<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="editorial" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.6" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">vTSR3hrYSRBFGMhRmbJsm8M</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2017000600488</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20170084</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>The Concept of Clinical Economics and its Relation with Effectiveness</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Porzsolt</surname>
            <given-names>Franz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Luis C. L.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Ulm</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cirurgia Geral e Visceral</institution>
        <country country="DE">Alemanha</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pesquisa em Cuidados de Sa&#250;de - Departamento de Cirurgia Geral e Visceral - Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Ulm, Alemanha</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universit&#228;t Ulm</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Ulm</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Economia Cl&#237;nica</institution>
        <country country="DE">Alemanha</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Economia Cl&#237;nica, Ulm - Alemanha</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universit&#228;t Ulm</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Escola de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica da Bahia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica da Bahia, Salvador, BA - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#227;o Rafael</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Rafael, Salvador, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Luis C. L. Correia,</bold> Av. Princesa Leopoldina 19/402. Postal Code 40150-080, Gra&#231;a, Salvador, BA - Brazil. E-mail: <email>lccorreia@cardiol.br</email>, <email>lccorreia@terra.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>108</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>488</fpage>
      <lpage>490</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Clinical Trials as Topic / analysis</kwd>
        <kwd>Cost-Benefit Analysis</kwd>
        <kwd>Treatment Outcome</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Clinical Economics should be an essential component of medical education and practice. In defining Clinical Economics, we should make clear that economical thinking is not primarily a monetary issue.</p>
    <p>A classical economic analysis considers four aspects: first, the costs, i.e. what somebody has to give away; second, the consequences, i.e. what somebody gets back; third, the comparison of the relation of both costs and consequences of alternative ways of actions; fourth, the perspective of the person who makes the economic analysis.</p>
    <p>To provide an example we start with the perspectives. From a patient&#8217;s perspective, the alternative ways of action may be either immediate surgery or watchful waiting if there is a realistic chance of spontaneous regression. The costs for the patients will be an increased risk of complications in case of watchful waiting. The consequence (advantage for the patients) in this situation is the chance to avoid surgery. The perspective of the hospital manager will be different. He will also consider costs and consequences, but of different types, such as monetary costs and monetary consequences. Doctors and managers of a hospital have to do different jobs and to make different decisions. In some places the same person is responsible for both decisions. This is like somebody who is playing chess against himself.</p>
    <p>Economic decisions are based on values, and values are different in different people. Clinical Economics is focusing on the from the perspectives of patients and doctors, but not from the perspectives of managers. It is obvious that no hospital will survive and no healthcare system will be affordable unless the perspectives of economists, managers and politicians will be considered. The difficult consensus process among people with different perspectives and values is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
    <p>
      <fig id="f1">
        <label>Figure 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>The complete economic analysis includes costs and consequences of different options. In medicine there are two important parties who&#8217;s perspectives have to be considered and combined: frst, the individual perspectives of the patients and their doctors and second, the natural perspectives of the patient without or with surgical operation.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-06-0488-70084-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Before thinking monetarily, physicians and patients need to figure out how much they have to give away (the costs) and what they get back (the consequences or benefit). Clinical investment is the &#8220;cost&#8221; a patient pays for accepting a treatment, such as pain, side effects, time spent, possible adverse events, or psychological distress. The &#8220;profit&#8221; is the value the patient gets back from his or her investment. Usually physicians do not consider this trade off, disregarding how much is the investment and overestimating the returned value (effect size). In addition, price and profit vary according to patient preferences. The value a pianist takes from a surgical repair of his or her hand is much higher than the value a lawyer would take back from the same surgery, because the proper function of the hand is more important to the first.</p>
