<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.5" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">NyDZmzcpFVgxq4VKZkybKcq</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2017000500443</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20170042</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2017005006102</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
          <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
            <subject>Ischemia/Myocardial Infarction</subject>
          </subj-group>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Effect of Lactation on myocardial vulnerability to ischemic insult in rats</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Askari</surname>
            <given-names>Sahar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Imani</surname>
            <given-names>Alireza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sadeghipour</surname>
            <given-names>Hamidreza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faghihi</surname>
            <given-names>Mahdieh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Edalatyzadeh</surname>
            <given-names>Zohreh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Choopani</surname>
            <given-names>Samira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Karimi</surname>
            <given-names>Nasser</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fatima</surname>
            <given-names>Sulail</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Tehran University of Medical Sciences</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Tehran University of Medical Sciences</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Iran University of Medical Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Rassoul Akram Hospital</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Rassoul Akram Hospital - Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Iran University of Medical Sciences</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Tehran University of Medical Sciences</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Tehran University of Medical Sciences - International Campus, Tehran, Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Tehran University of Medical Sciences</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Alireza Imani,</bold> Physiology Department - School of Medicine -Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, I.R.Iran. E-mail: <email>aimani@tums.ac.ir</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and Analysis and interpretation of the data: Askari S, Imani A, Sadeghipour H, Faghihi M, Edalatyzadeh Z, Choopani S, Karimi N, Fatima S; Acquisition of data: Askari S, Edalatyzadeh Z, Choopani S,; Statistical analysis: Askari S, Karimi N; Obtaining financing: Imani A; Writing of the manuscript: Askari S, Karimi N, Fatima S; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual contente: Fatima S.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>20</day>
        <month>4</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>108</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>443</fpage>
      <lpage>451</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of mortality and long-term disability worldwide. Various studies have suggested a protective effect of lactation in reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>This study was designed to assess the effects of pregnancy and lactation on the vulnerability of the myocardium to an ischemic insult.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Eighteen female rats were randomly divided into three groups: ischemia-reperfusion (IR), in which the hearts of virgin rats underwent IR (n = 6); lactating, in which the rats nursed their pups for 3 weeks and the maternal hearts were then submitted to IR (n = 6); and non-lactating, in which the pups were separated after birth and the maternal hearts were submitted to IR (n = 6). Outcome measures included heart rate (HR), left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP), rate pressure product (RPP), ratio of the infarct size to the area at risk (IS/AAR %), and ventricular arrhythmias - premature ventricular contraction (PVC) and ventricular tachycardia (VT).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>The IS/AAR was markedly decreased in the lactating group when compared with the non-lactating group (13.2 &#177; 2.5 <italic>versus</italic> 39.7 &#177; 3.5, p &lt; 0.001) and the IR group (13.2 &#177; 2.5 <italic>versus</italic> 34.0 &#177; 4.7, p &lt; 0.05). The evaluation of IR-induced ventricular arrhythmias indicated that the number of compound PVCs during ischemia, and the number and duration of VTs during ischemia and in the first 5 minutes of reperfusion in the non-lactating group were significantly (p &lt; 0.05) higher than those in the lactating and IR groups.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Lactation induced early-onset cardioprotective effects, while rats that were not allowed to nurse their pups were more susceptible to myocardial IR injury.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Lactation</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Ischemia</kwd>
        <kwd>Parturitium</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Coronary artery diseases are the leading cause of mortality worldwide, with about 38% of the deaths attributed to these diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> In addition to hypertension and diabetes, multiple lifestyle factors, including a high-cholesterol diet, smoking, alcohol consumption, and stress, can increase the risk of myocardial infarction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Accumulating epidemiological evidence suggests that a woman's decision to breast-feed her children has a significant impact on the maternal risk of developing cardiovascular diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Although national policies to promote breastfeeding have been profoundly implemented in many developed countries, the global rate of exclusive breastfeeding is below 40%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Lactation confers significant benefits to the maternal cardiovascular health.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Lactogenesis has a favorable effect on glucose and lipid metabolism. It increases insulin sensitivity and glucose effectiveness while reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Nursing promotes high-density lipoprotein production and reduces triglyceride and low-density lipoprotein levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Consequently, lactation mobilizes the fat stores generated during pregnancy, thereby reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases and myocardial infarction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Furthermore, lactation reduces maternal blood pressure and heart rate (HR), while improving cardiac output.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Hanwell and Peaker<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> observed that the augmented cardiac output is directly proportional to the intensity of suckling in rats.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Moreover, certain hormones released during lactation, such as oxytocin, prolactin, glucocorticoids, gherlin and growth hormone, can precondition the myocardium against cardiac injury.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Centrally released endogenous oxytocin and exogenous infusion of oxytocin have been shown to protect heart against a hypoxic insult via activation of brain receptors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Furthermore, oxytocin induces cardioprotection through a pathway involving mitochondrial ATP-dependent potassium channels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Although, the effect of lactogenic hormones on cardiovascular health has been studied to some extent, the experimental evidence suggesting the cardioprotective role of lactation against ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury is scarce. Thus, the current was designed to test the hypothesis that lactation reduces the myocardial vulnerability to IR injury.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Animals</title>
        <p>Eighteen female Sprague-Dawley rats (180-230 g) were housed in an air-conditioned colony room at 21-23&#176;C, with a 12-hour light-dark cycle. During the experimental period, the animals had free access to food and water. The experimental protocols followed in this study conformed to the Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by National Institutes of Health (NIH Publication N&#176;. 85-23, revised 1996) and were further approved by the institutional ethical committee at Tehran University of Medical Sciences (Tehran, Iran).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Preparation of isolated hearts</title>
        <p>The animals were anesthetized using intraperitoneal sodium thiopental (60 mg/kg). Heparin (500 IU/kg) was also injected to prevent blood coagulation. Once the animals were anesthetized, a transabdominal incision was made, and their hearts were exposed. Following cannulation of the aorta, the heart was excised and mounted on a Langendorff apparatus. The hearts were perfused retrogradely with Krebs-Henseleit bicarbonate buffer containing (in mmol/L): NaHCO<sub>3</sub> 25; KCl 4.7; NaCl 118.5; MgSO<sub>4</sub> 1.2; KH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> 1.2; glucose 11; CaCl<sub>2</sub> 2.5, gassed with 95% O<sub>2</sub> and 5% CO<sub>2</sub> (pH 7.35-7.45 at 37 C&#176;). A saline-filled latex balloon was introduced into the left ventricle and inflated to yield a preload of 8-10 mmHg. The balloon was connected to a pressure transducer (Harvard, March-Hugsteten, Germany) which allowed a real time measurement of the pressures from the ventricle. Electrocardiographic recording was performed by fixation of thin electrodes on the ventricular apex and right atrium. A surgical needle (6-0 silk suture) was passed under the origin of the left anterior descending coronary artery, and the ends of the suture were passed through two plastic pipette tips to form a snare. Regional ischemia was induced by tightening the snare (30 min), and reperfusion was performed by releasing the ends of the suture (60 min). The hearts were allowed to beat spontaneously throughout the experiments.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sample size estimation</title>
        <p>The sample size was estimated using the Resource Equation Method.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
        <p>E = N - T</p>
        <p>E = degrees of freedom (analysis of variance [ANOVA]; between 10 and 20)</p>
        <p>N = total number of animals</p>
        <p>T = number of treatment groups</p>
        <p>"N" was obtained from a previously published study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> and was adjusted accordingly to attain a valid "E".</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Experimental groups</title>
        <p>The effects of pregnancy and lactation on myocardial IR injury were studied in 18 rats randomly divided into three groups:</p>
        <p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>IR group (IR; n = 6): isolated hearts of virgin rats in the diestrus period underwent 30 min of regional ischemia followed by 60 min of reperfusion.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Lactating group (n = 6): the rats nursed their pups for 3 weeks and, after that, the maternal hearts underwent 30 min of regional ischemia followed by 60 min of reperfusion.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Non-lactating group (n = 6): after parturition, the rats were separated from their pups, and 3 weeks later, the maternal hearts underwent 30 min of regional ischemia followed by 60 min of reperfusion.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Hemodynamic functions</title>
        <p>The left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP) and the HR were continuously monitored and recorded using BioLab data acquisition system. The rate pressure product (RPP) was calculated by multiplying LVDP by the HR.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Assessment of area at risk and infarct size</title>
        <p>At the end of reperfusion, the left coronary artery was reoccluded and Evans blue (0.3-0.5 ml) dye was infused via aorta to differentiate the ischemic zone (area at risk; AAR) from the non-ischemic zone. The hearts were frozen at - 20&#176;C and sliced into 2.0 mm traverse sections (using a stainless steel slicer matrix with 2.0 mm coronal section slice intervals) from apex to the base. The slices were incubated in 1% triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC in 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, 37 &#186;C) for 20 min followed by tissue fixation (10% phosphate-buffered formalin) for 24 h. TTC reacts with the viable tissue, producing a red formazan derivative which is distinct from the white necrotic area. Sections were scanned to determine non-ischemic area, AAR (ischemic area) and the infarct size (IS) by calculating the pixels occupied by each area using the Adobe PhotoShop software (Adobe Systems Seattle, WA). The AAR was expressed as a percentage of left ventricular volume for each heart. The IS was determined by using computer-aided planimetry and expressed as a percentage of the AAR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Assessment of ventricular arrhythmias</title>
