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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.5" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">rvJxPXyP94pLnXzkZDLPzLD</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2017000400331</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20170033</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2017005005104</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>MCP-1 Levels are Associated with Cardiac Remodeling but not with Resistant Hypertension</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ritter</surname>
            <given-names>Alessandra Mileni Versuti</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faria</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula Cabral de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sabbatini</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Corr&#234;a</surname>
            <given-names>Nathalia Batista</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brunelli</surname>
            <given-names>Veridiana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Modolo</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreno</surname>
            <given-names>Heitor</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP - Brazil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Alessandra Mileni Versuti Ritter</bold>, Rua Alexandre Fleming, 105. Postal Code 13084-971, Campinas, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>ale_mileni@hotmail.com</email>, <email>ale.versuti@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and Writing of the manuscript: Ritter AMV; Acquisition of data: Ritter AMV, Faria APC, Sabbatini A, Corr&#234;a NB, Brunelli V; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Ritter AMV, Faria APC, Sabbatini A; Statistical analysis: Ritter AMV, Faria APC; Obtaining financing: Moreno H; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Ritter AMV, Faria APC, Sabbatini A, Corr&#234;a NB, Brunelli V, Modolo R, Moreno H.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>30</day>
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>108</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>331</fpage>
      <lpage>338</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Hypertension is a chronic, low-grade inflammation process associated with the release of cytokines and development of target organ damage. Deregulated monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) levels have been associated with high blood pressure and cardiovascular complications; however, the mechanisms involved are complex and not fully understood.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>This study aimed to compare the levels of MCP-1 in patients with resistant (RH) versus mild-to-moderate (HTN) hypertension and their association with the presence or absence of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in all hypertensive subjects.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>We enrolled 256 hypertensive subjects: 120 RH and 136 HTN, investigating the relationship between circulating MCP-1 levels and blood pressure, biochemical data, hematologic profile, and cardiac damage within the RH and HTN groups. Plasma MCP-1 levels were measured by ELISA and LVH was assessed by echocardiography.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>We found no difference in MCP-1 levels between RH and HTN subjects. On the other hand, we encountered lower MCP-1 levels in patients with LVH (105 pg/mL [100 - 260 pg/mL] versus 136 pg/mL (100 - 200 pg/mL), p = 0.005, respectively] compared with those without LVH. A logistic regression model adjusted for body mass index (BMI), age, race, aldosterone levels, and presence of diabetes and RH demonstrated that median levels of MCP-1 (2.55 pg/mL [1.22 - 5.2 pg/mL], p = 0.01) were independently associated with LVH in the entire hypertensive population.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Since MCP-1 levels were similar in both RH and HTN subjects and decreased in hypertensive patients with existing LVH, our study suggests a possible downregulation in MCP-1 levels in hypertensive individuals with LVH, regardless of hypertension strata.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Refractory Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Cytokines</kwd>
        <kwd>Monocyte Chemoattractant Proteins</kwd>
        <kwd>Left Ventricular Hypertrophy</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Resistant hypertension (RH) is defined as a condition in which patients present either (i) uncontrolled blood pressure (BP) (&#8805; 140/90 mmHg) despite the use of maximal recommended or tolerated doses of three or more antihypertensive drugs, or (ii) controlled BP with the use of at least four medications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> The high prevalence of target organ damage (TOD), such as left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), is higher in patients with RH compared with those with mild/moderate hypertension (HTN)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> and is considered a predictor of future cardiovascular events in this specific RH population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Many lines of evidence have established that hypertension is a chronic low-grade inflammation process that plays a role in the development and maintenance of TOD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Several inflammatory mediators are enhanced in hypertensive subjects,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> including monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> MCP-1, also known as CCL2, can be produced by different cells and is responsible for migration of monocytes and macrophages cells to the tissue,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> exacerbating the local damage.</p>
      <p>Experimental models of hypertension have shown that infiltration of inflammatory cells (macrophages) in the vascular walls is strongly related to increased BP<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> and cardiovascular alterations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> A clinical study has suggested that MCP-1 levels may vary according to the degree of hypertension,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> indicating a stage-dependent biomarker of the disease.</p>
      <p>Although some authors have shown that increased levels of MCP-1/CCL2 and macrophages in the heart contribute to cardiac damage,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> others have pointed out that macrophages have cardioprotective effects.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> In fact, one study showed that depletion of macrophages accelerates the development of cardiomyopathy in hypertensive rats.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> This effect could be explained by an ability to maintain cardiac homeostasis during some cardiac diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Despite these findings, the relationship of MCP-1 with RH and cardiac damage in the clinical setting has not been established yet. Therefore, this study was designed to assess the levels of MCP-1 in RH compared with HTN subjects and its association with LVH in all hypertensive groups.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Study subjects</title>