    <p>Clinical Economics is about efficiency, which can be defined as a cost-effective trade-off. A key moment in the history of Clinical Economics was the question of my teacher at the Ontario Cancer Institute in Toronto/Ontario about the German word for &#8216;efficiency&#8217;. He was amused when I mentioned the word &#8220;Effizienz&#8221; in my response to him. He concluded the word &#8216;efficiency&#8217; does obviously not exist in the German language. This terrible conclusion was a real strong motivation to demonstrate what efficiency means from a German perspective. Our group started to clarify the difference of efficacy and effectiveness and its relation to efficiency that was by far not as clear 20 years ago as it is today.</p>
    <sec>
      <title>Efficacy versus Effectiveness</title>
      <p>We underlined that efficacy and effectiveness describe two different types of information: efficacy is the demonstration that a new principle can theoretically work, which comes from studies under ideal controlled conditions; effectiveness is how the concept proven by efficacy studies works under real world conditions (RWC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> For demonstration of efficacy, one should select the optimal scenario for the proof of principle. It requires an experimental study design, with random allocation of treatments, to eliminate confounding bias and proper assessment of causality, it means the trial is explanatory.</p>
      <p>The demonstration of effectiveness is pragmatic and takes place in the scenario in which the new principle will be used (RWC). The design is observational and treatment allocation is under the discretion and preferences of physician and patient. It allows assessment of the two main determinants of effectiveness: practical issues regarding adequate applicability of treatment and the impact of individualized choices. The interaction of these two forces determines whether the effectiveness of a treatment will be smaller than its proven efficacy (loss of beneficial effect in the real world) or whether the treatment will be even more effective than efficacious. The first situation should be a concern when logistic issues impair the treatment to be ideally applied (a not well trained doctor, a patient not educated enough to properly take an anticoagulant, a system not able to provide adequate door-to-balloon time in primary angioplasty for acute myocardial infarction), what tends to happen when the treatment is somewhat complex. The second situation takes place when physicians and patients provide a better solution than a simple randomization can do allocation.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The actual effectiveness study</title>
      <p>A pragmatic controlled trial (PCT), but not a randomized control trial (RCT), should be used for demonstration of effectiveness as a RCT can never reflect RWC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> To understand the contribution of PCTs to the existing RCTs we list the differences of these two trials:</p>
      <p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Instead of randomization, the patients are stratified in a PCT to different risk and treatment groups.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>The factors that characterize the risk groups are selected before start of the trial for each of the study endpoints.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>A PCT can investigate multiple primary endpoints, e.g. mortality, specific aspects of quality of life, and cost of care, while a RCT can investigate only a single primary endpoint, but several secondary endpoints. This secondary endpoint cannot confirm or reject a hypothesis, but may generate new hypotheses.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>The individual risks of the included patients are known in a PCT, but not in a RCT. The efficacy observed in a RCT reflects the average efficacy only related to the mix of risks in the investigated group. In a PCT, the effectiveness is described separately for each endpoint, for each risk group and for each treatment group.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>A PCT uses inclusion, but no exclusion criteria, because a patient who meets the inclusion criteria cannot be excluded from care which may sometimes be &#8216;wait and see&#8217; under RWC.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>A PCT is a descriptive study in contrast to a RCT which is an explanatory study. Power calculation is not possible in a descriptive study as neither sample size, nor effect size, nor alpha-error and beta-error are known prospectively.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>The approval by an institutional review board is necessary in a PCT for systematic collection and for publication of patient data.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>An intent-to-treat analysis is not necessary in a PCT, as the patients cannot change the allocation to the risk group even if the treatment strategy is changed in the ongoing study.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>The calculation of the statistical significance is not necessary for results that are clinically irrelevant. Statistical confirmation of a clinically irrelevant result is a waste of statistical power.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </p>