        <p>Ischemia-induced ventricular arrhythmias were assessed during the occlusion period and were determined in accordance with the Lambeth Conventions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Ventricular tachycardia (VT) and premature ventricular contraction (PVC) including compound PVCs (such as bigeminy, couplet and salvos) were counted during ischemic period and the first 5 minutes of the reperfusion period.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>All data were statistically analyzed using GraphPad InStat, version 3.06 (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA). The data followed Gaussian distribution (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test). All results are expressed as mean &#177; standard error of the mean (SEM). Outcome measures between the groups were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by the Bonferroni <italic>post hoc</italic> test. For intragroup comparisons, repeated measures ANOVA followed by the Bonferroni <italic>post hoc</italic> test (for selected columns) was performed. Statistical significance was defined as p &lt; 0.05.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Hemodynamic Parameters</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> demonstrates the changes in HR, LVDP, and RPP in the IR, lactating and non-lactating groups during different periods of the experiment.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Hemodynamic Parameters</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="2">Groups</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="3">Baseline</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="3">Ischemia</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="3">Reperfusion</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HR (Beats/min)</td>
                <td align="center">LVDP (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">RPP (mmHg x bpm)</td>
                <td align="center">HR (Beats/min)</td>
                <td align="center">LVDP (%Baseline)</td>
                <td align="center">RPP (%Baseline)</td>
                <td align="center">HR (Beats/min)</td>
                <td align="center">LVDP (%Baseline)</td>
                <td align="center">RPP (%Baseline)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IR</td>
                <td align="center">146.0 &#177; 4.9</td>
                <td align="center">58.4 &#177; 11.9</td>
                <td align="center">8519.6 &#177; 1805.2</td>
                <td align="center">134.6 &#177; 3.9</td>
                <td align="center">62.5 &#177; 8.3<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">57.5 &#177; 7.3<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">131.2 &#177; 5.2<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">$</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">64.3 &#177; 8.6<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">$</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">57.4 &#177; 6.8<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref></sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">L</td>
                <td align="center">138.0 &#177; 3.6</td>
                <td align="center">115.2 &#177; 34.2</td>
                <td align="center">15673.2 &#177; 4219.6</td>
                <td align="center">120.7 &#177; 9.1</td>
                <td align="center">28.3 &#177; 3.7<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">25.2 &#177; 4.6<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">71.7 &#177; 18.4</td>
                <td align="center">20.8 &#177; 7.8<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">12.6 &#177; 7.2<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">#</xref></sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">NL</td>
                <td align="center">148.6 &#177; 8.3</td>
                <td align="center">66.9 &#177; 11.9</td>
                <td align="center">9797.3 &#177; 1652.5</td>
                <td align="center">137.4 &#177; 9.7</td>
                <td align="center">73 &#177; 8.5<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">$</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">67.2 &#177; 7.7.<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">$</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">145.4 &#177; 11.9<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">$</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">73.1 &#177; 8.5<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">$</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">74.0 &#177; 13<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">$</xref></sup></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>p &lt; 0.05 versus the baseline period in the group,</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <label>#</label>
              <p>p &lt; 0.001 versus the baseline period in the group,</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <label>$</label>
              <p>p &lt; 0.05 versus the lactating group.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>Data are presented as mean &#177; standard error of the mean (SEM). For LVDP, RPP and HR, the means were compared between the groups using one-way ANOVA and within the groups using repeated measure ANOVA. The post hoc test used was Bonferroni.</p>
              <p>IR: ischemia-reperfusion; L: lactating; NL: non-lactating; LVDP: left ventricular developed pressure (mmHg); HR: heart rate (beats/min), RPP: rate pressure product (mmHg x bpm); bpm: beats per minute</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In IR group, LVDP and RPP were reduced (p &lt; 0.05 and p &lt; 0.001, respectively) at the end of ischemia and reperfusion period as compared with the baseline. In lactating group, LVDP and RPP reduced significantly at the end of the ischemia (p &lt; 0.05) and reperfusion (p &lt; 0.001) periods when compared with baseline. Furthermore, in the lactating group, the HR was markedly reduced in the reperfusion period when compared with baseline. Non-lactating animals demonstrated lower RPP during ischemia when compared with baseline (p &lt; 0.05).</p>
        <p>Intergroup analysis showed that LVDP at the end of ischemia, and RPP in the ischemia and reperfusion periods were significantly higher in the non-lactating when compared to the lactating group (p &lt; 0.05). In addition, HR and LVDP in reperfusion were markedly increased in the IR and non-lactating groups, when compared with the lactating group (p &lt; 0.05).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Area at risk and infarct size</title>
        <p>As shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>, there was no significant difference in AAR between the groups. However, the IS/AAR was significantly reduced in the lactating group as compared with the non-lactating and IR groups (13.2 &#177; 2.5 <italic>versus</italic> 39.7 &#177; 3.5 and 34.0 &#177; 4.7, respectively).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Myocardial area at risk in relation to the left ventricle (AAR/V %) and infarct size (IS/AAR %). Data are presented as mean &#177; S.E.M. standard error of the mean (SEM). The mean values between the groups were compared using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post hoc test. # p &lt; 0.05 versus the lactating group, *** p &lt; 0.001 versus the lactating group. IR: ischemia-reperfusion; L: lactating; NL: Non-lactating.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-05-0443-70042-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Ventricular arrhythmias</title>
        <p>During the ischemic phase, the number of compound PVCs was statistically higher in the non-lactating group as compared with the lactating group (p &lt; 0.05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). During the first 5 min of the reperfusion phase, the number of compound PVCs did not differ significantly between the groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). During ischemia and the first 5 min of reperfusion, the number of VTs was significantly lower in the lactating and IR groups as compared with the non-lactating group (p &lt; 0.001) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). In addition, the duration of VTs during ischemia and the first 5 min of reperfusion were markedly reduced in the lactating and IR groups as compared with the non-lactating group (p &lt; 0.01, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Number of compound PVCs (including bigeminy, couplet and salvos) in different groups. Data are presented as mean &#177; standard error of the mean (SEM). The mean values between the groups were compared using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post hoc test. * p &lt; 0.05 versus the lactating group. IR: ischemia-reperfusion; L: lactating; NL: Non-lactating.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-05-0443-70042-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Number of compound PVCs (including bigeminy, couplet and salvos) in the first 5 min of reperfusion. Data are presented as mean &#177; standard error of the mean (SEM). The mean values between the groups were compared using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post hoc test. IR: ischemia-reperfusion; L: lactating; NL: Non-lactating.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-05-0443-70042-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Number of ventricular tachycardia (VT) in different groups. Data are presented as mean &#177; standard error of the mean (SEM). The mean values between the groups were compared using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post hoc test. *** p &lt; 0.001 versus the lactating group; $$$ p &lt; 0.001 versus the IR group. IR: ischemia-reperfusion; L: lactating; NL: Non-lactating.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-05-0443-70042-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Duration of ventricular tachycardia (VT) in different groups. Data are presented as mean &#177; standard error of the mean (SEM). The mean values between the groups were compared using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post hoc test. IR: ischemia-reperfusion; L: lactating; NL: non-lactating. ** p &lt; 0.001 versus the lactating group; $$ p &lt; 0.001 versus the IR group.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-05-0443-70042-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>The current study demonstrates the effect of pregnancy and lactation on myocardial vulnerability to an ischemic insult. We observed that lactation, and not pregnancy alone, preconditioned the maternal heart against ischemia-induced myocardial infarction. Furthermore, nursing reduces the incidence and duration of ventricular arrhythmias during ischemia.</p>
      <p>Growing evidence has indicated short-term and long-term beneficial effects of lactation on the risk factors associated with cardiovascular morbidity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> The only study indicating cardioprotective effects of lactation against IR injury was recently performed by Shekarforoush and Safari.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> However, their study did not take into account if the cardioprotection was conferred by the pregnancy alone. In addition, these authors were unable to observe antiarrhythmic effects of lactation during myocardial ischemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> In the current study, <italic>in vitro</italic> Langendorff model was used. Thus, the early-onset cardioprotective effects of lactation can be attributed to the intrinsic characteristics of the heart independent of the complex physiology of lactation. We observed that pregnancy increases the ischemia-induced IS and the incidence and duration of arrhythmias. Previous studies suggest that pregnancy enhances the maternal risk of cardiovascular events by increasing central fat accumulation,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> blood pressure,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> and insulin resistance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> During pregnancy, the maternal heart transforms into "a better functioning heart" and undergoes physiological hypertrophy in order to increase the cardiac pumping capacity. However, Lain et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> demonstrated that the heart during late pregnancy is more susceptible to IR injury when subjected to coronary occlusion. Furthermore, during late pregnancy in mice, the IS was greater and the post-ischemic functional recovery was found to be extremely poor. Interestingly, the hemodynamic alterations and increased IS were partially restored in the post-partum mice.</p>
      <p>The opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) at the onset of reperfusion is a critical determinant of myocardial cell death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> In this regard, a study demonstrated that pregnancy lowers the threshold for the mPTP opening, which can be attributed to pregnancy-induced increase in cardiac reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Some authors have hypothesized that lactation may induce a resetting effect to the heart and improve pregnancy-induced alterations in cardiovascular dynamics.<sup>(3, 28)</sup></p>
      <p>The protective effect of lactation may be attributed to an increased metabolic expenditure of a nursing mother,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> explaining the decrease in body mass index and cholesterol levels following lactation. In addition, initiation and maintenance of lactation involve many hormones such as oxytocin, prolactin, growth hormone, thyroxine, adrenal corticoids, and parathyroid hormone.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Cardiac tissue expresses a wide variety of hormone receptors, including receptors for lactogenic hormones,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> and nursing-induced changes in hormonal milieu have been reported to improve the cardiovascular profiles.</p>