        <p>A convenience sample of 256 hypertensive patients from the Resistant Hypertension Outpatient Clinic at University of Campinas (Campinas, Brazil) were enrolled in this cross-sectional study.</p>
        <p>Patients were diagnosed with RH after a 6-month protocol to exclude pseudoresistance - white-coat hypertension and poor medication adherence - with ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM), the Morisky questionnaire, and pill count. Secondary hypertension (renal artery stenosis, pheochromocytoma, and primary hyperaldosteronism) was also excluded. These subjects were enrolled in the RH group. Also, patients with controlled BP using three or less antihypertensive drugs, or not yet controlled using two or less of these medications were classified as having HTN and also enrolled in the study.</p>
        <p> The patients were classified into two groups: RH (n = 120) and HTN (n = 136). In addition, we combined both RH and HTN groups together and assessed the MCP-1 levels according to (1) the presence or absence of LVH (115 g/m<sup>2</sup> for men and 95 g/m<sup>2</sup> for women)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> and (2) LVH severity, considering patients without LVH as level 0; patients with LVH and left ventricular (LV) mass index (LVMI) &lt; median (121 g/m<sup>2</sup>) as level 1; and patients with LVH and LVMI &#8805; median (121 g/m<sup>2</sup>) as level 2.</p>
        <p>All ethical requirements for experiments conducted in human subjects were strictly followed. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee at Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas (S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil) (approval no. 1.112.881/2015) and was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants signed a written informed consent form before study enrollment.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Office blood pressure measurements</title>
        <p>A trained health professional measured the office BP at least three times using a certified digital sphygmomanometer (HEM-907 XL OMRON Healthcare Inc., Bannockburn, IL, USA) in accordance with the 2013 European Society of Hypertension (ESH) guidelines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> The average of two or three consecutive measurements was used if a difference between the measurements was below 5 mmHg.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring</title>
        <p>24-hour ABPM was carried out using an automatic oscillometric device (Spacelabs 90207, Spacelabs Inc.). The measurements were obtained every 20 minutes throughout the 24 hour period. The subjects were instructed to maintain their normal daily activities, avoid excessive physical activity, and take note of their sleep period in a personal diary. The mean BP was calculated during waking and sleep.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Echocardiography</title>
        <p>Experienced specialists blinded to the patients' clinical data measured echocardiographic parameters (Siemens Acuson CV70, Munich, Bavaria, Germany) using two-dimensional targeted M-mode echocardiography. Diastolic and systolic LV diameters and the interventricular septal and posterior wall thicknesses were measured according to the QRS wave of the electrocardiogram. The LV mass was calculated by the American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) recommended formula<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> and the LVMI was calculated by dividing the LV mass by the body surface. An LVMI greater than 115 g/m<sup>2</sup> for men and 95 g/m<sup>2</sup> for women characterized the presence of LVH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Serum collection and laboratory assessments</title>
        <p>Blood samples were withdrawn from the antecubital vein, with atraumatic venipuncture, after 8 hours of overnight fasting. Plasma levels of MCP-1 were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA; R&amp;D Systems, Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA), according to the manufacturer's instructions. Radioimmunoassay (Immunotech SAS, Marseille, France) was used to measure the plasma level of aldosterone according to the manufacturer's instructions. The neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (NLR) was calculated by absolute neutrophil count divided by absolute lymphocyte count. In addition, serum total cholesterol, low- and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, and creatinine were measured. Creatinine clearance (mL/min/1.73 m<sup>2</sup>) was measured in a urine sample collected during 24 hours.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>Descriptive data are shown as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD) for parametric data or median (interquartile range [IQR]) for nonparametric data. The distribution of the data was assessed by the Shapiro-Wilk test. Non-paired Student's <italic>t</italic> test or Mann-Whitney test was performed to compare two groups, while Kruskal-Wallis or analysis of variance (ANOVA) test, followed by Dunn's or Bonferroni post-test, respectively, were used for groups of three, according to data distribution. Categorical variables are presented in frequencies and/or percentages and were compared by Fisher's test. Spearman's correlation tested the association of nonparametric data. Also, we performed multiple logistic regression for the presence of LVH adjusted for age, aldosterone levels, body mass index (BMI), race, presence of diabetes, presence of RH, and MCP-1 median levels (categorized according to the median value of &lt; 125 pg/mL) in hypertensive subjects. The level of statistical significance taken into account was &lt; 0.05.</p>
        <p>The analyses were performed using the software SigmaPlot (Systat Software, Inc, v.12, Chicago, IL, USA).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> shows the general characteristics, biochemical data, and hematologic profile of the 256 hypertensive subjects. We found a higher percentage of diabetic individuals and black race in the RH compared with the HTN group. Moreover, RH patients showed higher office systolic BP (SBP) and aldosterone levels, a higher incidence of LVH, and imbalance of lipid and glucose profiles compared with HTN subjects. On the other hand, we found no difference in hematologic parameters between the groups.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>General characteristics of the subjects with resistant and mild-to-moderate hypertension</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="center" colspan="4" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">Hypertensive (n = 256)</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">HTN (n = 136)</th>
              <th align="center">RH (n = 120)</th>
              <th align="center">p value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" colspan="4">
                <bold>Clinical Data</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Age (years)</td>
              <td align="center">65 &#177; 10</td>
              <td align="center">60 &#177; 11</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Women (%)</td>
              <td align="center">62</td>
              <td align="center">67</td>