      <p>The bottom-line message is that RWC are essential for making reliable clinical decisions. The results obtained by RCTs under ideal world conditions are essential to justify the use of a new intervention under RWC. In addition, we need the effectiveness and the efficiency under RWC to justify a new intervention in recommendations and clinical guidelines.</p>
      <p>We are not expecting that the described tools developed with several colleagues in the last decade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> offer optimal solutions, but we hope that the offered tools and strategies will trigger a discussion on the further development of this growing discipline.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Blindness to effectiveness and overuse</title>
      <p>The problem of <italic>overuse</italic> was recently addressed in <italic>The Lancet</italic> as one of the important challenges of the next decade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><italic>Overuse</italic> takes place when useless tests or treatments are utilized, leading to <italic>overdiagnosis</italic> or <italic>overtreatment. Overuse</italic> is typically related to lack of efficacy. We believe the concept of <italic>overuse</italic> should be expanded beyond efficacy. An efficacious treatment not properly tested for effectiveness is also at risk to be an <italic>overtreatment</italic>. However, physicians are normally blind to effectiveness, missing the need of test for it. Especially in situations in which applicability of the treatment is complex, effectiveness studies should be mandatory to avoid <italic>overuse</italic>. Among other important steps in the development of evidence-based Medicine, the addition of PCTs to the existing RCTs may be an important development.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <title>References</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <mixed-citation>1 Roland M, Torgersen DJ. Understanding controlled trials. What are pragmatic trials? BMJ. 1998;316(7127):285.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Roland</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Torgersen</surname>
              <given-names>DJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Understanding controlled trials. What are pragmatic trials?</article-title>
          <source>BMJ</source>
          <year>1998</year>
          <volume>316</volume>
          <issue>7127</issue>
          <fpage>285</fpage>
          <lpage>285</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B2">
        <label>2</label>
        <mixed-citation>2 Haynes B. Can it work? Does it work? Is it worth it? The testing of healthcare interventions is evolving. BMJ. 1999;319(7211):652-3.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Haynes</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Can it work Does it work? Is it worth it? The testing of healthcare interventions is evolving</article-title>
          <source>BMJ</source>
          <year>1999</year>
          <volume>319</volume>
          <issue>7211</issue>
          <fpage>652</fpage>
          <lpage>653</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B3">
        <label>3</label>
        <mixed-citation>3 Porzsolt F, Rocha NG, Toledo-Arruda AC, Thomaz TG, Moraes C, Bessa-Guerra TR, et al. Efficacy and effectiveness trials have different goals, use different tools, and generate different messages. Pragmat Obs Res. 2015;6:47-54.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Porzsolt</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rocha</surname>
              <given-names>NG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Toledo-Arruda</surname>
              <given-names>AC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Thomaz</surname>
              <given-names>TG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Moraes</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bessa-Guerra</surname>
              <given-names>TR</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Efficacy and effectiveness trials have different goals, use different tools, and generate different messages</article-title>
          <source>Pragmat Obs Res</source>
          <year>2015</year>
          <volume>6</volume>
          <fpage>47</fpage>
          <lpage>54</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B4">
        <label>4</label>
        <mixed-citation>4 Porzsolt F, Eisemann M, Habs M. Complementary alternative medicine and traditional scientific medicine should use identical rules to complete clinical trials. Eur J Integr Med. 2010;2(1):3-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Porzsolt</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Eisemann</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Habs</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Complementary alternative medicine and traditional scientific medicine should use identical rules to complete clinical trials</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Integr Med</source>
          <year>2010</year>
          <volume>2</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>3</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B5">
        <label>5</label>