      <p>Suckling is the major stimulus for the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. The protective effect of oxytocin against IR injury has been previously depicted.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Faghihi et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> demonstrated that oxytocin preconditioning reduces ischemia-induced ventricular arrhythmias by scavenging free radicals and delaying the opening of mPTP. Das and Sarkar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> have suggested an involvement of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channels in oxytocin -induced cardioprotection. Furthermore, oxytocin has been shown to promote the release of atrial natriuretic peptide - a well-known cardioprotective hormone, which reduces the incidence of reperfusion- induced arrhythmias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Oxytocin also exerts negative inotropic and chronotropic effects<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> which, in turn may decrease the oxygen demand of the myocardium and produce a smaller infarct following occlusion of the coronary artery. In addition to oxytocin, pretreatment with thyroid hormone has been shown to protect myocardium against lethal ischemia, in a pattern similar to that of ischemic preconditioning.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> We observed that lactation reduced the LVDP, RPP, and HR in ischemic animals. This indicates a positive effect of nursing as it reduces myocardial oxygen consumption and improves oxygen supply to demand ratio.</p>
      <p>Suckling does not only stimulate the release of oxytocin but also induces the secretion of prolactin (PRL) and adrenocorticotropic hormone, which are essential for galactopoesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> The experimental evidence for the effect of prolactin on the cardiovascular system is quite limited. A cohort study reported the direct association of prolactin levels with endothelial dysfunction and increased risk of cardiovascular events and mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Conversely, Krzeminski et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> observed the antiarrhythmic effects of prolactin (isoform) against IR injury. A 15-day prolactin treatment markedly reduced the adrenaline-induced rise in HR, blood pressure, cardiomyocyte necrosis, and granulocyte infiltration in female rats.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Moreover, corticosteriods confer cardioprotection by binding to glucocorticoid receptors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> Glucocorticoids activate the endothelium-derived nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and exert anti-inflammatory, antiatherogenic, and anti-ischemic effects.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The autonomic system is an important regulator of lactation and milk ejection. Vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) is essential for suckling-induced oxytocin and prolcatin release.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> Efferent signals from the vagus nerve can inhibit the production of proinflammtory cytokines, thereby improving the pathological outcomes of diseases like sepsis, myocardial ischemia and other inflammatory disorders.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> Interestingly, VNS has been shown to prevent reperfusion injury through inhibition of mPTP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In the current study, the protective effect of lactogenesis against IR injury can involve the potential role of lactogenic hormones, which can directly influence the cardiac dynamics via cardiac receptors. Furthermore, lactation may have improved the IR injury via VNS. A plausible confounder in this study was the emotional stress imposed on the maternal health due to the separation of the mothers from their pups. Although according to the research protocol the rats in the non-lactated group did not undergo surgery until 21 days after parturition (similar to the rats in the lactating group), the potential effect of emotional stress on cardiovascular dynamics cannot be definitely ruled out.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Taken together, our findings demonstrate the cardioprotective effects of lactation on maternal health, independent of pregnancy. Moreover, rats which were not allowed to breast-feed their pups, demonstrated high vulnerability to myocardial ischemic insult.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by Tehran University of Medical Sciences.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Sahar Askari, from Tehran University of Medical Sciences.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ref-list>
      <title>References</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <mixed-citation>1 GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators. Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet. 2015;385(9963):117-71.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <collab>GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators</collab>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013</article-title>
          <source>Lancet</source>
          <year>2015</year>
          <volume>385</volume>
          <issue>9963</issue>
          <fpage>117</fpage>
          <lpage>171</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B2">
        <label>2</label>
        <mixed-citation>2 Hatmi ZN, Tahvildari S, Gafarzadeh Motlag A, Sabouri Kashani A. Prevalence of coronary artery disease risk factors in Iran: a population based survey. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2007;7:32.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Hatmi</surname>
              <given-names>ZN</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tahvildari</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gafarzadeh Motlag</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sabouri Kashani</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Prevalence of coronary artery disease risk factors in Iran: a population based survey</article-title>
          <source>BMC Cardiovasc Disord</source>
          <year>2007</year>
          <volume>7</volume>
          <fpage>32</fpage>
          <lpage>32</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B3">
        <label>3</label>
        <mixed-citation>3 Gunderson EP, Lewis CE, Wei GS, Whitmer RA, Quesenberry CP, Sidney S. Lactation and changes in maternal metabolic risk factors. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;109(3):729-38.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gunderson</surname>
              <given-names>EP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lewis</surname>
              <given-names>CE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wei</surname>
              <given-names>GS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Whitmer</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Quesenberry</surname>
              <given-names>CP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sidney</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Lactation and changes in maternal metabolic risk factors</article-title>
          <source>Obstet Gynecol</source>
          <year>2007</year>
          <volume>109</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>729</fpage>
          <lpage>738</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B4">
        <label>4</label>
        <mixed-citation>4 Jager S, Jacobs S, Kroger J, Fritsche A, Schienkiewitz A, Rubin D, et al. Breast-feeding and maternal risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study and meta-analysis. Diabetologia. 2014;57(7):1355-65.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Jager</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jacobs</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kroger</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fritsche</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Schienkiewitz</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rubin</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Breast-feeding and maternal risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study and meta-analysis</article-title>
          <source>Diabetologia</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>57</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <fpage>1355</fpage>
          <lpage>1365</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B5">
        <label>5</label>
        <mixed-citation>5 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Breastfeeding trends and updated national health objectives for exclusive breastfeeding--United States, birth years 2000-2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2007;56(30):760-3.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <collab>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)</collab>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Breastfeeding trends and updated national health objectives for exclusive breastfeeding--United States, birth years 2000-2004</article-title>
          <source>MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep</source>
          <year>2007</year>
          <volume>56</volume>
          <issue>30</issue>
          <fpage>760</fpage>
          <lpage>763</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B6">
        <label>6</label>
        <mixed-citation>6 Perrine CG, Nelson JM, Corbelli J, Scanlon KS. Lactation and maternal cardio-metabolic health. Annu Rev Nutr. 2016;36:627-45.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Perrine</surname>
              <given-names>CG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nelson</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Corbelli</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Scanlon</surname>
              <given-names>KS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Lactation and maternal cardio-metabolic health</article-title>
          <source>Annu Rev Nutr</source>
          <year>2016</year>
          <volume>36</volume>
          <fpage>627</fpage>
          <lpage>645</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B7">
        <label>7</label>
        <mixed-citation>7 Gunderson EP, Jacobs DR Jr, Chiang V, Lewis CE, Feng J, Quesenberry CP Jr, et al. Duration of lactation and incidence of the metabolic syndrome in women of reproductive age according to gestational diabetes mellitus status: a 20-year prospective study in CARDIA (Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults). Diabetes. 2010;59(2):495-504.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gunderson</surname>
              <given-names>EP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jacobs</surname>
              <given-names>DR</given-names>
              <suffix>Jr</suffix>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chiang</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lewis</surname>
              <given-names>CE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Feng</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Quesenberry</surname>
              <given-names>CP</given-names>
              <suffix>Jr</suffix>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Duration of lactation and incidence of the metabolic syndrome in women of reproductive age according to gestational diabetes mellitus status: a 20-year prospective study in CARDIA (Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults)</article-title>
          <source>Diabetes</source>
          <year>2010</year>
          <volume>59</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>495</fpage>
          <lpage>504</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B8">
        <label>8</label>
        <mixed-citation>8 Kjos SL, Henry O, Lee RM, Buchanan TA, Mishell DR Jr. The effect of lactation on glucose and lipid metabolism in women with recent gestational diabetes. Obstet Gynecol. 1993;82(3):451-5.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kjos</surname>
              <given-names>SL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Henry</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lee</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Buchanan</surname>
              <given-names>TA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mishell</surname>
              <given-names>DR</given-names>
              <suffix>Jr</suffix>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>The effect of lactation on glucose and lipid metabolism in women with recent gestational diabetes</article-title>
          <source>Obstet Gynecol</source>
          <year>1993</year>
          <volume>82</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>451</fpage>
          <lpage>455</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B9">
        <label>9</label>
        <mixed-citation>9 Stuebe A. The risks of not breastfeeding for mothers and infants. Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2009;2(4):222-31.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Stuebe</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>The risks of not breastfeeding for mothers and infants</article-title>
          <source>Rev Obstet Gynecol</source>
          <year>2009</year>
          <volume>2</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>222</fpage>
          <lpage>231</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B10">
        <label>10</label>
        <mixed-citation>10 Mezzacappa ES, Kelsey RM, Myers MM, Katkin ES. Breast-feeding and maternal cardiovascular function. Psychophysiology. 2001;38(6):988-97.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mezzacappa</surname>
              <given-names>ES</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kelsey</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Myers</surname>
              <given-names>MM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Katkin</surname>
              <given-names>ES</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Breast-feeding and maternal cardiovascular function</article-title>
          <source>Psychophysiology</source>
          <year>2001</year>
          <volume>38</volume>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <fpage>988</fpage>
          <lpage>997</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B11">
        <label>11</label>
        <mixed-citation>11 Hanwell A, Peaker M. (editors). Physiological effects of lactation on the mother. Symp Zool Soc Lond; 1977;41:297.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Hanwell</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Peaker</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Physiological effects of lactation on the mother</article-title>