              <td align="center">0.50</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Black race (%)</td>
              <td align="center">13</td>
              <td align="center">44</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Diabetes (%)</td>
              <td align="center">38</td>
              <td align="center">51</td>
              <td align="center">0.05</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Office SBP (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">139 (131 &#8211; 148)</td>
              <td align="center">147 (134 &#8211; 160)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Office DBP (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">81 (76 &#8211; 86)</td>
              <td align="center">83 (78 &#8211; 92)</td>
              <td align="center">0.09</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ABPM SBP (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">127 (118 &#8211; 135)</td>
              <td align="center">130 (117 &#8211; 143)</td>
              <td align="center">0.18</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ABPM DBP (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">76 (70 &#8211; 81)</td>
              <td align="center">77 (70 &#8211; 83)</td>
              <td align="center">0.34</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LVMI (g/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">100 (87 &#8211; 119)</td>
              <td align="center">113 (95 &#8211; 142)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" colspan="4">
                <bold>Biochemical Data</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">C-reactive protein (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">0.3 (0.2 &#8211; 0.6)</td>
              <td align="center">0.3 (0.2 &#8211; 0.6)</td>
              <td align="center">0.72</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Cholesterol (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">165 (140 &#8211; 185)</td>
              <td align="center">181 (151 &#8211; 209)</td>
              <td align="center">0.003</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">HDL (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">49 (42 &#8211; 57)</td>
              <td align="center">46 (38 &#8211; 54)</td>
              <td align="center">0.02</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LDL (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">87 (67 &#8211; 107)</td>
              <td align="center">98 (79 &#8211; 127)</td>
              <td align="center">0.002</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Triglycerides (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">108 (80 &#8211; 151)</td>
              <td align="center">129 (93 &#8211; 185)</td>
              <td align="center">0.019</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">HbA1c (%)</td>
              <td align="center">6.0 (5.8 &#8211; 6.5)</td>
              <td align="center">6.3 (6.0 &#8211; 7.8)</td>
              <td align="center">0.007</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Glucose (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">97 (90 &#8211; 107)</td>
              <td align="center">101 (89 &#8211; 132)</td>
              <td align="center">0.12</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Creatinine (mg/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">0.94 (0.8 &#8211; 1.1)</td>
              <td align="center">0.97 (0.8 &#8211; 1.2)</td>
              <td align="center">0.15</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Creatinine clearance (mL/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">65 (28 &#8211; 93)</td>
              <td align="center">81 (62 &#8211; 98)</td>
              <td align="center">0.05</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Aldosterone (ng/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">68 (43 &#8211; 115)</td>
              <td align="center">98 (60 &#8211; 179)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" colspan="4">
                <bold>Hematologic Profile</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Leukocytes (mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">6.6 (6 &#8211; 8)</td>
              <td align="center">7.4 (6 &#8211; 8)</td>
              <td align="center">0.03</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Monocytes %</td>
              <td align="center">8 (7 &#8211; 9)</td>
              <td align="center">8 (6 &#8211; 9)</td>
              <td align="center">0.79</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Lymphocytes %</td>
              <td align="center">30 &#177; 7</td>
              <td align="center">30 &#177; 8</td>
              <td align="center">0.85</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Basophils %</td>
              <td align="center">0.4 (0.2 &#8211; 0.5)</td>
              <td align="center">0.4 (0.3 &#8211; 0.6)</td>
              <td align="center">0.41</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Eosinophils %</td>
              <td align="center">3 (2 &#8211; 4)</td>
              <td align="center">2 (1 &#8211; 3)</td>
              <td align="center">0.43</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Neutrophils %</td>
              <td align="center">59 &#177; 7</td>
              <td align="center">58 &#177; 10</td>
              <td align="center">0.60</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">NLR</td>
              <td align="center">2 (1.8 &#8211; 2.3)</td>
              <td align="center">2 (1.4 &#8211; 2.6)</td>
              <td align="center">0.80</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <p>HTN: mild&#8211;to-moderate hypertensive subjects; RH: resistant hypertensive subjects; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; ABPM: ambulatory blood pressure measurement; LVMI: left ventricular mass index; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; HbA1c: glycated hemoglobin; NLR: neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio; Continuous variables are presented as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD) for parametric data or median (1st, 3rd quartiles) for nonparametric data. Categorical variables are presented as percentages. Student&#8217;s t test or Mann Whitney test was performed according to data distribution, and Fisher&#8217;s test was used to compare categorical variables</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>We observed that RH individuals used a greater number of antihypertensive drugs and a higher proportion of almost all antihypertensive classes, except for angiotensin II receptor antagonists (ARAs) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>). Furthermore, the number of individuals using statins was greater in the HTN compared with the RH group.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t2">
        <label>Table 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Medication use in resistant and mild-to-moderate hypertensive subjects</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
            <col width="25%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="center" colspan="4" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">Hypertensive (n = 256)</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">HTN (n = 136)</th>
              <th align="center">RH (n = 120)</th>