        <mixed-citation>5 Porzsolt F, Eisemann M, Habs M, Wyer P. Form Follows Function: Pragmatic Controlled Trials (PCTs) have to answer different questions and require different designs than Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs). Z Gesundh Wiss. 2013;21(3):307-13.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Porzsolt</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Eisemann</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Habs</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wyer</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Form Follows Function: Pragmatic Controlled Trials (PCTs) have to answer different questions and require different designs than Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs)</article-title>
          <source>Z Gesundh Wiss</source>
          <year>2013</year>
          <volume>21</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>307</fpage>
          <lpage>313</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B6">
        <label>6</label>
        <mixed-citation>6  Berwick DM. Avoiding overuse-the next quality frontier. Lancet. 2017 Jan 6. [Epub ahead of print].</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Berwick</surname>
              <given-names>DM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Avoiding overuse-the next quality frontier</article-title>
          <source>Lancet</source>
          <day>06</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2017</year>
          <comment>Epub ahead of print</comment>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B7">
        <label>7</label>
        <mixed-citation>7 Brownlee S, Chalkidou K, Doust J, Elshaug AG, Glasziou P, Heath I, et al. Evidence for overuse of medical services around the world. Lancet. 2017 Jan 6. [Epub ahead of print].</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Brownlee</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chalkidou</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Doust</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Elshaug</surname>
              <given-names>AG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Glasziou</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Heath</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Evidence for overuse of medical services around the world</article-title>
          <source>Lancet</source>
          <day>06</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2017</year>
          <comment>Epub ahead of print</comment>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>O Conceito de Economia Cl&#237;nica e sua Rela&#231;&#227;o com Efetividade</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Porzsolt</surname>
            <given-names>Franz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Luis C. L.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">4</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Pesquisa em Cuidados de Sa&#250;de - Departamento de Cirurgia Geral e Visceral - Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Ulm, Alemanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Economia Cl&#237;nica, Ulm - Alemanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica da Bahia - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Rafael, Salvador, BA - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Luis C. L. Correia,</bold> Av. Princesa Leopoldina 19/402. CEP 40150-080, Gra&#231;a, Salvador, BA - Brasil<bold>.</bold> E-mail: <email>lccorreia@cardiol.br</email>, <email>lccorreia@terra.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Ensaios Cl&#237;nicos como Assunto / an&#225;lise</kwd>
        <kwd>An&#225;lise de Custo Benef&#237;cio</kwd>
        <kwd>Resultado do Tratamento</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>A Economia Cl&#237;nica deve ser um componente essencial da educa&#231;&#227;o e da pr&#225;tica m&#233;dicas. Ao se definir Economia Cl&#237;nica, &#233; importante esclarecer que o pensamento econ&#244;mico n&#227;o &#233; primariamente uma quest&#227;o monet&#225;ria.</p>
      <p>Uma an&#225;lise econ&#244;mica cl&#225;ssica considera quatro aspectos: primeiro, os custos, aquilo que algu&#233;m tem que doar; segundo, as consequ&#234;ncias, aquilo que algu&#233;m recebe; terceiro, a compara&#231;&#227;o da rela&#231;&#227;o dos custos e consequ&#234;ncias de caminhos alternativos de a&#231;&#245;es; quarto, a perspectiva de quem faz a an&#225;lise econ&#244;mica.</p>
      <p>A t&#237;tulo de exemplo, comecemos com as perspectivas. Da perspectiva do paciente, as alternativas podem ser uma cirurgia imediata ou uma conduta expectante, caso haja uma chance realista de regress&#227;o espont&#226;nea. Os custos para o paciente ser&#227;o um aumento do risco de complica&#231;&#245;es no caso da conduta expectante. A consequ&#234;ncia (vantagem para o paciente) nessa situa&#231;&#227;o &#233; a chance de se evitar a cirurgia. A perspectiva do administrador hospitalar &#233; diferente. Esse profissional tamb&#233;m considerar&#225; custos e consequ&#234;ncias, mas de tipos diferentes, como os custos monet&#225;rios e as consequ&#234;ncias monet&#225;rias. Os m&#233;dicos e os administradores de um hospital desempenham tarefas diferentes e tomam decis&#245;es diferentes. Em alguns lugares, uma mesma pessoa &#233; respons&#225;vel pelas duas decis&#245;es, como se algu&#233;m jogasse xadrez consigo mesmo.</p>
