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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="editorial" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.6" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">PcnH4CFZPCqt8KVkgFy9Stp</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2017000500388</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20170061</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Challenges of Translational Science</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Garcia</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Polegato</surname>
            <given-names>Bertha F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zornoff</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo A. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu, Botucatu, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Leonardo A. M. Zornoff</bold>, Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica, Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Av. Prof. M&#225;rio Rubens Guimar&#227;es Montenegro, s/n. Postal Code 18618-687, UNESP - Campus de Botucatu, Botucatu, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>lzornoff@fmb.unesp.br</email>
				</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>108</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>388</fpage>
      <lpage>389</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Animal Models</kwd>
        <kwd>Ischemia-reperfusion injury</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>Signaling Pathways</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>The introduction of standardized therapies for the treatment of major cardiovascular diseases, such as heart failure and myocardial infarction, significantly reduced mortality. However, cardiovascular diseases are still one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Consequently, a large number of experimental studies are published regarding this subject. These studies investigate, in addition to the mechanisms involved in the genesis of cardiovascular disease, potential therapeutic targets, as well as interventions that are beneficial in reducing the size of the ischemic lesion and the progression of cardiac dysfunction and, consequently, decrease mortality.</p>
    <p>In some situations, the results of preclinical research are reproducible in clinical studies. As an example, we could cite the influence of obesity on the process of cardiac remodeling. It is accepted that the remodeling process plays a critical role in the onset and progression of cardiac dysfunction secondary to different stimuli.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Experimental studies have shown that obesity induces ventricular remodeling,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> since it has been confirmed in clinical studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
		</p>
    <p>However, not infrequently, the success of the experimental treatments studied does not replicate when applied to clinical studies. In this sense, the analysis of some recently published papers in the <italic>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</italic>, in the field of basic / experimental research exemplifies this phenomenon.</p>
    <p>One of the most interesting topics in cardiology today are the strategies to attenuate ischemia / reperfusion injury (RI). Thus, in the rat model, hypothyroidism, associated with decreased levels of nitric oxide, protected the heart from IR injury. Similarly, physical exercise,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> administration of tramadol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> and consumption of nitrate<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> were effective in decreasing IR-induced injury in the rat model. These and other positive results from experimental studies are obfuscated by the fact that to date, cardioprotection strategies in clinical studies have shown negative results.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
		</p>
    <p>The reasons for this frustrating inconsistency between experimental and clinical studies are many and reflect the full complexity of translational research. The first difficulty that can be pointed out is in relation to the animals used in the experimental studies. We can observe that much of the research uses small animals, usually rodents, as the target of the intervention. It is well known that the physiology of the cardiovascular system of small rodents is not necessarily the same as that of humans. High heart rate and differences in cellular ion fluxes, including calcium flux, do not allow the extrapolation of the results of these studies to humans. In addition, small rodents used in laboratories are genetically very homogeneous and, in some situations, are virtually the same.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Although the experimental model with large animals is more similar to human and large animals are genetically more heterogeneous, research involving models with larger animals is much more difficult to conduct.</p>
    <p>Another point to highlight is that most of the experimental studies use young and healthy animals, which differs significantly from the reality of the patients included in the clinical studies. It is not uncommon for patients with cardiovascular disease to have more than one comorbidity. Even when comorbidities are inserted in the experimental models, they are not treated, as is the case with patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Treatment of these comorbidities involves the use of several medications, such as angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and beta-blockers, which also exert a cardioprotective effect. Accordingly, some pathological modulating pathways of pathological processes may already be blocked, even partially, by such medications. Thus, the insertion of one more cardioprotective factor in clinical studies may lead to very subtle improvements in outcomes, which are not statistically significant. In addition, cardioprotection involves the activation of multifactorial mechanisms and the presence of comorbidities and medications can modify the individual panel of gene expression of patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