              <th align="center">p value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" colspan="4">
                <bold>Antihypertensive drugs</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Number of classes</td>
              <td align="center">2 (2 &#8211; 3)</td>
              <td align="center">4 (4 &#8211; 5)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Diuretics (%)</td>
              <td align="center">66</td>
              <td align="center">91</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Spironolactone (%)</td>
              <td align="center">2</td>
              <td align="center">40</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ACEIs (%)</td>
              <td align="center">16</td>
              <td align="center">37</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ARBs (%)</td>
              <td align="center">74</td>
              <td align="center">55</td>
              <td align="center">0.003</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">CCBs (%)</td>
              <td align="center">46</td>
              <td align="center">84</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Beta-blockers (%)</td>
              <td align="center">14</td>
              <td align="center">69</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" colspan="4">
                <bold>Others drugs</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Hypoglycemic agents (%)</td>
              <td align="center">38</td>
              <td align="center">51</td>
              <td align="center">0.05</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Statin (%)</td>
              <td align="center">75</td>
              <td align="center">57</td>
              <td align="center">0.003</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN2">
            <p>HTN: mild&#8211;to-moderate hypertensive subjects; RH: resistant hypertensive subjects; ACEIs: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; ARBs: angiotensin receptor blockers; CCBs: calcium channel blockers. Categorical variables are presented as numbers and percentages. Fisher&#8217;s test was performed to compare categorical variables.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Regarding MCP-1 levels, we found no differences between RH and HTN subjects (153 &#177; 93 pg/mL <italic>versus</italic> 178 &#177; 120 pg/mL, respectively, p = 0.47) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). However, when we combined both RH and HTN groups together and assessed the MCP-1 levels according to the presence or absence of LVH, we found lower MCP-1 levels in patients with LVH compared with those without LVH (105 pg/mL [100 - 260 pg/mL] <italic>versus</italic> 136 pg/mL [100 - 200 pg/mL], respectively, p = 0.005) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2A</xref>). Also, when we stratified the LVMI levels into three degrees of LVH severity, we found that patients with the highest degree of hypertrophy (LVMI &gt; 125 g/m<sup>2</sup> - level 2) showed lower MCP-1 levels compared with those with the lowest degree (levels 0 and 1) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2B</xref>). Also, the subjects at the lowest (level 0) and intermediate levels (level 1) of LVH demonstrated similar MCP-1 levels.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Plasma MCP-1 levels in subjects with resistant hypertension (RH, n = 119, 153 &#177; 93 pg/mL) and mild-to-moderate hypertension (HTN, n=114, 178 &#177; 120 pg/mL, p = 0.47). Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-04-0331-70033-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Plasma MCP-1 levels according to (A) presence (n = 96) or absence (n = 94) of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH; cut-off value of 115 g/m<sup>2</sup> for men and 95 g/m<sup>2</sup> for women) and (B) level of LVH in all hypertensive subjects (with resistant hypertension and mild-to-moderate hypertension): level 0 = patients without LVH (left ventricular mass index [LVMI] &lt; 115 g/m<sup>2</sup> in men and &lt; 95 g/m<sup>2</sup> in women); level 1 = patients with LVH and LVMI levels &lt; 121 g/m<sup>2</sup>; and level 2 = patients with LVMI levels &#8805; 121 g/m<sup>2</sup>. Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD). (A) *p = 0.005 compared with the absence of LVH and (B) *p = 0.01 compared with level 0.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-04-0331-70033-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Finally, the logistic regression model demonstrated that MCP-1 levels were inversely associated with the presence of LVH after adjustment for BMI, age, race, aldosterone level, and the presence of diabetes and RH (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t3">
        <label>Table 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Multiple logistic regression for the presence of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in all hypertensive subjects (resistant hypertension and mild-to-moderate hypertension)</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="33%"/>
            <col width="33%"/>
            <col width="33%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Variable</th>
              <th align="center">Odds ratio (95% confidence interval)</th>
              <th align="center">p value</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">MCP-1 &lt; 125 pg/mL</td>
              <td align="center">2.55 (1.2 &#8211; 5.2)</td>
              <td align="center">0.01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Presence of diabetes</td>
              <td align="center">0.64 (0.3 &#8211; 1.1)</td>
              <td align="center">0.21</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Resistant hypertension</td>
              <td align="center">3.7 (1.5 &#8211; 8.6)</td>
              <td align="center">0.003</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Aldosterone (ng/dL)</td>
              <td align="center">1.0 (1 &#8211; 1)</td>
              <td align="center">0.97</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN3">
            <p>MCP-1 was categorized by median levels.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>The main finding of this study was the association between MCP-1 levels and presence of LVH in hypertensive subjects, especially in those with advanced LVH, regardless of resistance to antihypertensive treatment.</p>
      <p>Strong evidence supports the role of the inflammatory process in hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Both RH and HTN patients present higher levels of inflammatory cytokines and their levels are related to TOD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> MCP-1 is a proinflammatory cytokine with potent chemoattractant activity for monocytes and macrophages.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> The recruitment and activation of monocytes in rat models appear to be involved with hypertension and TOD process<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> by increasing oxidative stress in the vascular wall.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Moreover, mice lacking MCP-1 receptor present no cardiac fibrosis or fibroblast accumulation in the heart after angiotensin infusion,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> suggesting that MCP-1 and its receptor may have an important role in cardiac damage.</p>