          <source>Symp Zool Soc Lond;</source>
          <year>1977</year>
          <volume>41</volume>
          <fpage>297</fpage>
          <lpage>297</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B12">
        <label>12</label>
        <mixed-citation>12 Ondrejcakova M, Ravingerova T, Bakos J, Pancza D, Jezova D. Oxytocin exerts protective effects on in vitro myocardial injury induced by ischemia and reperfusion. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2009;87(2):137-42.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ondrejcakova</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ravingerova</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bakos</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pancza</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jezova</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Oxytocin exerts protective effects on in vitro myocardial injury induced by ischemia and reperfusion</article-title>
          <source>Can J Physiol Pharmacol</source>
          <year>2009</year>
          <volume>87</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>137</fpage>
          <lpage>142</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B13">
        <label>13</label>
        <mixed-citation>13 Hsieh DJ, Huang CY, Pai P, Wang SG, Tsai YL, Li CN, et al. Prolactin protects cardiomyocytes against intermittent hypoxia-induced cell damage by the modulation of signaling pathways related to cardiac hypertrophy and proliferation. Int J Cardiol. 2015;181:255-66.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Hsieh</surname>
              <given-names>DJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Huang</surname>
              <given-names>CY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pai</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wang</surname>
              <given-names>SG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tsai</surname>
              <given-names>YL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Li</surname>
              <given-names>CN</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Prolactin protects cardiomyocytes against intermittent hypoxia-induced cell damage by the modulation of signaling pathways related to cardiac hypertrophy and proliferation</article-title>
          <source>Int J Cardiol</source>
          <year>2015</year>
          <volume>181</volume>
          <fpage>255</fpage>
          <lpage>266</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B14">
        <label>14</label>
        <mixed-citation>14 Moghimian M, Faghihi M, Karimian SM, Imani A, Houshmand F, Azizi Y. Role of central oxytocin in stress-induced cardioprotection in ischemic-reperfused heart model. J Cardiol. 2013;61(1):79-86.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Moghimian</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Faghihi</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Karimian</surname>
              <given-names>SM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Imani</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Houshmand</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Azizi</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Role of central oxytocin in stress-induced cardioprotection in ischemic-reperfused heart model</article-title>
          <source>J Cardiol</source>
          <year>2013</year>
          <volume>61</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>79</fpage>
          <lpage>86</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B15">
        <label>15</label>
        <mixed-citation>15 Das B, Sarkar C. Is preconditioning by oxytocin administration mediated by iNOS and/or mitochondrial K ATP channel activation in the in vivo anesthetized rabbit heart? Life Sci. 2012;90(19-20):763-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Das</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sarkar</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Is preconditioning by oxytocin administration mediated by iNOS and/or mitochondrial K ATP channel activation in the in vivo anesthetized rabbit heart?</article-title>
          <source>Life Sci</source>
          <year>2012</year>
          <volume>90</volume>
          <issue>19-20</issue>
          <fpage>763</fpage>
          <lpage>769</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B16">
        <label>16</label>
        <mixed-citation>16 Charan J, Kantharia N. How to calculate sample size in animal studies? J Pharmacol Pharmacother. 2013;4(4):303-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Charan</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kantharia</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>How to calculate sample size in animal studies?</article-title>
          <source>J Pharmacol Pharmacother</source>
          <year>2013</year>
          <volume>4</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>303</fpage>
          <lpage>306</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B17">
        <label>17</label>
        <mixed-citation>17 Shekarforoush S, Safari F. Lactation protects against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats. Acta Physiol Hung. 2015;102(4):372-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Shekarforoush</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Safari</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Lactation protects against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats</article-title>
          <source>Acta Physiol Hung</source>
          <year>2015</year>
          <volume>102</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>372</fpage>
          <lpage>379</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B18">
        <label>18</label>
        <mixed-citation>18 Naderi R, Imani A, Faghihi M, Moghimian M. Phenylephrine induces early and late cardioprotection through mitochondrial permeability transition pore in the isolated rat heart. J Surg Res. 2010;164(1):e37-42.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Naderi</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Imani</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Faghihi</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Moghimian</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Phenylephrine induces early and late cardioprotection through mitochondrial permeability transition pore in the isolated rat heart</article-title>
          <source>J Surg Res</source>
          <year>2010</year>
          <volume>164</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>e37</fpage>
          <lpage>e42</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B19">
        <label>19</label>
        <mixed-citation>19 Naderi R, Imani A, Faghihi M. Phenylephrine produces late pharmacological preconditioning in the isolated rat heart. Eur J Pharmacol. 2010;627(1-3):203-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Naderi</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Imani</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Faghihi</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Phenylephrine produces late pharmacological preconditioning in the isolated rat heart</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Pharmacol</source>
          <year>2010</year>
          <volume>627</volume>
          <issue>1-3</issue>
          <fpage>203</fpage>
          <lpage>208</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B20">
        <label>20</label>
        <mixed-citation>20 Imani A, Faghihi M, Keshavarz M, Karimian SM, Niaraki SS. Effect of different doses of noradrenaline against ischemia-induced ventricular arrhythmias in rat heart in vivo. Indian Pacing Electrophysiol J. 2009;9(1):35-44.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Imani</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Faghihi</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Keshavarz</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Karimian</surname>
              <given-names>SM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Niaraki</surname>
              <given-names>SS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effect of different doses of noradrenaline against ischemia-induced ventricular arrhythmias in rat heart in vivo</article-title>
          <source>Indian Pacing Electrophysiol J</source>
          <year>2009</year>
          <volume>9</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>35</fpage>
          <lpage>44</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B21">
        <label>21</label>
        <mixed-citation>21 Curtis MJ, Hancox JC, Farkas A, Wainwright CL, Stables CL, Saint DA, et al. The Lambeth Conventions (II): guidelines for the study of animal and human ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias. Pharmacol Ther. 2013;139(2):213-48.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Curtis</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hancox</surname>
              <given-names>JC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Farkas</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wainwright</surname>
              <given-names>CL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Stables</surname>
              <given-names>CL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Saint</surname>
              <given-names>DA</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>The Lambeth Conventions (II): guidelines for the study of animal and human ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias</article-title>
          <source>Pharmacol Ther</source>
          <year>2013</year>
          <volume>139</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>213</fpage>
          <lpage>248</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B22">
        <label>22</label>
        <mixed-citation>22 Ebina S, Kashiwakura I. Influence of breastfeeding on maternal blood pressure at one month postpartum. Int J Womens Health. 2012;4:333-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ebina</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kashiwakura</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Influence of breastfeeding on maternal blood pressure at one month postpartum</article-title>
          <source>Int J Womens Health</source>
          <year>2012</year>
          <volume>4</volume>
          <fpage>333</fpage>
          <lpage>339</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B23">
        <label>23</label>
        <mixed-citation>23 McClure CK, Catov JM, Ness RB, Schwarz EB. Lactation and maternal subclinical cardiovascular disease among premenopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;207(1):46. e1-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>McClure</surname>
              <given-names>CK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Catov</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ness</surname>
              <given-names>RB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Schwarz</surname>
              <given-names>EB</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Lactation and maternal subclinical cardiovascular disease among premenopausal women</article-title>
          <source>Am J Obstet Gynecol</source>
          <year>2012</year>
          <volume>207</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>46</fpage>
          <lpage>46</lpage>
          <comment>e1-8</comment>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B24">
        <label>24</label>
        <mixed-citation>24 Marchant-Forde RM, Marchant-Forde JN. Pregnancy-related changes in behavior and cardiac activity in primiparous pigs. Physiol Behav. 2004;82(5):815-25.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Marchant-Forde</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Marchant-Forde</surname>
              <given-names>JN</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Pregnancy-related changes in behavior and cardiac activity in primiparous pigs</article-title>
          <source>Physiol Behav</source>
          <year>2004</year>
          <volume>82</volume>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <fpage>815</fpage>
          <lpage>825</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B25">
        <label>25</label>
        <mixed-citation>25 Magee LA, Abalos E, von Dadelszen P, Sibai B, Walkinshaw SA; CHIPS Study Group. Control of hypertension in pregnancy. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2009;11(6):429-36.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Magee</surname>
              <given-names>LA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Abalos</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>von Dadelszen</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sibai</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Walkinshaw</surname>
              <given-names>SA</given-names>
            </name>
            <collab>CHIPS Study Group</collab>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Control of hypertension in pregnancy</article-title>
          <source>Curr Hypertens Rep</source>
          <year>2009</year>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <fpage>429</fpage>
          <lpage>436</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B26">
        <label>26</label>
        <mixed-citation>26 Lain KY, Catalano PM. Metabolic changes in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2007;50(4):938-48.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Lain</surname>
              <given-names>KY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Catalano</surname>
              <given-names>PM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Metabolic changes in pregnancy</article-title>
          <source>Clin Obstet Gynecol</source>
          <year>2007</year>
          <volume>50</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>938</fpage>
          <lpage>948</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B27">