		</p>
    <p>We must also consider that the most common experimental model to study the pathophysiological consequences of myocardial infarction is the external ligation of the anterior descending artery, whereas in humans, coronary occlusion is the result of a long inflammatory process. In this way, the activated signaling pathways can be completely different. Even when models of ApoE knockout mice are used in the induction of atherosclerosis, this happens in an artificial way and does not reproduce the reality of what happens in humans.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Additionally, lipid metabolism in mice is different, since in mice there is a predominance of lipoprotein HDL, whereas in humans there is a predominance of LDL and VLDL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
		</p>
    <p>In addition, regarding the difficulties of reproducing experimental results in clinical studies in myocardial infarction, in humans one of the pillars of the treatment is the institution of reperfusion as soon as possible. This measure alone is already successful in decreasing infarct size and mortality, and the beneficial effect of any additional intervention can be minimized in clinical studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
		</p>
    <p>Another limitation of translational research is the transposition of the doses used in animals to humans, as well as the time of onset and duration of treatment. The drug or substance should achieve adequate concentration in the target tissue, while at the same time it can not be excessive, because of the risks of side effects. As a consequence, subtherapeutic doses may sometimes be used in clinical studies. An example of this is the PREMIER study, which evaluated the effect of selective inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases PG 116800 in patients after myocardial infarction. In this study, due to the risk of the onset of musculoskeletal syndrome, one of the side effects of the administration of inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases, a dose lower than that shown to be effective in preclinical studies in pigs was used. Thus, despite promising therapy, this study did not show any effect of PG 116800 on clinical outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
		</p>
    <p>Therefore, although the contributions of experimental research in the area of cardiology are unquestionable, the challenge that remains is getting a greater transposition, in the minimum of possible time, of the results obtained on the workbench to the clinical practice.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Desafios da Ci&#234;ncia Translacional</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Garcia</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Polegato</surname>
            <given-names>Bertha F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zornoff</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo A. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu, Botucatu, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Leonardo A. M. Zornoff</bold>, Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica, Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Av. Prof. M&#225;rio Rubens Guimar&#227;es Montenegro, s/n. CEP 18618-687, UNESP - Campus de Botucatu, Botucatu, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>lzornoff@fmb.unesp.br</email>
				</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Modelos Animais</kwd>
        <kwd>Inj&#250;ria de Isquemia/reperfus&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>Vias de Sinaliza&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>A introdu&#231;&#227;o de terap&#234;uticas j&#225; padronizadas para o tratamento das principais doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, como por exemplo, a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, reduziram a mortalidade de maneira significativa. No entanto, as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares ainda constituem uma das principais causas de morbimortalidade em todo o mundo. Em consequ&#234;ncia, grande n&#250;mero de estudos experimentais s&#227;o publicados a respeito do tema. Esses estudos investigam, al&#233;m dos mecanismos envolvidos na g&#234;nese da doen&#231;a cardiovascular, os potenciais alvos terap&#234;uticos, assim como interven&#231;&#245;es que se mostrem ben&#233;ficas para reduzir o tamanho da les&#227;o isqu&#234;mica e a progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e, consequentemente, diminuam a mortalidade.</p>
      <p>Em algumas situa&#231;&#245;es, os resultados de pesquisas pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicas s&#227;o reproduz&#237;veis em estudos cl&#237;nicos. Como exemplo, poder&#237;amos citar a influ&#234;ncia da obesidade no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Aceita-se que o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o desempenhe papel cr&#237;tico no aparecimento e na progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca secund&#225;ria a diferentes est&#237;mulos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Estudos experimentais mostraram que a obesidade induz remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> dado que foi confirmado em estudos cl&#237;nicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>No entanto, de modo n&#227;o raro, o sucesso dos tratamentos experimentais estudados n&#227;o se reproduz quando aplicados aos estudos cl&#237;nicos. Nesse sentido, a an&#225;lise de alguns trabalhos publicados recentemente nos Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, na &#225;rea de pesquisa b&#225;sica/experimental exemplifica esse fen&#244;meno.</p>