      <p>A recent study demonstrated that RH individuals have higher levels of MCP-1 compared with normotensive subjects.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> However, we found no differences in MCP-1 levels between RH and HTN subjects, suggesting no association between MCP-1 and resistance to antihypertensive drugs.</p>
      <p>Regarding MCP-1 levels in hypertensive patients, the data are limited and conflicting.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> One study has shown higher levels of MCP-1 in patients with untreated hypertension compared with controls and patients with isolated systolic hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Mirhafez et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> proposed that cytokines are dependent on the hypertension stage. Indeed, these authors found similar MCP-1 levels among normotensive, pre-hypertensive, and stage 2 hypertensive subjects, but higher MCP-1 levels in stage 1 hypertensive ones compared with their controls.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> On the other hand, we found similar MCP-1 levels between RH and HTN subjects despite SBP differences between the groups. Also, a multiple logistic regression analysis showed no influence of BP levels in circulating MCP-1 after adjustment for potential confounders (data not shown).</p>
      <p>It is well described that RH subjects represent a group with unfavorable phenotype compared with HTN ones. Therefore, the RH subgroup was expected to have high aldosterone levels,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> presence of LVH,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> and a greater number of individuals of black race, since these are characteristics closely related to the presence of RH. However, there are no data in the literature showing influence of these parameters on MCP-1 levels.</p>
      <p>Equally to the similar MCP-1 levels in our groups, we found no difference in C-reactive protein levels and the number of monocytes between RH and HTN subjects, showing that the inflammatory state may be similar in both groups, corroborating other studies that found no difference in some inflammatory mediators between these groups.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> The similar findings between RH and HTN may indicate a BP-independent inflammatory process.</p>
      <p>Cardiac damage is an adaptive response to chronic BP overload resulting in hypertrophic growth of cardiomyocytes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> To date, the underlying mechanism involved in this TOD remains unknown, although evidence supports the fact that specialized inflammation cells - including monocytes - contribute to tissue lesion through cell-cell interaction performed by chemokines such as MCP-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Recently, the idea that the innate immune system plays an important role in the initial and chronic phases of cardiac injury has been brought to knowledge. An experimental study in the early inflammatory phase of infarct healing has shown a marked upregulation of MCP-1 levels resulting in intense monocyte infiltration into the myocardium, while an opposite situation was observed in the chronic phase - a downregulation of MCP-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Additionally, Weinberger et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> have shown that macrophages in the myocardium undergo dynamic changes in the course of life and the CCL-2 - receptor for MCP-1 - helps especially to identify macrophages that recently migrated from the circulation. Taken both studies together, we speculate that MCP-1 might also vary during TOD development in hypertension, where MCP-1 is downregulated in patients with LVH and with long-term hypertension. This may contribute to support our findings that MCP-1 may be differently regulated according to the degree of organ damage.</p>
      <p>It is important to highlight that antihypertensive drugs have some antiinflammatory properties and may exert influence on chemokines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Consistent with these reports, a decrease in MCP-1 levels after administration of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> has been encountered. On the other hand, the use of losartan did not change MCP-1 levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> The authors suggested that only ACEIs could shift the MCP-1 levels by increasing oxide nitric and prostaglandin synthesis. [33] However, the precise mechanism still deserves further investigation.</p>
      <p>Since RH subjects took a greater number of antihypertensive drugs compared with HTN ones, we assessed the potential influence of these medications on MCP-1 levels. A multiple linear regression analysis, adjusted for age, presence of LVH, and RH, revealed that only beta-blockers were independently associated with MCP-1 levels (beta coefficient = 55, standard error [SE] = 20, p &lt; 0.01). Nevertheless, this possible interference might not have affected the outcome of our study, since RH subjects had similar MCP-1 levels as HTN ones, despite the use of a greater proportion of beta-blocker agents.</p>
      <p>Since MCP-1 levels do not necessarily reflect their tissue concentration, this would be appointed as the main limitation of our study. We may also cite as limitations the lack of a normotensive control group and the possible interference of antihypertensive drugs in MCP-1 levels. However, due to ethical reasons, washout of these drugs in RH patients cannot be performed. Hence, as this is an observational study, we cannot infer a causal relationship between progression of the cardiac remodeling and changes in MCP-1 levels.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>The similar levels of cytokine betwen RH and HTN subjects and the lower MCP-1 levels in LVH patients suggest (i) a possible downregulation of MCP-1 levels in hypertensive patients with advanced stage of cardiac damage, and (ii) high activation of monocyte migration by MCP-1 in hypertensive patients developing cardiac structural changes. The modulation of chemokines represents an interesting therapeutic approach; therefore, further large clinical studies are required to define the potential involvement of the courses of hypertension and cardiac remodeling and changes in MCP-1 levels.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was partially funded by FAPESP and CNPq.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>N&#237;veis de MCP-1 est&#227;o Associados com Remodelamento Card&#237;aco mas n&#227;o com Hipertens&#227;o Resistente</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ritter</surname>
            <given-names>Alessandra Mileni Versuti</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faria</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula Cabral de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sabbatini</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Corr&#234;a</surname>
            <given-names>Nathalia Batista</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brunelli</surname>
            <given-names>Veridiana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Modolo</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreno</surname>