        <label>27</label>
        <mixed-citation>27 Ong SB, Samangouei P, Kalkhoran SB, Hausenloy DJ. The mitochondrial permeability transition pore and its role in myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury. J Mol Cel Cardiol. 2015;78:23-34.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ong</surname>
              <given-names>SB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Samangouei</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kalkhoran</surname>
              <given-names>SB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hausenloy</surname>
              <given-names>DJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>The mitochondrial permeability transition pore and its role in myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury</article-title>
          <source>J Mol Cel Cardiol</source>
          <year>2015</year>
          <volume>78</volume>
          <fpage>23</fpage>
          <lpage>34</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B28">
        <label>28</label>
        <mixed-citation>28 Schwarz EB, Ray RM, Stuebe AM, Allison MA, Ness RB, Freiberg MS, et al. Duration of lactation and risk factors for maternal cardiovascular disease. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;113(5):974-82.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Schwarz</surname>
              <given-names>EB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ray</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Stuebe</surname>
              <given-names>AM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Allison</surname>
              <given-names>MA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ness</surname>
              <given-names>RB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Freiberg</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Duration of lactation and risk factors for maternal cardiovascular disease</article-title>
          <source>Obstet Gynecol</source>
          <year>2009</year>
          <volume>113</volume>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <fpage>974</fpage>
          <lpage>982</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B29">
        <label>29</label>
        <mixed-citation>29 Butte NF, King JC. Energy requirements during pregnancy and lactation. Public Health Nutr. 2005;8(7A):1010-27.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Butte</surname>
              <given-names>NF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>King</surname>
              <given-names>JC</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Energy requirements during pregnancy and lactation</article-title>
          <source>Public Health Nutr</source>
          <year>2005</year>
          <volume>8</volume>
          <issue>7A</issue>
          <fpage>1010</fpage>
          <lpage>1027</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B30">
        <label>30</label>
        <mixed-citation>30 Tucker H. General endocrinological control of lactation. In: Larson BL, Smith VR. (editors). Lactation: a comprehensive treatise. New York: Academic Press; 1974. p. 277-326.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="book">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Tucker</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <chapter-title>General endocrinological control of lactation</chapter-title>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Larson</surname>
              <given-names>BL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Smith</surname>
              <given-names>VR</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <source>Lactation: a comprehensive treatise</source>
          <year>1974</year>
          <publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
          <publisher-name>Academic Press</publisher-name>
          <fpage>277</fpage>
          <lpage>326</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B31">
        <label>31</label>
        <mixed-citation>31 Nygren A, Sunnegardh J, Albertsson-Wikland K, Berggren H, Isgaard J. Relative cardiac expression of growth hormone receptor and insulin-like growth factor-I mRNA in congenital heart disease. J Endocrinol Invest. 2008;31(3):196-200.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Nygren</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sunnegardh</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Albertsson-Wikland</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Berggren</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Isgaard</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Relative cardiac expression of growth hormone receptor and insulin-like growth factor-I mRNA in congenital heart disease</article-title>
          <source>J Endocrinol Invest</source>
          <year>2008</year>
          <volume>31</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>196</fpage>
          <lpage>200</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B32">
        <label>32</label>
        <mixed-citation>32 Wiersinga WM. The role of thyroid hormone nuclear receptors in the heart: evidence from pharmacological approaches. Heart Fail Rev. 2010;15(2):121-4.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Wiersinga</surname>
              <given-names>WM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>The role of thyroid hormone nuclear receptors in the heart: evidence from pharmacological approaches</article-title>
          <source>Heart Fail Rev</source>
          <year>2010</year>
          <volume>15</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>121</fpage>
          <lpage>124</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B33">
        <label>33</label>
        <mixed-citation>33 Faghihi M, Alizadeh AM, Khori V, Khodayari V, Moradi S. Preconditioning effects of oxytocin in reducing cardiac arrhythmias in a rat heart regional ischemia-reperfusion model. Physiol Pharmacol. 2013;16(4):393-403.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Faghihi</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Alizadeh</surname>
              <given-names>AM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Khori</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Khodayari</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Moradi</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Preconditioning effects of oxytocin in reducing cardiac arrhythmias in a rat heart regional ischemia-reperfusion model</article-title>
          <source>Physiol Pharmacol</source>
          <year>2013</year>
          <volume>16</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>393</fpage>
          <lpage>403</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B34">
        <label>34</label>
        <mixed-citation>34 Favaretto AL, Ballejo GO, Albuquerque-Araujo WI, Gutkowska J, Antunes-Rodrigues J, McCann SM. Oxytocin releases atrial natriuretic peptide from rat atria in vitro that exerts negative inotropic and chronotropic action. Peptides. 1997;18(9):1377-81.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Favaretto</surname>
              <given-names>AL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ballejo</surname>
              <given-names>GO</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Albuquerque-Araujo</surname>
              <given-names>WI</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gutkowska</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Antunes-Rodrigues</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>McCann</surname>
              <given-names>SM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Oxytocin releases atrial natriuretic peptide from rat atria in vitro that exerts negative inotropic and chronotropic action</article-title>
          <source>Peptides</source>
          <year>1997</year>
          <volume>18</volume>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <fpage>1377</fpage>
          <lpage>1381</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B35">
        <label>35</label>
        <mixed-citation>35 Gutkowska J, Jankowski M, Lambert C, Mukaddam-Daher S, Zingg HH, McCann SM. Oxytocin releases atrial natriuretic peptide by combining with oxytocin receptors in the heart. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;94(21):11704-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gutkowska</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jankowski</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lambert</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mukaddam-Daher</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zingg</surname>
              <given-names>HH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>McCann</surname>
              <given-names>SM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Oxytocin releases atrial natriuretic peptide by combining with oxytocin receptors in the heart</article-title>
          <source>Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A</source>
          <year>1997</year>
          <volume>94</volume>
          <issue>21</issue>
          <fpage>11704</fpage>
          <lpage>11709</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B36">
        <label>36</label>
        <mixed-citation>36 Mukaddam-Daher S, Yin YL, Roy J, Gutkowska J, Cardinal R. Negative inotropic and chronotropic effects of oxytocin. Hypertension. 2001;38(2):292-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mukaddam-Daher</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yin</surname>
              <given-names>YL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Roy</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gutkowska</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cardinal</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Negative inotropic and chronotropic effects of oxytocin</article-title>
          <source>Hypertension</source>
          <year>2001</year>
          <volume>38</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>292</fpage>
          <lpage>296</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B37">
        <label>37</label>
        <mixed-citation>37 Pantos CI, Malliopoulou VA, Mourouzis IS, Karamanoli EP, Paizis IA, Steimberg N, et al. Long-term thyroxine administration protects the heart in a pattern similar to ischemic preconditioning. Thyroid. 2002;12(4):325-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Pantos</surname>
              <given-names>CI</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Malliopoulou</surname>
              <given-names>VA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mourouzis</surname>
              <given-names>IS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Karamanoli</surname>
              <given-names>EP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Paizis</surname>
              <given-names>IA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Steimberg</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Long-term thyroxine administration protects the heart in a pattern similar to ischemic preconditioning</article-title>
          <source>Thyroid</source>
          <year>2002</year>
          <volume>12</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>325</fpage>
          <lpage>329</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B38">
        <label>38</label>
        <mixed-citation>38 Buhimschi CS. Endocrinology of lactation. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2004;31(4):963-79.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Buhimschi</surname>
              <given-names>CS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Endocrinology of lactation</article-title>
          <source>Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am</source>
          <year>2004</year>
          <volume>31</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>963</fpage>
          <lpage>979</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B39">
        <label>39</label>
        <mixed-citation>39 Carrero JJ, Kyriazis J, Sonmez A, Tzanakis I, Qureshi AR, Stenvinkel P, et al. Prolactin levels, endothelial dysfunction, and the risk of cardiovascular events and mortality in patients with CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012;7(2):207-15.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Carrero</surname>
              <given-names>JJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kyriazis</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sonmez</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tzanakis</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Qureshi</surname>
              <given-names>AR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Stenvinkel</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Prolactin levels, endothelial dysfunction, and the risk of cardiovascular events and mortality in patients with CKD</article-title>
          <source>Clin J Am Soc Nephrol</source>
          <year>2012</year>
          <volume>7</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>207</fpage>
          <lpage>215</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B40">
        <label>40</label>
        <mixed-citation>40 Krzeminski T, Mitrega K, Porc M, Zorniak M, Ryszka F, Ostrowska Z, et al. Differential action of two prolactin isoforms on ischemia-and re-perfusion-induced arrhythmias in rats in vivo. J Endocrinol Invest. 2011;34(3):206-15.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Krzeminski</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mitrega</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Porc</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zorniak</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ryszka</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ostrowska</surname>
              <given-names>Z</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Differential action of two prolactin isoforms on ischemia-and re-perfusion-induced arrhythmias in rats in vivo</article-title>
          <source>J Endocrinol Invest</source>
          <year>2011</year>
          <volume>34</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>206</fpage>