      <p>Um dos temas de maior interesse, atualmente, em cardiologia, refere-se &#224;s estrat&#233;gias para atenuar a les&#227;o induzida pela isquemia/reperfus&#227;o (IR). Assim, no modelo de rato, o hipotireoidismo, associado a n&#237;veis diminu&#237;dos do &#243;xido n&#237;trico, protegeu o cora&#231;&#227;o da les&#227;o de IR. Do mesmo modo, o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> a administra&#231;&#227;o de tramadol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> e o consumo de nitrato<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> foram efetivos em diminuir a les&#227;o induzida por IR no modelo com ratos. Esses e outros resultados positivos de estudos experimentais s&#227;o ofuscados pelo fato de, at&#233; o momento, as estrat&#233;gias de cardioprote&#231;&#227;o em estudos cl&#237;nicos terem apresentado resultados negativos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Os motivos para essa frustrante inconsist&#234;ncia entre os estudos experimentais e cl&#237;nicos s&#227;o muitos e refletem toda a complexidade da pesquisa translacional.</p>
      <p>A primeira dificuldade que pode ser apontada &#233; em rela&#231;&#227;o aos animais utilizados nos estudos experimentais. Podemos observar que grande parte das pesquisas utiliza pequenos animais, geralmente roedores, como alvo da interven&#231;&#227;o. &#201; sabido que a fisiologia do sistema cardiovascular de pequenos roedores n&#227;o &#233; necessariamente igual a de humanos. A elevada frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e as diferen&#231;as de fluxos i&#244;nicos celulares, incluindo o do tr&#226;nsito do c&#225;lcio, n&#227;o permitem a extrapola&#231;&#227;o dos resultados desses estudos para humanos. Adicionalmente, pequenos roedores utilizados nos laborat&#243;rios s&#227;o geneticamente muito homog&#234;neos e, em algumas situa&#231;&#245;es, s&#227;o virtualmente iguais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Apesar do modelo experimental com grandes animais ser mais semelhante ao humano e os grandes animais serem geneticamente mais heterog&#234;neos, a pesquisa envolvendo modelos com animais maiores &#233; muito mais dif&#237;cil de ser conduzida.</p>
      <p>Outro ponto a ser destacado &#233; que a maioria dos estudos experimentais utiliza animais jovens e saud&#225;veis, o que difere de maneira significativa da realidade dos pacientes inclu&#237;dos nos estudos cl&#237;nicos. N&#227;o &#233; raro os pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiovascular apresentarem mais de uma comorbidade. Mesmo quando s&#227;o inseridas comorbidades nos modelos experimentais, essas n&#227;o s&#227;o tratadas, como acontece com os pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> O tratamento dessas comorbidades envolve a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de v&#225;rias medica&#231;&#245;es, como inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina e betabloqueadores, que tamb&#233;m exercem efeito cardioprotetor. Consequentemente, algumas vias hormonais moduladoras de processos patol&#243;gicos podem j&#225; estar bloqueadas, mesmo que parcialmente, por essas medica&#231;&#245;es. Desse modo, a inser&#231;&#227;o de mais um fator cardioprotetor nos estudos cl&#237;nicos pode levar a melhorias muito sutis nos desfechos, que acabam n&#227;o sendo estatisticamente significantes. Al&#233;m disso, a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o envolve a ativa&#231;&#227;o de mecanismos multifatoriais e a presen&#231;a de comorbidades e medica&#231;&#245;es pode modificar o painel individual de express&#227;o g&#234;nica dos pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Devemos considerar, tamb&#233;m, que o modelo experimental mais comum para estudar as consequ&#234;ncias fisiopatol&#243;gicas do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; a ligadura externa da art&#233;ria descendente anterior, enquanto que em humanos, a oclus&#227;o coronariana &#233; resultado de longo processo inflamat&#243;rio. Deste modo, as vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o ativadas podem ser completamente dispares. Mesmo quando s&#227;o utilizados modelos de camundongos knockout para ApoE na indu&#231;&#227;o de aterosclerose, esta acontece de maneira artificial e n&#227;o reproduz a realidade do que acontece no humano.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Adicionalmente, o metabolismo de lip&#237;deos nos camundongos &#233; diferente, sendo que em camundongos h&#225; predom&#237;nio da lipoprote&#237;na HDL, enquanto que em humanos h&#225; predom&#237;nio de LDL e VLDL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Ainda em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s dificuldades de reproduzir os resultados experimentais em estudos cl&#237;nicos no infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, em humanos um dos pilares do tratamento &#233; a institui&#231;&#227;o da reperfus&#227;o o mais rapidamente poss&#237;vel. Essa medida por si s&#243; j&#225; apresenta grande sucesso em diminuir tamanho do infarto e mortalidade, sendo que o efeito ben&#233;fico de qualquer interven&#231;&#227;o adicional pode ser minimizado nos estudos cl&#237;nicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Outra limita&#231;&#227;o da pesquisa translacional &#233; a transposi&#231;&#227;o das doses utilizadas em animais para humanos, bem como do tempo de in&#237;cio e dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento. A droga ou subst&#226;ncia deve atingir concentra&#231;&#227;o adequada no tecido alvo, ao mesmo tempo em que n&#227;o pode ser excessiva, por conta dos riscos dos efeitos colaterais. Como consequ&#234;ncia, algumas vezes podem ser utilizadas doses sub-terap&#234;uticas nos estudos cl&#237;nicos. Um exemplo disso &#233; o estudo PREMIER, que avaliou o efeito do inibidor seletivo de metaloproteinases de matriz PG 116800 em pacientes ap&#243;s o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio. Nesse estudo, devido ao risco de surgimento de s&#237;ndrome musculoesquel&#233;tica, um dos efeitos colaterais da administra&#231;&#227;o de inibidores de metaloproteinases de matriz, foi utilizada dose inferior &#224; que se mostrou efetiva nos estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos em porcos. Assim, apesar de ser terap&#234;utica promissora, esse estudo n&#227;o mostrou qualquer efeito do PG 116800 nos desfechos cl&#237;nicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Pelo exposto, apesar das contribui&#231;&#245;es da pesquisa experimental na &#225;rea da cardiologia serem inquestion&#225;veis, permanece o desafio para a maior transposi&#231;&#227;o, no m&#237;nimo de tempo poss&#237;vel, dos resultados obtidos na bancada para a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