      <p>As decis&#245;es econ&#244;micas s&#227;o baseadas em valores, que diferem em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es. A Economia Cl&#237;nica foca na efici&#234;ncia a partir das perspectivas dos pacientes e dos m&#233;dicos, mas n&#227;o a partir das perspectivas dos administradores. &#201; claro que nenhum hospital sobreviver&#225; e nenhum sistema de sa&#250;de ser&#225; acess&#237;vel a menos que se considerem as perspectivas de economistas, administradores e pol&#237;ticos. O dif&#237;cil processo de consenso entre indiv&#237;duos com diferentes perspectivas e valores &#233; mostrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>A an&#225;lise econ&#244;mica completa inclui custos e consequ&#234;ncias de diferentes op&#231;&#245;es. Na medicina, h&#225; duas partes importantes cujas perspectivas t&#234;m que ser consideradas e combinadas: primeiro, a perspectiva individual dos pacientes e seus m&#233;dicos; e segundo, as perspectivas naturais do paciente com e sem cirurgia.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-06-0488-70084-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Antes de pensar monetariamente, m&#233;dicos e pacientes precisam descobrir quanto t&#234;m para doar (os custos) e o que recebem (as consequ&#234;ncias ou os benef&#237;cios). O investimento cl&#237;nico &#233; o &#8216;custo&#8217; que um paciente paga ao aceitar um tratamento, como dor, efeitos colaterais, tempo gasto, poss&#237;veis eventos adversos, ou desconforto psicol&#243;gico. O &#8216;lucro&#8217; &#233; o valor que um paciente recebe pelo seu investimento. Em geral os m&#233;dicos n&#227;o consideram essa troca, ignorando quanto &#233; investido e superestimando o valor retornado (tamanho do efeito). Al&#233;m disso, pre&#231;o e lucro variam conforme as prefer&#234;ncias do paciente. O valor que um pianista recebe com a repara&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica de sua m&#227;o &#233; muito maior do que o de um advogado na mesma situa&#231;&#227;o, pois o funcionamento adequado da m&#227;o &#233; mais importante para o primeiro.</p>
      <p>A Economia Cl&#237;nica trata da efici&#234;ncia, que pode ser definida como uma troca custo-efetiva. Um momento fundamental na hist&#243;ria da Economia Cl&#237;nica foi quando o meu professor no Instituto de C&#226;ncer de Ont&#225;rio, em Toronto/Ont&#225;rio, perguntou sobre a palavra alem&#227; para &#8216;efici&#234;ncia&#8217;. Ele achou divertido quando respondi &#8216;Effizienz&#8217;, e concluiu que a palavra &#8216;efici&#234;ncia&#8217; obviamente n&#227;o existe na l&#237;ngua alem&#227;. Essa terr&#237;vel conclus&#227;o foi uma motiva&#231;&#227;o verdadeira e forte para se demonstrar o significado de &#8216;efici&#234;ncia&#8217; a partir da perspectiva alem&#227;. Nosso grupo come&#231;ou a entender a diferen&#231;a entre efic&#225;cia e efetividade e sua rela&#231;&#227;o com efici&#234;ncia, o que n&#227;o era t&#227;o claro h&#225; 20 anos como &#233; hoje.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Efic&#225;cia versus efetividade</title>
        <p>Salientamos que efic&#225;cia e efetividade descrevem dois diferentes tipos de informa&#231;&#227;o: efic&#225;cia &#233; a demonstra&#231;&#227;o de que um novo princ&#237;pio pode funcionar teoricamente, a partir de estudos sob condi&#231;&#245;es ideais controladas; efetividade &#233; como um conceito provado por estudos de efic&#225;cia funciona nas condi&#231;&#245;es de mundo real.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Para a demonstra&#231;&#227;o de efic&#225;cia, deve-se selecionar o cen&#225;rio ideal para a prova do princ&#237;pio. Requer um <italic>design</italic> de estudo experimental, com aloca&#231;&#227;o aleat&#243;ria de tratamentos, para eliminar vi&#233;s de confus&#227;o e avalia&#231;&#227;o adequada de causalidade, indicando ser o ensaio explanat&#243;rio.</p>
        <p>A demonstra&#231;&#227;o de efetividade &#233; pragm&#225;tica e ocorre no cen&#225;rio em que o novo princ&#237;pio ser&#225; usado (mundo real). O <italic>design</italic> &#233; observacional e a aloca&#231;&#227;o de tratamento ocorre a crit&#233;rio do m&#233;dico e do paciente e tamb&#233;m de acordo com suas prefer&#234;ncias. Permite avaliar os dois principais determinantes de efetividade: as quest&#245;es pr&#225;ticas concernentes &#224; adequada aplicabilidade do tratamento e o impacto das escolhas individualizadas. A intera&#231;&#227;o dessas duas for&#231;as determina se a efetividade de um tratamento ser&#225; menor do que a sua comprovada efic&#225;cia (perda do efeito ben&#233;fico no mundo real) ou se o tratamento ser&#225; ainda mais efetivo do que eficaz. A primeira situa&#231;&#227;o deve ser uma preocupa&#231;&#227;o quando quest&#245;es log&#237;sticas impedem que o tratamento seja aplicado de maneira ideal (m&#233;dico n&#227;o bem treinado, paciente n&#227;o suficientemente educado para usar anticoagulantes de maneira adequada, sistema incapaz de fornecer tempo porta-bal&#227;o adequado em angioplastia prim&#225;ria para infarto do mioc&#225;rdio agudo), o que tende a ocorrer quando o tratamento &#233; mais complexo. A segunda situa&#231;&#227;o ocorre quando se sup&#245;e que a capacidade de escolha de m&#233;dicos e pacientes decide melhor do que a simples aloca&#231;&#227;o rand&#244;mica. &#201; t&#237;pica de situa&#231;&#245;es em que se deve considerar a personaliza&#231;&#227;o do risco e do efeito ben&#233;fico em uma quest&#227;o individualizada.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>O Verdadeiro estudo de efetividade</title>
