atinge o cora&#231;&#227;o no momento da di&#225;stole, enquanto nos mais velhos, com reflex&#227;o mais precoce da onda, tende a acontecer na s&#237;stole. Por ser a VOP um importante biomarcador de dano vascular, de grande valia para a determina&#231;&#227;o do risco global cardiovascular do paciente, optamos por revisar os artigos referentes ao envelhecimento vascular no contexto dos fatores de risco cardiovasculares e as ferramentas dispon&#237;veis para a identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce desse dano.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Press&#227;o Arterial</kwd>
        <kwd>An&#225;lise de Onda de Pulso</kwd>
        <kwd>Rigidez Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Remodela&#231;&#227;o Vascular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>Fisiopatogenia do envelhecimento vascular</title>
        <p>Estima-se que atualmente 17 milh&#245;es de mortes por ano no mundo ocorram devido &#224;s doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV), cerca de um ter&#231;o do total de mortes. Dessas, 9,4 milh&#245;es est&#227;o relacionadas &#224; hipertens&#227;o arterial (HA),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> fator de risco de grande relev&#226;ncia para acidente vascular cerebral, doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e doen&#231;a arterial obstrutiva perif&#233;rica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A HA est&#225; frequentemente associada com outros fatores de risco cardiovasculares (FRCV), tais como tabagismo, obesidade, colesterol elevado e diabetes mellitus (DM) tipo 2, e essa associa&#231;&#227;o, principalmente com o DM, aumenta significativamente o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es micro- e macrovasculares, assim como a incid&#234;ncia das DCV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Diversos estudos t&#234;m demonstrado que o DM &#233; fator de risco independente e importante para les&#245;es funcionais e estruturais da parede arterial, resultando no enrijecimento precoce da mesma.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> A conjun&#231;&#227;o desses FRCV, especialmente HA e DM, concorre para a potencializa&#231;&#227;o do dano vascular e envelhecimento arterial precoce.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Algumas teorias explicam o processo de envelhecimento normal e, de um modo gen&#233;rico, podem ser divididas em teorias da evolu&#231;&#227;o e fisiol&#243;gicas ou estruturais. Do ponto de vista cardiovascular, as principais teorias passam pelo estresse oxidativo, produ&#231;&#227;o de radicais livres, altera&#231;&#245;es neuroend&#243;crinas e predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica. A conflu&#234;ncia desses fatores, atuando principalmente nos mi&#243;citos e na camada miointimal das art&#233;rias, leva ao aumento na rigidez ventricular e vascular, fen&#244;meno intimamente relacionado ao processo de envelhecimento cardiovascular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fisiopatologia do envelhecimento vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
							</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-03-0253-70091-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>No leito arterial, as principais modifica&#231;&#245;es estruturais e funcionais decorrem da calcifica&#231;&#227;o, aumento do di&#226;metro da parede e perda de elasticidade, resultante da deposi&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno e da fragmenta&#231;&#227;o da elastina na camada m&#233;dia. Esse fen&#244;meno &#233; mais evidente em grandes art&#233;rias, mas tamb&#233;m ocorre no leito vascular perif&#233;rico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Todas essas modifica&#231;&#245;es concorrem para uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia e da capacidade arterial de resistir ao estresse a que &#233; submetida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A fisiopatogenia desse processo est&#225; relacionada &#224;s mudan&#231;as no estiramento mec&#226;nico da parede arterial e suas altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Ainda existem evid&#234;ncias que demonstram associa&#231;&#227;o de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios e de biomarcadores com fen&#244;menos pr&#243;-aterog&#234;nicos e que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, tamb&#233;m participam na patog&#234;nese da les&#227;o vascular. N&#237;veis aumentados da prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR), um marcador de inflama&#231;&#227;o, est&#227;o presentes em hipertensos e contribuem para les&#245;es de &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo. Al&#233;m disso, a adiponectina, uma prote&#237;na do plasma derivada de adip&#243;citos, que se encontra diminu&#237;da nos hipertensos e que tem rela&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m com o metabolismo da glicose, atua como um fator end&#243;geno antiaterog&#234;nico e, quando reduzida, est&#225; associada com um risco cardiovascular aumentado. Outros marcadores inflamat&#243;rios e biomarcadores tamb&#233;m est&#227;o descritos, entre eles o fator nuclear Kappa B (NF-KB) e fator 1 de aumento de insulina (IGF-1).