            <given-names>Heitor</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Alessandra Mileni Versuti Ritter</bold>, Rua Alexandre Fleming, 105. CEP 13084-971, Campinas, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>ale_mileni@hotmail.com</email>, <email>ale.versuti@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Ritter AMV; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Ritter AMV, Faria APC, Sabbatini A, Corr&#234;a NB, Brunelli V; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Faria APC, Ritter AMV, Sabbatini A; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Ritter AMV, Faria APC; Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Moreno H; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Ritter AMV, Faria APC, Sabbatini A, Corr&#234;a NB, Brunelli V, Modolo R, Moreno H.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamentos:</title>
          <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial &#233; um processo cr&#244;nico de baixo grau inflamat&#243;rio, associado com libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas e desenvolvimento de les&#227;o em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo. A desregula&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de prote&#237;na quimiot&#225;tica de mon&#243;citos-1 (MCP-1) tem sido associada com eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial e complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares; por&#233;m, os mecanismos envolvidos s&#227;o complexos e ainda n&#227;o foram inteiramente elucidados.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar os n&#237;veis de MCP-1 em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o resistente (HR) <italic>versus</italic> pacientes com hipertens&#227;o de grau leve a moderado (HAS) e sua associa&#231;&#227;o com a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) em todos os indiv&#237;duos hipertensos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Foram inclu&#237;dos 256 indiv&#237;duos hipertensos: 120 com HR e 136 com HAS. Foi investigada a rela&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis circulantes de MCP-1 e press&#227;o arterial, dados bioqu&#237;micos, perfil hematol&#243;gico e dano card&#237;aco nos grupos HR e HAS. Os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de MCP-1 foram medidos por ELISA e a HVE foi avaliada por ecocardiografia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>N&#227;o encontramos diferen&#231;a nos n&#237;veis de MCP-1 entre indiv&#237;duos com HR e HAS. Por outro lado, encontramos n&#237;veis mais baixos de MCP-1 em pacientes com HVE (105 pg/mL [100 - 260 pg/mL] <italic>versus</italic> 136 pg/mL [100 - 200 pg/mL], respectivamente, p = 0,005] em compara&#231;&#227;o a pacientes sem HVE. Um modelo de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica ajustado para o &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC), idade, ra&#231;a, n&#237;veis de aldosterona e presen&#231;a de diabetes e HR mostrou que os n&#237;veis medianos de MCP-1 (2,55 pg/mL [1,22 - 5,2 pg/mL], p = 0,01) estiveram independentemente associados com HVE em toda a popula&#231;&#227;o de hipertensos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Como os n&#237;veis de MCP-1 foram semelhantes em indiv&#237;duos tanto com HR quanto HAS e estiveram diminu&#237;dos em pacientes hipertensos com HVE, nosso estudo sugere uma poss&#237;vel redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de MCP-1 em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos com HVE, independe do grau da hipertens&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Citocinas</kwd>
        <kwd>Prote&#237;nas Quimioatraentes de Mon&#243;citos</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertrofia Ventricular Esquerda</kwd>
        <kwd>Remodelamento Card&#237;aco</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente (HR) &#233; definida como uma condi&#231;&#227;o na qual os pacientes apresentam (i) press&#227;o arterial (PA) descontrolada (&#8805; 140/90 mmHg) apesar do uso de doses m&#225;ximas recomendadas ou toleradas de tr&#234;s ou mais medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, ou (ii) PA controlada com uso de pelo menos quatro medicamentos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> A alta preval&#234;ncia de les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo (LOA), como a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE), &#233; mais elevada em pacientes com HR em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles com hipertens&#227;o arterial leve/moderada (HAS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> e &#233; considerada preditora de eventos cardiovasculares futuros nessa popula&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica de HR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Muitas linhas de evid&#234;ncia estabeleceram que a hipertens&#227;o arterial &#233; um processo cr&#244;nico de inflama&#231;&#227;o de baixo grau que desempenha um papel fundamental no desenvolvimento e manuten&#231;&#227;o de LOA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> V&#225;rios mediadores inflamat&#243;rios est&#227;o aumentados em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> incluindo a prote&#237;na quimiot&#225;tica de mon&#243;citos-1 (MCP-1).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> A MCP-1, tamb&#233;m conhecida como CCL2, pode ser produzida por diferentes c&#233;lulas e &#233; respons&#225;vel pela migra&#231;&#227;o de mon&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos para o tecido,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> exacerbando o dano local.</p>
        <p>Modelos experimentais de hipertens&#227;o mostraram que a infiltra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias (macr&#243;fagos) nas paredes vasculares est&#225; fortemente relacionada a um aumento da PA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> e altera&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Um estudo cl&#237;nico sugeriu que os n&#237;veis de MCP-1 podem variar de acordo com o grau de hipertens&#227;o,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> indicando uma biomarcador dependente da fase da doen&#231;a.</p>
        <p>Embora alguns autores tenham demonstrado que o aumento dos n&#237;veis de MCP-1/CCL2 e macr&#243;fagos no cora&#231;&#227;o contribui para o dano card&#237;aco,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> outros apontam que os macr&#243;fagos t&#234;m um efeito cardioprotetor.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> De fato, um estudo mostrou que a deple&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos acelera o desenvolvimento de cardiomiopatia em ratos hipertensos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Este efeito poderia ser explicado por uma capacidade de manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase card&#237;aca durante algumas doen&#231;as card&#237;acas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Apesar destes achados, a rela&#231;&#227;o da MCP-1 com a HR e o dano card&#237;aco no cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico ainda n&#227;o est&#225; estabelecida. Portanto, este estudo foi desenvolvido para avaliar os n&#237;veis de MCP-1 em indiv&#237;duos com HR em compara&#231;&#227;o a indiv&#237;duos com HAS e sua associa&#231;&#227;o com HVE em ambos os grupos de hipertensos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Sujeitos do estudo</title>