          <lpage>215</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B41">
        <label>41</label>
        <mixed-citation>41 Maciejewska I, Wieczorek M, Ryszka F. Effect of prolactin upon changes in the functioning and structure of the heart after adrenaline. Ann Acad Med Siles. 1995;29:19.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Maciejewska</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wieczorek</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ryszka</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effect of prolactin upon changes in the functioning and structure of the heart after adrenaline</article-title>
          <source>Ann Acad Med Siles</source>
          <year>1995</year>
          <volume>29</volume>
          <fpage>19</fpage>
          <lpage>19</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B42">
        <label>42</label>
        <mixed-citation>42 Thiemermann C. Corticosteroids and cardioprotection. Nat Med. 2002;8(5):453-5.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Thiemermann</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Corticosteroids and cardioprotection</article-title>
          <source>Nat Med</source>
          <year>2002</year>
          <volume>8</volume>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <fpage>453</fpage>
          <lpage>455</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B43">
        <label>43</label>
        <mixed-citation>43 La M, Tailor A, D'Amico M, Flower RJ, Perretti M. Analysis of the protection afforded by annexin 1 in ischaemia-reperfusion injury: focus on neutrophil recruitment. Eur J Pharmacol. 2001;429(1-3):263-78.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>La</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tailor</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <collab>D'Amico M.Flower RJ.Perretti M</collab>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Analysis of the protection afforded by annexin 1 in ischaemia-reperfusion injury: focus on neutrophil recruitment</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Pharmacol</source>
          <year>2001</year>
          <volume>429</volume>
          <issue>1-3</issue>
          <fpage>263</fpage>
          <lpage>278</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B44">
        <label>44</label>
        <mixed-citation>44 Uvn&#228;s-Moberg K, Eriksson M. Breastfeeding: physiological, endocrine and behavioural adaptations caused by oxytocin and local neurogenic activity in the nipple and mammary gland. Acta Paediatr. 1996;85(5):525-30.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Uvn&#228;s-Moberg</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Eriksson</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Breastfeeding: physiological, endocrine and behavioural adaptations caused by oxytocin and local neurogenic activity in the nipple and mammary gland</article-title>
          <source>Acta Paediatr</source>
          <year>1996</year>
          <volume>85</volume>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <fpage>525</fpage>
          <lpage>530</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B45">
        <label>45</label>
        <mixed-citation>45 Tracey KJ. Physiology and immunology of the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway. J Clin Invest. 2007;117(2):289-96.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Tracey</surname>
              <given-names>KJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Physiology and immunology of the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway</article-title>
          <source>J Clin Invest</source>
          <year>2007</year>
          <volume>117</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>289</fpage>
          <lpage>296</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B46">
        <label>46</label>
        <mixed-citation>46 Katare RG, Ando M, Kakinuma Y, Arikawa M, Handa T, Yamasaki F, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation prevents reperfusion injury through inhibition of opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore independent of the bradycardiac effect. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2009;137(1):223-31.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Katare</surname>
              <given-names>RG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ando</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kakinuma</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Arikawa</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Handa</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yamasaki</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Vagal nerve stimulation prevents reperfusion injury through inhibition of opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore independent of the bradycardiac effect</article-title>
          <source>J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg</source>
          <year>2009</year>
          <volume>137</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>223</fpage>
          <lpage>231</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
        <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Isquemia/Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </subj-group>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Efeito da Lacta&#231;&#227;o sobre a Vulnerabilidade do Mioc&#225;rdio ao Insulto Isqu&#234;mico em Ratas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Askari</surname>
            <given-names>Sahar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Imani</surname>
            <given-names>Alireza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sadeghipour</surname>
            <given-names>Hamidreza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faghihi</surname>
            <given-names>Mahdieh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Edalatyzadeh</surname>
            <given-names>Zohreh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Choopani</surname>
            <given-names>Samira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Karimi</surname>
            <given-names>Nasser</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fatima</surname>
            <given-names>Sulail</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">3</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Rassoul Akram Hospital - Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Tehran University of Medical Sciences - International Campus, Tehran, Iran</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Alireza Imani,</bold> Physiology Department - School of Medicine -Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, I.R.Iran. E-mail: <email>aimani@tums.ac.ir</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Askari S, Imani A, Sadeghipour H, Faghihi M, Edalatyzadeh Z, Choopani S, Karimi N, Fatima S; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Askari S, Edalatyzadeh Z, Choopani S; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Askari S, Karimi N; Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Imani A; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Askari S, Karimi N, Fatima S; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Fatima S.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares s&#227;o a principal causa de mortalidade e invalidez a longo prazo a n&#237;vel mundial. Diversos estudos t&#234;m sugerido um efeito protetor da lacta&#231;&#227;o na redu&#231;&#227;o do risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Este estudo foi desenvolvido para avaliar os efeitos da gesta&#231;&#227;o e da lacta&#231;&#227;o sobre a vulnerabilidade do mioc&#225;rdio ao insulto isqu&#234;mico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Dezoito ratas foram divididas aleatoriamente em tr&#234;s grupos: isquemia-reperfus&#227;o (IR), no qual os cora&#231;&#245;es de ratas virgens foram submetidos &#224; IR (n = 6); lactantes, no qual as ratas amamentaram seus filhotes por 3 semanas e os cora&#231;&#245;es maternos foram, em seguida, submetidos &#224; IR (n = 6); e n&#227;o lactantes, no qual os filhotes foram separados ap&#243;s o nascimento e os cora&#231;&#245;es maternos foram submetidos &#224; IR (n = 6). As medidas de desfecho inclu&#237;ram frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC), press&#227;o desenvolvida no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDVE), duplo produto (DP), raz&#227;o do tamanho do infarto sobre a &#225;rea sob risco (TI/ASR %) e arritmias ventriculares - contra&#231;&#227;o ventricular prematura (CVP) e taquicardia ventricular (TV).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>O TI/ASR foi substancialmente menor no grupo de lactantes quando comparado ao grupo de n&#227;o lactantes (13,2 &#177; 2,5 <italic>versus</italic> 39,7 &#177; 3,5, p &lt; 0,001) e ao grupo IR (13,2 &#177; 2,5 <italic>versus</italic> 34,0 &#177; 4,7, p &lt; 0,05). A avalia&#231;&#227;o das arritmias ventriculares induzidas pela IR indicou que o n&#250;mero de CVPs compostas na isquemia, e o n&#250;mero e a dura&#231;&#227;o das TVs na isquemia e nos primeiros 5 minutos de reperfus&#227;o no grupo de n&#227;o lactantes foram significativamente (p &lt; 0,05) mais elevados do que os encontrados nos grupos IR e de lactantes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>A lacta&#231;&#227;o induziu o aparecimento precoce de efeitos cardioprotetores, enquanto ratas que n&#227;o foram permitidas a amamentar seus filhotes se mostraram mais suscet&#237;veis &#224; les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica por IR.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Lacta&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>Isquemia Mioc&#225;rdica</kwd>
        <kwd>Parto</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>As doen&#231;as coronarianas s&#227;o a principal causa de mortalidade em todo o mundo, com cerca de 38% das mortes sendo atribu&#237;das a estas doen&#231;as.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Al&#233;m da hipertens&#227;o arterial e do diabetes, m&#250;ltiplos fatores relacionados ao estilo de vida podem aumentar o risco de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, como dietas ricas em colesterol, tabagismo, consumo de &#225;lcool e estresse.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Um ac&#250;mulo de evid&#234;ncias epidemiol&#243;gicas sugere que a decis&#227;o da mulher de amamentar seus filhos tem um impacto significativo sobre o risco materno para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Embora as pol&#237;ticas nacionais de promo&#231;&#227;o da amamenta&#231;&#227;o estejam sendo profundamente implementadas em muitos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, a taxa global de aleitamento materno exclusivo est&#225; abaixo de 40%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A lacta&#231;&#227;o confere benef&#237;cios significativos &#224; sa&#250;de cardiovascular materna.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> A lactog&#234;nese tem um efeito favor&#225;vel sobre o metabolismo glic&#237;dico e lip&#237;dico. Ela aumenta a sensibilidade &#224; insulina e efic&#225;cia da glicose, reduzindo o risco de diabetes tipo 2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> A amamenta&#231;&#227;o promove a produ&#231;&#227;o de lipoprote&#237;nas de alta densidade e reduz os n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides e lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Por conseguinte, a lacta&#231;&#227;o mobiliza os dep&#243;sitos de gordura produzidos durante a gravidez, reduzindo assim o risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a lacta&#231;&#227;o reduz a press&#227;o arterial e a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) maternas, melhorando o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Hanwell e Peaker<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> observaram em ratas que o aumento do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco &#233; diretamente proporcional &#224; intensidade da suc&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, certos horm&#244;nios liberados durante a lacta&#231;&#227;o, tais como a ocitocina, prolactina, glicocorticoides, grelina e horm&#244;nio do crescimento podem precondicionar o mioc&#225;rdio contra a les&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> J&#225; foi demonstrado que a ocitocina end&#243;gena liberada centralmente e a infus&#227;o ex&#243;gena de ocitocina protegem o cora&#231;&#227;o contra insulto hip&#243;xico atrav&#233;s da ativa&#231;&#227;o de receptores cerebrais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a ocitocina induz &#224; cardioprote&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s de uma via que envolve canais de pot&#225;ssio dependentes de ATP na mitoc&#244;ndria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Embora o efeito dos horm&#244;nios lactog&#234;nicos sobre a sa&#250;de cardiovascular tenha sido estudado at&#233; certa medida, evid&#234;ncias experimentais sugerindo um papel cardioprotetor da lacta&#231;&#227;o contra les&#227;o induzida por isquemia-reperfus&#227;o (IR) ainda s&#227;o escassas. Assim, o presente estudo foi desenvolvido para testar a hip&#243;tese de que a lacta&#231;&#227;o reduz a vulnerabilidade do mioc&#225;rdio &#224; les&#227;o por IR.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Animais</title>
          <p>Dezoito ratas Sprague-Dawley (180-230 g) foram alojadas em uma sala climatizada a 21-23 &#176;C, com ciclos claro/escuro de 12 horas. Durante o per&#237;odo experimental, as ratas tiveram acesso livre a ra&#231;&#227;o e &#225;gua. Os protocolos experimentais seguidos neste estudo estiveram em conformidade com as Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para Cuidados e Uso de Animais de Laborat&#243;rio, publicadas pelo <italic>National Institutes of Health</italic> (NIH, Publica&#231;&#227;o no. 85-23, revisada em 1996) e foram aprovados pelo comit&#234; de &#233;tica institucional em Tehran University of Medical Sciences (Teer&#227;, Ir&#227;).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prepara&#231;&#227;o de cora&#231;&#245;es isolados</title>