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; idade tamb&#233;m se associam com a gera&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio, inflama&#231;&#227;o, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e com dist&#250;rbios no metabolismo do c&#225;lcio e fosfato.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> S&#227;o observadas, a depender de caracter&#237;sticas gen&#233;ticas, em diferentes graus entres as popula&#231;&#245;es. Refletem ainda diferen&#231;as nas caracter&#237;sticas nutricionais, atividade f&#237;sica, tabagismo, colesterol, glicemia e outros fatores de risco conhecidos por afetar a rigidez arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Mediadores inflamat&#243;rios participam ativamente nos mecanismos de les&#227;o vascular e doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica e est&#227;o aumentados em todos os est&#225;gios da HA, e essa associa&#231;&#227;o acelera o processo de envelhecimento vascular. Ainda, o aumento da PCR pode reduzir os n&#237;veis de &#243;xido n&#237;trico end&#243;geno, um importante vasodilatador que tem rela&#231;&#227;o com a regula&#231;&#227;o funcional da complac&#234;ncia de grandes art&#233;rias in vivo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Dessa forma, a ativa&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria e pr&#243;-aterog&#234;nica, mediada pela a&#231;&#227;o de diversos biomarcadores na presen&#231;a dos FRCV cl&#225;ssicos, contribui para a piora dos desfechos CV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Ainda, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre as caracter&#237;sticas gen&#233;ticas, metab&#243;licas, inflamat&#243;rias e os fen&#243;tipos de risco cardiovascular tem sido cada vez mais estudada com a identifica&#231;&#227;o de alguns genes que catalisam o processo de envelhecimento vascular precoce.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Por fim, o fen&#244;meno envelhecimento caminha com altera&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da elasticidade e consequente aumento na rigidez arterial e nos valores da press&#227;o arterial (PA) sist&#243;lica. Do ponto de vista fisiopatol&#243;gico, diminui&#231;&#227;o da quantidade de elastina, aumento na quantidade de col&#225;geno e aumento na espessura das camadas &#237;ntima e m&#233;dia das art&#233;rias precedem a les&#227;o endotelial e podem de maneira indireta identificar o dano vascular ainda em fases iniciais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Rigidez arterial como consequ&#234;ncia do envelhecimento vascular</title>
        <p>A cada batimento card&#237;aco, uma onda de pulso &#233; gerada e percorre o leito arterial at&#233; encontrar resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica em um ponto de bifurca&#231;&#227;o, que gera uma nova onda refletida de volta ao cora&#231;&#227;o. A velocidade dessa onda refletida e o momento do ciclo card&#237;aco em que ela ocorrer&#225; (s&#237;stole ou di&#225;stole) dependem da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica, da elasticidade, principalmente das grandes art&#233;rias, e tamb&#233;m da press&#227;o central, e est&#225; relacionada aos principais desfechos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em indiv&#237;duos jovens, as art&#233;rias s&#227;o mais el&#225;sticas. Assim, a onda refletida &#233; lenta e atinge o cora&#231;&#227;o em di&#225;stole, aumentando a press&#227;o diast&#243;lica e melhorando a perfus&#227;o coron&#225;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> A reflex&#227;o da onda tamb&#233;m devolve parte da energia puls&#225;til para a aorta central, onde &#233; dissipada, limitando a transmiss&#227;o de energia puls&#225;til para a periferia e prevenindo danos &#224; microcircula&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Com o fen&#244;meno do envelhecimento vascular, observam-se aumento da velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP) e reflex&#227;o precoce da onda, atingindo o cora&#231;&#227;o em s&#237;stole. Isso gera um aumento da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica com consequente aumento da carga de trabalho card&#237;aco e tamb&#233;m uma redu&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o coron&#225;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O papel da rigidez arterial no desenvolvimento da DCV tem sido estudado com maior &#234;nfase nos &#250;ltimos anos, sendo a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o para o aprimoramento da estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular recomendada em diretrizes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do envelhecimento vascular</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o do envelhecimento vascular pode ser realizada por meio da verifica&#231;&#227;o da rigidez arterial.</p>