        <p>Deve-se usar um ensaio pragm&#225;tico controlado (EPC), e n&#227;o um ensaio randomizado controlado (ERC), para demonstrar efetividade, pois um ERC n&#227;o pode refletir as condi&#231;&#245;es de mundo real.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Para que se entenda a contribui&#231;&#227;o do EPC para o existente ERC, listamos abaixo as diferen&#231;as entre os dois:</p>
        <p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Em um EPC, em vez de randomizados, os pacientes s&#227;o estratificados em diferentes grupos de risco e tratamento.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Os fatores que caracterizam os grupos de risco s&#227;o selecionados antes do in&#237;cio do ensaio para cada desfecho do estudo.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Um EPC pode investigar m&#250;ltiplos desfechos prim&#225;rios, como mortalidade, aspectos espec&#237;ficos de qualidade de vida, e custo do cuidado, enquanto um ERC pode investigar apenas um &#250;nico desfecho prim&#225;rio, mas v&#225;rios desfechos secund&#225;rios. Esse desfecho secund&#225;rio n&#227;o pode confirmar nem rejeitar a hip&#243;tese, mas pode gerar novas hip&#243;teses.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Em um EPC, os riscos individuais dos pacientes inclu&#237;dos s&#227;o conhecidos, mas n&#227;o em um ERC. A efic&#225;cia observada em um ERC reflete a efic&#225;cia m&#233;dia relacionada &#224; combina&#231;&#227;o dos riscos no grupo investigado. Em um EPC, a efetividade &#233; descrita separadamente para cada desfecho, cada grupo de risco e cada grupo de tratamento.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Um EPC usa crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o, mas n&#227;o de exclus&#227;o, pois um paciente que atenda aos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o n&#227;o pode ser exclu&#237;do dos cuidados, que, em condi&#231;&#245;es do mundo real, &#224;s vezes podem ser &#8216;aguardar e observar&#8217;.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Um EPC &#233; um estudo descritivo, enquanto um ERC &#233; um estudo explanat&#243;rio. N&#227;o se pode calcular o poder de um estudo descritivo, e nem conhecer prospectivamente o tamanho da amostra, o tamanho do efeito e os erros alfa e beta.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Um EPC requer aprova&#231;&#227;o por um comit&#234; de revis&#227;o institucional para a coleta sistem&#225;tica e a publica&#231;&#227;o dos dados do paciente.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Um EPC n&#227;o requer uma an&#225;lise de inten&#231;&#227;o de tratar, pois os pacientes n&#227;o podem mudar a aloca&#231;&#227;o para o grupo de risco mesmo se a estrat&#233;gia de tratamento for alterada durante o andamento do estudo.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O c&#225;lculo da signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica n&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;rio para resultados clinicamente irrelevantes. A confirma&#231;&#227;o estat&#237;stica de um resultado clinicamente irrelevante &#233; um desperd&#237;cio de poder estat&#237;stico.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </p>
        <p>A mensagem de base &#233; que h&#225; que se considerar a import&#226;ncia das condi&#231;&#245;es de mundo real para se tomar decis&#245;es cl&#237;nicas confi&#225;veis. Os resultados obtidos atrav&#233;s de um ERC em condi&#231;&#245;es de mundo ideal s&#227;o essenciais para justificar o uso de uma nova interven&#231;&#227;o em condi&#231;&#245;es de mundo real. Al&#233;m disso, necessitamos da efetividade e da efici&#234;ncia em condi&#231;&#245;es de mundo real para justificar uma nova interven&#231;&#227;o em recomenda&#231;&#245;es e diretrizes cl&#237;nicas.</p>
        <p>N&#227;o esperamos que as ferramentas descritas desenvolvidas com v&#225;rios colegas na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> forne&#231;am solu&#231;&#245;es &#243;timas, mas que as ferramentas e as estrat&#233;gias oferecidas desencadeiem uma discuss&#227;o sobre o desenvolvimento dessa disciplina crescente.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cegueira para efetividade e uso excessivo</title>
        <p>O problema do &#8216;<italic>uso excessivo&#8217;</italic> foi recentemente abordado no <italic>The Lancet</italic> como um dos importantes desafios da pr&#243;xima d&#233;cada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Ocorre <italic>uso excessivo</italic> quando testes ou tratamentos in&#250;teis s&#227;o aplicados, levando a <italic>sobrediagn&#243;stico</italic> ou <italic>sobretratamento</italic>. O <italic>uso excessivo</italic> acha-se tipicamente relacionado &#224; falta de efic&#225;cia. Acreditamos que o conceito de <italic>uso excessivo</italic> deva ser expandido para al&#233;m da efic&#225;cia. Um tratamento eficaz n&#227;o adequadamente testado quanto a efetividade &#233; tamb&#233;m um risco para o <italic>sobretratamento</italic>. No entanto, os m&#233;dicos s&#227;o normalmente cegos para a efetividade, e n&#227;o realizam testes para ela. Em especial, quando a aplica&#231;&#227;o do tratamento &#233; complexa, estudos de efetividade devem ser mandat&#243;rios para que se evite o <italic>uso excessivo</italic>. No contexto do desenvolvimento da Medicina Baseada em Evid&#234;ncia, a adi&#231;&#227;o de EPCs aos existentes ERCs pode ser um passo importante.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