          <p>Os animais foram anestesiados com tiopental s&#243;dico intraperitoneal (60 mg/kg). Heparina (500 UI/kg) foi tamb&#233;m administrada para evitar coagula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea. Uma vez anestesiadas, as ratas foram submetidas a uma incis&#227;o transabdominal com exposi&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o. Ap&#243;s canula&#231;&#227;o da aorta, o cora&#231;&#227;o foi removido e colocado em um sistema de Langendorff. Os cora&#231;&#245;es foram perfundidos retrogradamente com solu&#231;&#227;o-tamp&#227;o de Krebs-Henseleit-bicarbonato (contendo, em mmol/L: NaHCO<sub>3</sub> 25; KCl 4,7; NaCl 118,5; MgSO<sub>4</sub> 1,2; KH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> 1,2; glicose 11; e CaCl<sub>2</sub> 2,5) oxigenada com 95% de O<sub>2</sub> e 5% de CO<sub>2</sub> (pH 7,35-7,45 a 37 &#176;C). Um bal&#227;o de l&#225;tex com solu&#231;&#227;o salina foi introduzido no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e insuflado para proporcionar uma pr&#233;-carga de 8 -10 mmHg. O bal&#227;o foi conectado a um transdutor de press&#227;o (Harvard, March-Hugstetten, Alemanha) que permitiu a realiza&#231;&#227;o de medidas em tempo real das press&#245;es do ventr&#237;culo. Um registro eletrocardiogr&#225;fico foi realizado atrav&#233;s da fixa&#231;&#227;o de eletrodos finos no &#225;pice ventricular e no &#225;trio direito. Uma agulha cir&#250;rgica (sutura de seda 6-0) foi passada sob a origem da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria descendente anterior esquerda e as extremidades da sutura foram passadas por duas pontas de pipetas de pl&#225;stico para formar um la&#231;o. Uma isquemia regional foi induzida atrav&#233;s de um aperto do la&#231;o (30 min) e a reperfus&#227;o foi realizada atrav&#233;s da libera&#231;&#227;o das extremidades da sutura (60 min). Os cora&#231;&#245;es bateram espontaneamente durante todos os experimentos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Estimativa do tamanho da amostra</title>
          <p>O tamanho da amostra foi estimado atrav&#233;s do m&#233;todo da equa&#231;&#227;o de recursos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
					</p>
          <p>E = N - T</p>
          <p>E = graus de liberdade (an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia [ANOVA]; entre 10 e 20)</p>
          <p>N = n&#250;mero total de animais</p>
          <p>T = n&#250;mero de grupos de tratamento</p>
          <p>"N" foi considerado a partir de um estudo publicado anteriormente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> e foi ajustado de modo a atingir um valor v&#225;lido para "E".</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Grupos experimentais</title>
          <p>Para estudar os efeitos da gesta&#231;&#227;o e da lacta&#231;&#227;o sobre a les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica induzida por IR, 18 ratas foram divididas aleatoriamente em tr&#234;s grupos:</p>
          <p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Grupo IR (n = 6): cora&#231;&#245;es isolados de ratas virgens no per&#237;odo de diestro foram submetidos a 30 min de isquemia regional, seguida por 60 min de reperfus&#227;o.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Grupo de lactantes (n = 6): as ratas cuidaram dos seus filhotes por 3 semanas e, em seguida, os cora&#231;&#245;es maternos foram submetidos a 30 min de isquemia regional, seguido por 60 min de reperfus&#227;o.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Grupo de n&#227;o lactantes (n = 6): ap&#243;s o parto, as ratas foram separadas de seus filhotes e 3 semanas depois, os cora&#231;&#245;es maternos foram submetidos a 30 min de isquemia regional, seguida por 60 min de reperfus&#227;o.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fun&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas</title>
          <p>A press&#227;o desenvolvida no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDVE) e a FC foram monitoradas continuamente e registradas atrav&#233;s do sistema de aquisi&#231;&#227;o de dados BioLab. O duplo produto (DP) foi calculado atrav&#233;s da multiplica&#231;&#227;o da PDVE pela FC. </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea sob risco e tamanho do infarto</title>
          <p>Ao final da reperfus&#227;o, a art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria esquerda foi reoclu&#237;da e o corante azul de Evans (0,3-0,5 mL) foi infundido via aorta para diferenciar a zona isqu&#234;mica (&#225;rea sob risco; ASR) da zona n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica. Os cora&#231;&#245;es foram congelados a -20&#176;C e seccionados transversalmente em fatias de 2,0 mm (com uso de uma matriz fatiadora de a&#231;o inoxid&#225;vel com intervalos entre as fatias de 2,0 mm em cortes coronais) no sentido do &#225;pice para a base. As fatias foram incubadas em cloreto de trifeniltetraz&#243;lio a 1% (CTF em tamp&#227;o fosfato 0,1 M, pH 7,4, 37&#176;C) por 20 min, seguido de fixa&#231;&#227;o tecidual (10% formalina tamponada com fosfato) por 24 h. A CTF reage com o tecido vi&#225;vel, produzindo um derivado formazan de cor vermelha que &#233; distinto da &#225;rea necr&#243;tica branca. Os cortes histol&#243;gicos foram escaneados para determina&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, ASR (&#225;rea isqu&#234;mica) e tamanho do infarto (TI) por meio de c&#225;lculo dos p&#237;xeis ocupados por cada &#225;rea com utiliza&#231;&#227;o do programa Adobe Photoshop (Adobe Systems, Seattle, WA, EUA). A ASR foi expressa como uma percentagem do volume ventricular esquerdo para cada cora&#231;&#227;o. O tamanho do infarto foi determinado com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de planimetria assistida por computador e expressa como porcentagem da ASR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o das arritmias ventriculares</title>
          <p>As arritmias ventriculares induzidas pela isquemia foram avaliadas durante o per&#237;odo de oclus&#227;o e determinadas de acordo com as Conven&#231;&#245;es de Lambeth.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> A taquicardia ventricular (TV) e a contra&#231;&#227;o ventricular prematura (CVP), incluindo CVPs compostas (como bigeminismo, pares e salvas), foram contadas durante o per&#237;odo de isquemia e nos primeiros 5 minutos do per&#237;odo de reperfus&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Todos os dados foram analisados estatisticamente com o programa GraphPad InStat, vers&#227;o 3.06 (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, EUA). Os dados seguiram uma distribui&#231;&#227;o gaussiana (teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov). Todos os resultados est&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia (EPM). As medidas de desfecho entre os grupos foram analisadas com ANOVA unifatorial, seguida pelo teste <italic>post hoc</italic> de Bonferroni. Para compara&#231;&#245;es intragrupos, foi realizada ANOVA com medidas repetidas, seguida pelo teste <italic>post hoc</italic> de Bonferroni (para colunas selecionadas). A signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica foi definida como p &lt; 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos</title>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref> mostra as altera&#231;&#245;es na FC, na PDVE e no DP nos grupos IR, lactantes e n&#227;o lactantes durante per&#237;odos diferentes do experimento.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2">Grupos</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="3">Basal</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="3">Isquemia</th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="3">Reperfus&#227;o</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">FC (bpm)</td>
                  <td align="center">PDVE (mmHg)</td>
                  <td align="center">DP (mmHg x bpm)</td>
                  <td align="center">FC (bpm)</td>
                  <td align="center">PDVE (%Basal)</td>
                  <td align="center">DP (%Basal)</td>
                  <td align="center">FC (bpm)</td>
                  <td align="center">PDVE (%Basal)</td>
                  <td align="center">DP (%Basal)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">IR</td>
                  <td align="center">146 &#177; 4,9</td>
                  <td align="center">58,4 &#177; 11,9</td>
                  <td align="center">8519,6 &#177; 1805,2</td>
                  <td align="center">134,6 &#177; 3,9</td>
                  <td align="center">62,5 &#177; 8,3<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">57,5 &#177; 7,3<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">#</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">131,2 &#177; 5,2<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">$</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">64,3 &#177; 8,6<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">$</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">57,4 &#177; 6,8<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">#</xref></sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">L</td>
                  <td align="center">138 &#177; 3,6</td>
                  <td align="center">115,2 &#177; 34,2</td>
                  <td align="center">15673,2 &#177; 4219,6</td>
                  <td align="center">120,7 &#177; 9,1</td>
                  <td align="center">28,3 &#177; 3,7<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">25,2 &#177; 4,6<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">71,7 &#177; 18,4</td>
                  <td align="center">20,8 &#177; 7,8<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">#</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">12,6 &#177; 7,2<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">#</xref></sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">NL</td>
                  <td align="center">148,6 &#177; 8,3</td>
                  <td align="center">66,9 &#177; 11,9</td>
                  <td align="center">9797,3 &#177; 1652,5</td>
                  <td align="center">137,4 &#177; 9,7</td>
                  <td align="center">73 &#177; 8,5<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">$</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">67,2 &#177; 7,7<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">$</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">145,4 &#177; 11,9<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">$</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">73,1 &#177; 8,5<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">$</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">74 &#177; 13<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">$</xref></sup></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN5">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>p &lt; 0,05 versus basal do grupo</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN6">
                <label>#</label>
                <p>p &lt; 0,001 versus basal do grupo,</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN7">
                <label>$</label>
                <p>p &lt; 0,05 versus grupo de lactantes.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN8">
                <p>Os dados est&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia (EPM). Para PDVE, DP e FC, as m&#233;dias foram comparadas entre os grupos com ANOVA unifatorial e dentro de cada grupo, com ANOVA com medidas repetidas. O teste post hoc de Bonferroni foi utilizado.</p>
                <p>IR: isquemia-reperfus&#227;o; L: lactantes; NL: n&#227;o lactantes; PDVE: press&#227;o desenvolvida no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (mmHg); FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (bpm); DP: duplo produto (mmHg x min); bpm: batimentos por minuto.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>No grupo IR, a PDVE e o DP se mostraram reduzidos (p &lt; 0,05 e p &lt; 0,001, respectivamente) ao final do per&#237;odo de isquemia e reperfus&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o com o per&#237;odo basal. No grupo de lactantes, a PDVE e o DP estiveram significativamente reduzidos ao final da isquemia (p &lt; 0,05) e da reperfus&#227;o (p &lt; 0,001) em compara&#231;&#227;o com o momento basal. Al&#233;m disso, no grupo de lactantes, a FC se mostrou substancialmente reduzida na reperfus&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o com o momento basal. Os animais n&#227;o lactantes demonstraram um menor DP na isquemia quando comparado ao observado no per&#237;odo basal (p &lt; 0,05).</p>
          <p> A an&#225;lise intergrupos mostrou que a PDVE ao final da isquemia e o DP na isquemia e reperfus&#227;o estiveram significativamente mais altos no grupo de n&#227;o lactantes quando comparados ao de lactantes (p &lt; 0,05). Al&#233;m disso, a FC e a PDVE estiveram acentuadamente aumentadas na reperfus&#227;o nos grupos IR e de n&#227;o lactantes, quando comparados com o grupo de lactantes (p &lt; 0,05).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>&#193;rea sob risco e tamanho do infarto</title>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1</xref> mostra que n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; ASR. No entanto, o TI/ASR foi significativamente menor no grupo de lactantes em compara&#231;&#227;o aos grupos de n&#227;o-lactantes e IR (13,2 &#177; 2,5 <italic>versus</italic> 39,7 &#177; 3,5 e 34,0 &#177; 4,7, respectivamente).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f6">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#193;rea mioc&#225;rdica sob risco em rela&#231;&#227;o ao ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (ASR/VE %) e tamanho do infarto (TI/ASR %). Os dados est&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia (EPM). Os valores m&#233;dios entre os grupos foram comparados com ANOVA unifatorial, seguida pelo teste post hoc de Bonferroni. # p &lt; 0,05 versus grupo lactantes, *** p &lt; 0,001 versus grupo lactantes. IR: isquemia-reperfus&#227;o; L: lactantes; NL: n&#227;o lactantes.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-05-0443-70042-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Arritmias ventriculares</title>