          <p>Uma amostra de conveni&#234;ncia de 256 pacientes hipertensos do Ambulat&#243;rio de Hipertens&#227;o Resistente da Universidade de Campinas (Campinas, Brasil) foi inclu&#237;da neste estudo transversal.</p>
          <p>Os pacientes foram diagnosticados com HR ap&#243;s um protocolo de 6 meses para excluir pseudorresist&#234;ncia (hipertens&#227;o do avental branco e m&#225; ades&#227;o aos medicamentos) com monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da PA (MAPA), question&#225;rio de Morisky e contagem de p&#237;lulas. A hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria (estenose da art&#233;ria renal, feocromocitoma e hiperaldosteronismo prim&#225;rio) tamb&#233;m foi exclu&#237;da. Estes indiv&#237;duos foram inclu&#237;dos no grupo com HR. Al&#233;m disso, os pacientes com PA controlada em uso de tr&#234;s ou menos medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, ou PA ainda n&#227;o controlada com uso de dois ou menos destes medicamentos foram classificados como tendo HAS e tamb&#233;m inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
          <p> Os pacientes foram classificados em dois grupos: HR (n = 120) e HAS (n = 136). Adicionalmente, ambos os grupos HR e HAS foram combinados para avalia&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de MCP-1 de acordo com (1) a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de HVE (115 g/m<sup>2</sup> para homens e 95 g/m<sup>2</sup> para as mulheres)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> e (2) gravidade da HVE, considerando os pacientes sem HVE como n&#237;vel 0; pacientes com HVE e &#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (IMVE) &lt; mediana (121 g/m<sup>2</sup>) como n&#237;vel 1 e aqueles com HVE e IMVE &#8805; mediana (121 g/m<sup>2</sup>) como n&#237;vel 2.</p>
          <p>Todos os requisitos &#233;ticos para estudos realizados em seres humanos foram rigorosamente seguidos. O estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas, Universidade de Campinas (S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil) (aprova&#231;&#227;o n&#176; 1.112.881/2015) e foi conduzido em conformidade com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki. Todos os participantes assinaram um termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido antes da inclus&#227;o no estudo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Medidas da press&#227;o arterial de consult&#243;rio</title>
          <p>Um profissional da sa&#250;de treinado realizou a medida da PA de consult&#243;rio pelo menos tr&#234;s vezes com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um esfigmoman&#244;metro digital certificado (HEM-907 XL OMRON Healthcare Inc., Bannockburn, IL, EUA), de acordo com as diretrizes de 2013 da Sociedade Europeia de Hipertens&#227;o (ESH).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> A m&#233;dia de duas ou tr&#234;s medidas consecutivas foi utilizada quando a diferen&#231;a entre as medidas foi inferior a 5 mmHg.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial</title>
          <p>A MAPA de 24 horas foi realizada com um aparelho oscilom&#233;trico autom&#225;tico (Spacelabs 90207; Spacelabs Inc.). As medidas foram obtidas a cada 20 minutos durante todo o per&#237;odo de 24 horas. Os sujeitos foram instru&#237;dos a manter suas atividades di&#225;rias normais, evitando excesso de atividade f&#237;sica, e a tomar nota do seu per&#237;odo de sono em um di&#225;rio pessoal. Foi calculada a m&#233;dia da PA durante a vig&#237;lia e o sono.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ecocardiografia</title>
          <p>Especialistas experientes cegos em rela&#231;&#227;o aos dados cl&#237;nicos dos pacientes mediram os par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos (Siemens Acuson CV70, Munique, Baviera, Alemanha) com uso de ecocardiografia bidimensional orientada pelo modo M. O di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico e sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) e a espessura da parede do septo interventricular e da parede posterior foram medidos de acordo com a onda QRS do eletrocardiograma. A massa do VE foi calculada pela f&#243;rmula recomendada pela Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia (<italic>American Society of Echocardiography</italic>, ASE)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> e o IMVE foi calculado dividindo a massa do VE pela superf&#237;cie corporal. Um IMVE superior a 115 g/m<sup>2</sup> para homens e 95 g/m<sup>2</sup> para mulheres caracterizou a presen&#231;a de HVE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Coleta de soro e avalia&#231;&#245;es laboratoriais</title>
          <p>Amostras de sangue foram retiradas da veia antecubital atrav&#233;s de pun&#231;&#227;o atraum&#225;tica ap&#243;s 8 horas de jejum. Os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de MCP-1 foram medidos atrav&#233;s de ensaio de imunoabsor&#231;&#227;o por liga&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica (ELISA; R&amp;D Systems, Inc., Minneapolis, MN, EUA), de acordo com instru&#231;&#245;es do fabricante. Radioimunoensaio (Immunotech SAS, Marselha, Fran&#231;a) foi utilizado para medir o n&#237;vel de aldosterona plasm&#225;tica de acordo com as instru&#231;&#245;es do fabricante. A raz&#227;o neutr&#243;filo/linf&#243;cito (RNL) foi calculada pela contagem absoluta de neutr&#243;filos dividida pela contagem absoluta de linf&#243;citos. Al&#233;m disso, foram medidos tamb&#233;m os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de colesterol total, colesterol ligado &#224; lipoprote&#237;na de baixa e alta densidade, triglicer&#237;deos, glicose e creatinina. O clearance de creatinina (mL/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>) foi medido em amostra de urina coletada durante 24 horas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Os dados descritivos est&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP) para dados param&#233;tricos ou mediana (intervalo interquartil [IIQ]) para dados n&#227;o param&#233;tricos. A distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados foi avaliada pelo teste de Shapiro-Wilk. O teste <italic>t</italic> de Student n&#227;o pareado ou o teste de Mann-Whitney foi realizado para comparar os dois grupos, enquanto o teste de Kruskal-Wallis ou an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia (ANOVA), seguido de p&#243;s-teste de Dunn ou Bonferroni, respectivamente, foram usados para grupos de tr&#234;s, de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o de dados. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas est&#227;o apresentadas como frequ&#234;ncias e/ou percentagens e foram comparadas pelo teste de Fisher. A correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman testou a associa&#231;&#227;o de dados n&#227;o param&#233;tricos. Tamb&#233;m realizamos regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla para a presen&#231;a de HVE ajustada para a idade, n&#237;veis de aldosterona, &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC), ra&#231;a, presen&#231;a de diabetes, presen&#231;a de HR e n&#237;veis medianos de MCP-1 (categorizados pelo valor mediano &lt; 125 pg/mL) em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica considerado foi de &lt; 0,05.</p>