        <p>Diversos m&#233;todos invasivos e n&#227;o invasivos t&#234;m sido descritos com essa finalidade. As t&#233;cnicas mais amplamente utilizadas e validadas envolvem a avalia&#231;&#227;o da VOP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A medida da VOP &#233; aceita como padr&#227;o-ouro para avaliar a rigidez arterial. Outros m&#233;todos como a press&#227;o sist&#243;lica central (PSc) e o <italic>augmentation index</italic> (AI) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2</xref>) sofrem maior influ&#234;ncia de condi&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas, medicamentos, frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e idade, o que os torna menos fidedignos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Curva da press&#227;o arterial com descri&#231;&#227;o dos seus principais componentes. AI: Augmentation Index; PAM; Press&#227;o Arterial M&#233;dia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
							</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-109-03-0253-70091-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A VOP car&#243;tida-femoral &#233; a medida da velocidade ao longo do percurso da aorta e il&#237;aca, de grande relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica, uma vez que a aorta e seus primeiros ramos est&#227;o intimamente relacionados com o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) e tem boa correla&#231;&#227;o com a maior parte dos efeitos fisiopatog&#234;nicos da rigidez arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Dessa forma, a an&#225;lise da VOP car&#243;tida-femoral &#233; o padr&#227;o-ouro recomendado para avalia&#231;&#227;o da rigidez arterial, pois existem mais evid&#234;ncias epidemiol&#243;gicas do seu valor preditivo para eventos cardiovasculares al&#233;m de requerer pouco conhecimento t&#233;cnico para sua realiza&#231;&#227;o. Tamb&#233;m &#233; poss&#237;vel e validado o m&#233;todo de medida da VOP em um ponto, calculado por fun&#231;&#227;o de transfer&#234;ncia com calibra&#231;&#227;o PA sist&#243;lica/PA diast&#243;lica (PAS/PAD) por PA m&#233;dia/PAD (PAM/PAD), sendo mais vi&#225;vel e com melhor rela&#231;&#227;o custo-benef&#237;cio para a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Ainda, a VOP tem uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o com a idade e a PA, j&#225; que em ambas as situa&#231;&#245;es as propriedades el&#225;sticas da parede arterial s&#227;o reduzidas, com consequente aumento da rigidez do vaso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica da avalia&#231;&#227;o do envelhecimento vascular</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da elasticidade (complac&#234;ncia) arterial tem import&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica na medida em que tem correla&#231;&#227;o com a patog&#234;nese de um grande espectro de desfechos cardiovasculares e n&#227;o cardiovasculares, incluindo les&#245;es da subst&#226;ncia branca cerebral e diversos tipos de d&#233;ficits cognitivos, entre eles a doen&#231;a de Alzheimer, al&#233;m da disfun&#231;&#227;o renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O comprometimento cognitivo vascular (CGV), termo criado para compor um grupo heterog&#234;neo de dist&#250;rbios cognitivos que compartilham uma etiologia vascular e que inclui tanto dem&#234;ncia quanto comprometimento cognitivo sem dem&#234;ncia, vem ganhando destaque. Isso porque provavelmente sua preval&#234;ncia aumentar&#225; nas pr&#243;ximas d&#233;cadas, devido ao envelhecimento da popula&#231;&#227;o e aumento na expectativa de vida decorrente do melhor controle das DCV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Al&#233;m disso, o CGV aumenta a morbidade, a incapacidade e os custos de sa&#250;de da popula&#231;&#227;o idosa, e diminui a sua qualidade e expectativa de vida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em compara&#231;&#227;o com a doen&#231;a de Alzheimer, o CGV est&#225; associado a 50% de sobrevida m&#233;dia mais baixa (6-7 anos versus 3-4 anos), maiores custos de sa&#250;de e maiores taxas de comorbidade. Diante disso, a preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e a secund&#225;ria do CGV tamb&#233;m &#233; de grande import&#226;ncia. Em geral, elas s&#227;o abordadas atrav&#233;s da preven&#231;&#227;o do acidente vascular cerebral e da modifica&#231;&#227;o dos fatores de risco vascular, como HA, dislipidemia, DM, obesidade e sedentarismo. O maior entendimento e identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce do processo de envelhecimento vascular e dos biomarcadores relacionados pode contribuir para a melhora na preven&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O processo de envelhecimento biol&#243;gico est&#225; sempre associado com o de enrijecimento arterial. A HA antecipa e acelera esse processo. A rela&#231;&#227;o entre a rigidez arterial e a press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea &#233; mais complexa e &#233; assumida atualmente como sendo bidirecional, pois um aumento na press&#227;o de distens&#227;o do vaso acarreta um aumento na rigidez arterial, e, inversamente, um aumento em dureza pode levar a um aumento na PAS. A rela&#231;&#227;o entre a rigidez arterial e a PA pode ainda ser influenciada