          <p>Durante a fase isqu&#234;mica, o n&#250;mero de CVPs compostas foi estatisticamente mais alto no grupo de n&#227;o lactantes em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo de lactantes (p &lt; 0,05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 2</xref>). Durante os primeiros 5 minutos da fase de reperfus&#227;o, o n&#250;mero de CVPs compostas n&#227;o diferiu significativamente entre os grupos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 3</xref>). Durante a isquemia e nos primeiros 5 min de reperfus&#227;o, o n&#250;mero de TVs foi significativamente mais baixo nos grupos IR e de lactantes em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo de n&#227;o lactantes (p &lt; 0,001) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 4</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, a dura&#231;&#227;o das TVs durante a isquemia e nos primeiros 5 min da reperfus&#227;o foi substancialmente menor nos grupos de lactantes e IR quando comparados com o grupo de n&#227;o lactantes (p &lt; 0,01) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f7">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>N&#250;mero de contra&#231;&#245;es ventriculares prematuras (CVPs) compostas (incluindo bigeminismo, pares e salvas) nos diferentes grupos. Os dados est&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia (EPM). Os valores m&#233;dios entre os grupos foram comparados com ANOVA unifatorial, seguida pelo teste post hoc de Bonferroni. * p &lt; 0,05 versus grupo de lactantes. IR: isquemia-reperfus&#227;o; L: lactantes; NL: n&#227;o lactantes.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-05-0443-70042-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f8">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>N&#250;mero de contra&#231;&#245;es ventriculares prematuras (CVPs) compostas (incluindo bigeminismo, pares e salvas) nos diferentes grupos. Os dados est&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia (EPM). Os valores m&#233;dios entre os grupos foram comparados com ANOVA unifatorial, seguida pelo teste post hoc de Bonferroni. IR: isquemia-reperfus&#227;o; L: lactantes; NL: n&#227;o lactantes.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-05-0443-70042-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f9">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>N&#250;mero de taquicardias ventriculares (TVs) nos diferentes grupos. Os dados est&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia (EPM). Os valores m&#233;dios entre os grupos foram comparados com ANOVA unifatorial, seguida pelo teste post hoc de Bonferroni. ***p &lt; 0,001 versus grupo de lactantes; $$$p &lt; 0,001 versus grupo IR. IR: isquemia-reperfus&#227;o; L: lactantes; NL: n&#227;o lactantes.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-05-0443-70042-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f10">
              <label>Figura 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Dura&#231;&#227;o da taquicardia ventricular (TV) nos diferentes grupos. Os dados est&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia (EPM). Os valores m&#233;dios entre os grupos foram comparados com ANOVA unifatorial, seguida pelo teste post hoc de Bonferroni. IR: isquemia-reperfus&#227;o; L: lactantes; NL: n&#227;o lactantes. **p &lt; 0,001 versus grupo de lactantes; $$p &lt; 0,001 versus grupo IR.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-05-0443-70042-gf05-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>O presente estudo mostrou o efeito da gravidez e da lacta&#231;&#227;o sobre a vulnerabilidade do mioc&#225;rdio a um insulto isqu&#234;mico. Observamos que a lacta&#231;&#227;o, e n&#227;o somente a gravidez, precondicionou o cora&#231;&#227;o materno contra o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio induzido por isquemia. Al&#233;m disso, a amamenta&#231;&#227;o reduziu a incid&#234;ncia e dura&#231;&#227;o de arritmias ventriculares durante a isquemia.</p>
        <p>Evid&#234;ncias crescentes t&#234;m indicado efeitos ben&#233;ficos da lacta&#231;&#227;o a curto e longo prazo sobre fatores de risco associados com a morbidade cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> O &#250;nico estudo indicando efeitos cardioprotetores da lacta&#231;&#227;o contra a les&#227;o por IR foi realizado recentemente por Shekarforoush e Safari.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> No entanto, o estudo desses autores n&#227;o considerou se a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o teria sido conferida apenas pela gravidez. Al&#233;m disso, esses autores n&#227;o puderam observar efeitos antiarr&#237;tmicos da lacta&#231;&#227;o durante a isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> No presente estudo, foi utilizado um modelo <italic>in vitro</italic> de Langendorff. Assim, o aparecimento precoce de efeitos cardioprotetores da lacta&#231;&#227;o pode ser atribu&#237;do &#224;s caracter&#237;sticas intr&#237;nsecas do cora&#231;&#227;o independentes da complexa fisiologia da lacta&#231;&#227;o. Observamos que a gravidez aumenta o tamanho do infarto induzido pela isquemia, al&#233;m da incid&#234;ncia e dura&#231;&#227;o das arritmias. Estudos anteriores sugerem que a gravidez aumenta o risco materno de eventos cardiovasculares atrav&#233;s de um aumento no ac&#250;mulo de gordura central,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> na press&#227;o arterial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> e na resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Durante a gravidez, o cora&#231;&#227;o materno se transforma em "um cora&#231;&#227;o de melhor funcionamento" e sofre hipertrofia fisiol&#243;gica, a fim de aumentar a sua capacidade de bombeamento. No entanto, Lain et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> demonstraram que o cora&#231;&#227;o durante fases avan&#231;adas da gravidez &#233; mais suscet&#237;vel &#224; les&#227;o por IR quando submetido &#224; oclus&#227;o coronariana. Al&#233;m disso, em ratas em fase avan&#231;ada de gravidez, o TI foi maior e a recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica foi observada como sendo extremamente pobre. &#201; interessante notar que as altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas e o aumento do TI foram parcialmente restaurados no p&#243;s-parto em camundongos.</p>
        <p>A abertura do poro de transi&#231;&#227;o de permeabilidade mitocondrial (PTPm) no in&#237;cio da reperfus&#227;o &#233; um fator cr&#237;tico determinante de morte celular mioc&#225;rdica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Um estudo a este respeito demonstrou que a gravidez diminui o limiar para a abertura dos PTPm, que pode ser atribu&#237;do a um aumento na gera&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ROS) no cora&#231;&#227;o induzido pela gravidez. Alguns autores levantaram a hip&#243;tese de que a lacta&#231;&#227;o pode induzir um efeito de redefini&#231;&#227;o sobre o cora&#231;&#227;o e melhorar as altera&#231;&#245;es induzidas pela gravidez na din&#226;mica cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O efeito protetor da lacta&#231;&#227;o pode ser atribu&#237;do a um aumento do gasto metab&#243;lico na nutriz,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> explicando a diminui&#231;&#227;o do &#237;ndice de massa corporal e dos n&#237;veis de colesterol ap&#243;s a lacta&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, a inicia&#231;&#227;o e manuten&#231;&#227;o da lacta&#231;&#227;o envolvem v&#225;rios horm&#244;nios, como a ocitocina, prolactina, horm&#244;nio do crescimento, tiroxina, corticoides adrenais e horm&#244;nio da paratireoide.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> O tecido card&#237;aco expressa uma grande variedade de receptores hormonais, incluindo receptores para horm&#244;nios lactog&#234;nicos,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> e altera&#231;&#245;es no meio hormonal induzidas pela amamenta&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m sido relatadas como melhorando os perfis cardiovasculares.</p>
        <p>A suc&#231;&#227;o &#233; o principal est&#237;mulo para a libera&#231;&#227;o de ocitocina a partir da hip&#243;fise posterior. O efeito protetor da ocitocina contra a les&#227;o por IR j&#225; foi previamente descrito.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Faghihi et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> demonstraram que um precondicionamento com ocitocina reduz as arritmias ventriculares induzidas por isquemia por eliminar radicais livres e retardar a abertura dos PTPms. Das e Sarkar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> sugeriram um envolvimento dos canais de pot&#225;ssio dependentes de ATP na mitoc&#244;ndria na cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida por ocitocina. Al&#233;m disso, tem sido demonstrado que a ocitocina promove a libera&#231;&#227;o de pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico atrial - um horm&#244;nio cardioprotetor bem conhecido que reduz a incid&#234;ncia de arritmias induzidas por reperfus&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> A ocitocina tamb&#233;m exerce efeitos inotr&#243;picos e cronotr&#243;picos negativos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> que, por sua vez, podem diminuir a demanda de oxig&#234;nio do mioc&#225;rdio, produzindo um infarto menor ap&#243;s oclus&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria. Al&#233;m da ocitocina, o pr&#233;-tratamento com horm&#244;nio tireoidiano tem sido mostrado como protetor contra a isquemia letal em um padr&#227;o semelhante ao do precondicionamento isqu&#234;mico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Observamos que a lacta&#231;&#227;o reduz a PDVE, o DP e a FC em animais submetidos &#224; isquemia. Isto indica um efeito positivo da amamenta&#231;&#227;o, j&#225; que ela reduz o consumo de oxig&#234;nio pelo mioc&#225;rdio e melhora a rela&#231;&#227;o oferta-demanda de oxig&#234;nio.</p>
        <p>A suc&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o apenas estimula a libera&#231;&#227;o de ocitocina, mas tamb&#233;m provoca secre&#231;&#227;o de prolactina e horm&#244;nio adrenocorticotr&#243;fico, que s&#227;o essenciais para a galactopoiese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> As evid&#234;ncias experimentais para o efeito da prolactina sobre o sistema cardiovascular s&#227;o bastante limitadas. Um estudo de coorte relatou uma associa&#231;&#227;o direta entre os n&#237;veis de prolactina com disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e aumento do risco de eventos cardiovasculares e mortalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Por outro lado, Krzeminski et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> observaram efeitos antiarr&#237;tmicos da prolactina (isoforma) contra a les&#227;o por IR. Em ratas, 15 dias de tratamento com prolactina reduzem substancialmente o aumento induzido pela adrenalina na FC, press&#227;o arterial, necrose e infiltra&#231;&#227;o de granul&#243;citos em cardiomi&#243;citos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Al&#233;m disso, os corticosteroides conferem cardioprote&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s da liga&#231;&#227;o a receptores glicocorticoides.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> Os glicocorticoides ativam a sintase endotelial (eNOS) e exercem efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios, antiaterog&#234;nicos e anti-isqu&#234;micos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O sistema aut&#244;nomo &#233; um regulador importante da lacta&#231;&#227;o e da eje&#231;&#227;o de leite. A estimula&#231;&#227;o do nervo vago (ENV) &#233; essencial para a libera&#231;&#227;o de ocitocina e prolactina induzidas pela suc&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> Sinais eferentes do nervo vago podem inibir a produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas proinflamat&#243;rias, melhorando assim os desfechos patol&#243;gicos de doen&#231;as como a sepse, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e outros dist&#250;rbios inflamat&#243;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> Curiosamente, demonstrou-se que a ENV previne a les&#227;o por reperfus&#227;o atrav&#233;s da inibi&#231;&#227;o dos PTPms.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
				</p>
        <p>No presente estudo, o efeito protetor da lactog&#234;nese contra a les&#227;o por IR pode envolver um papel potencial dos horm&#244;nios lactog&#234;nicos, que podem influenciar diretamente a din&#226;mica card&#237;aca atrav&#233;s de receptores card&#237;acos. Al&#233;m disso, a lacta&#231;&#227;o pode ter melhorado a les&#227;o por IR atrav&#233;s da ENV. Um confundidor plaus&#237;vel neste estudo foi o estresse emocional imposto sobre a sa&#250;de das m&#227;es pela separa&#231;&#227;o dos seus filhotes. Embora, pelo protocolo da pesquisa, as ratas no grupo de n&#227;o lactantes n&#227;o tenham sido operadas at&#233; 21 dias ap&#243;s o parto (de maneira semelhantes &#224;s ratas no grupo de lactantes), o efeito potencial do estresse emocional na din&#226;mica cardiovascular n&#227;o pode ser definitivamente exclu&#237;do.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Nossos achados, como um todo, demonstram um efeito cardioprotetor da lacta&#231;&#227;o sobre a sa&#250;de materna, independente da gravidez. Al&#233;m disso, ratas que n&#227;o foram permitidas a amamentar seus filhotes demonstraram uma alta vulnerabilidade ao insulto mioc&#225;rdico isqu&#234;mico.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pelo Tehran University of Medical Sciences.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Sahar Askari pela Tehran University of Medical Sciences.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