pelos medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, que, reduzindo a PA, podem beneficiar a sa&#250;de vascular. Assim, a interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados de rigidez arterial precisa levar em conta as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas da popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes estudados, incluindo idade, preval&#234;ncia de comorbidades, medicamentos, estilo de vida e fatores gen&#233;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m do efeito dominante do envelhecimento, outras condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas e fisiopatol&#243;gicas est&#227;o associadas com o aumento da rigidez arterial e mudan&#231;a no padr&#227;o de comportamento da onda de pulso refletida. Entre elas, condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas (baixo peso ao nascer, ciclo menstrual, menopausa), caracter&#237;sticas gen&#233;ticas (hist&#243;ria familiar de hipertens&#227;o, DM ou infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos), FRCV (sedentarismo, obesidade, tabagismo, HA, dislipidemia, intoler&#226;ncia a glicose, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, DM tipos 1 e 2), DCV e tamb&#233;m doen&#231;as n&#227;o cardiovasculares (insufici&#234;ncia renal nos seus diversos est&#225;gios, artrite reumatoide, vasculite sist&#234;mica, l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Especificamente falando de DM e HA, observa-se que a parede arterial sofre v&#225;rias mudan&#231;as biomec&#226;nicas que, do ponto de vista te&#243;rico, podem causar um aumento da rigidez arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a adiponectina tamb&#233;m tem sido associada &#224; rigidez da aorta em pacientes diab&#233;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Outro estudo comparando procedimentos diferentes da VOP para avaliar a rigidez arterial em indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos concluiu pela necessidade de maiores investiga&#231;&#245;es para esclarecer sua utilidade nesse perfil de pacientes e refor&#231;a a VOP como padr&#227;o-ouro tamb&#233;m nessa popula&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Ainda, uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica que avaliou a rela&#231;&#227;o da VOP com os diversos FRCV mostrou que 52% dos estudos encontraram uma associa&#231;&#227;o positiva entre VOP aumentada e DM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Diante do exposto, vale ressaltar que os dados de rigidez arterial fornecem evid&#234;ncias diretas de danos em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo, sendo a VOP considerada um biomarcador de dano vascular,17 o que se reveste de import&#226;ncia na determina&#231;&#227;o do risco global cardiovascular do paciente, tendo em vista que os escores de risco cl&#225;ssicos, especialmente no extrato de risco intermedi&#225;rio, t&#234;m um desempenho ruim para predizer desfechos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Os escores classicamente utilizados s&#227;o baseados em fatores de risco j&#225; bem estabelecidos e de f&#225;cil obten&#231;&#227;o; entretanto, da mesma forma que pelo menos um desses fatores de risco tradicionais est&#225; presente na maioria dos pacientes que sofreu um evento cardiovascular, igualmente podem ser encontrados em pacientes que n&#227;o apresentar&#227;o um evento precoce.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, as DCV s&#227;o precedidas por uma fase assintom&#225;tica. Assim, pacientes com danos subcl&#237;nicos t&#234;m um risco aumentado para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a sintom&#225;tica, refletindo uma poss&#237;vel suscetibilidade &#224; influ&#234;ncia de fatores de risco tradicionais. As diretrizes mais recentes de HA t&#234;m recomendado o uso de biomarcadores para melhorar a acur&#225;cia da estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular, especialmente no risco intermedi&#225;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Dentre os principais biomarcadores, destaca-se a VOP que, quando adicionada &#224; estratifica&#231;&#227;o cl&#225;ssica do risco cardiovascular, pode reclassificar indiv&#237;duos para estratos mais altos e implicar em mudan&#231;a na conduta com vistas &#224; maior prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Assim, a an&#225;lise do envelhecimento vascular no cen&#225;rio da estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, pode aprimorar a avalia&#231;&#227;o e defini&#231;&#227;o de conduta nesses pacientes e pode representar uma estrat&#233;gia &#250;til tanto na redu&#231;&#227;o de risco absoluto quanto do risco residual, pois possibilita a identifica&#231;&#227;o do dano precoce e o tratamento adequado j&#225; nessa fase do <italic>continuum</italic> cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela Funda&#231;&#227;o de Apoio &#224; Pesquisa de Goi&#225;s (FAPEG).</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte do Programa de Inicia&#231;&#227;o Cient&#237;fica de Luana de Rezende Mikael pela Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