          <p>As an&#225;lises foram realizadas utilizando o programa SigmaPlot (Systat Software, Inc, v.12, Chicago, IL, EUA).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref> mostra as caracter&#237;sticas gerais, dados bioqu&#237;micos e perfil hematol&#243;gicos dos 256 sujeitos hipertensos. Encontramos uma percentagem maior de indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos e da ra&#231;a negra no grupo HR quando comparado com o grupo HAS. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com HR mostraram PA sist&#243;lica (PAS) medida em consult&#243;rio e n&#237;veis de aldosterona mais elevados, uma maior incid&#234;ncia de HVE e desequil&#237;brio nos perfis lip&#237;dicos e glic&#237;dicos em compara&#231;&#227;o aos sujeitos com HAS. Por outro lado, n&#227;o encontramos diferen&#231;a em par&#226;metros hematol&#243;gicos entre os grupos.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Caracter&#237;sticas gerais dos indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o resistente e hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="center" colspan="4" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">Hipertensos (n = 256)</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">HAS (n = 136)</th>
                <th align="center">HR (n = 120)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Dados Cl&#237;nicos</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Idade (anos)</td>
                <td align="center">65 &#177; 10</td>
                <td align="center">60 &#177; 11</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Mulheres (%)</td>
                <td align="center">62</td>
                <td align="center">67</td>
                <td align="center">0,50</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Ra&#231;a negra (%)</td>
                <td align="center">13</td>
                <td align="center">44</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Diabetes (%)</td>
                <td align="center">38</td>
                <td align="center">51</td>
                <td align="center">0,05</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAS de consult&#243;rio (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">139 (131 &#8211; 148)</td>
                <td align="center">147 (134 &#8211; 160)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAD de consult&#243;rio (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">81 (76 &#8211; 86)</td>
                <td align="center">83 (78 &#8211; 92)</td>
                <td align="center">0,09</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAS MAPA (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">127 (118 &#8211; 135)</td>
                <td align="center">130 (117 &#8211; 143)</td>
                <td align="center">0,18</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PAD MAPA (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">76 (70 &#8211; 81)</td>
                <td align="center">77 (70 &#8211; 83)</td>
                <td align="center">0,34</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IMVE (g/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">100 (87 &#8211; 119)</td>
                <td align="center">113 (95 &#8211; 142)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Dados Bioqu&#237;micos</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Prote&#237;na C reativa (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">0,3 (0,2 &#8211; 0,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,3 (0,2 &#8211; 0,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,72</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Colesterol (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">165 (140 &#8211; 185)</td>
                <td align="center">181 (151 &#8211; 209)</td>
                <td align="center">0,003</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HDL (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">49 (42 &#8211; 57)</td>
                <td align="center">46 (38 &#8211; 54)</td>
                <td align="center">0,02</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDL (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">87 (67 &#8211; 107)</td>
                <td align="center">98 (79 &#8211; 127)</td>
                <td align="center">0,002</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Triglicer&#237;deos (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">108 (80 &#8211; 151)</td>
                <td align="center">129 (93 &#8211; 185)</td>
                <td align="center">0,019</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HbA1c (%)</td>
                <td align="center">6,0 (5,8 &#8211; 6,5)</td>
                <td align="center">6,3 (6,0 &#8211; 7,8)</td>
                <td align="center">0,007</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Glicose (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">97 (90 &#8211; 107)</td>
                <td align="center">101 (89 &#8211; 132)</td>
                <td align="center">0,12</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Creatinina (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">0,94 (0,8 &#8211; 1,1)</td>
                <td align="center">0,97 (0,8 &#8211; 1,2)</td>
                <td align="center">0,15</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Clearance de creatinina (mL/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">65 (28 &#8211; 93)</td>
                <td align="center">81 (62 &#8211; 98)</td>
                <td align="center">0,05</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Aldosterona (ng/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">68 (43 &#8211; 115)</td>
                <td align="center">98 (60 &#8211; 179)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Perfil Hematol&#243;gico</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Leuc&#243;citos (mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">6,6 (6 &#8211; 8)</td>
                <td align="center">7,4 (6 &#8211; 8)</td>
                <td align="center">0,03</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Mon&#243;citos %</td>
                <td align="center">8 (7 &#8211; 9)</td>
                <td align="center">8 (6 &#8211; 9)</td>
                <td align="center">0,79</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Linf&#243;citos %</td>
                <td align="center">30 &#177; 7</td>
                <td align="center">30 &#177; 8</td>
                <td align="center">0,85</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Bas&#243;filos %</td>
                <td align="center">0,4 (0,2 &#8211; 0,5)</td>
                <td align="center">0,4 (0,3 &#8211; 0,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,41</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Eosin&#243;filos %</td>
                <td align="center">3 (2 &#8211; 4)</td>
                <td align="center">2 (1 &#8211; 3)</td>
                <td align="center">0,43</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Neutr&#243;filos %</td>
                <td align="center">59 &#177; 7</td>
                <td align="center">58 &#177; 10</td>
                <td align="center">0,60</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">RNL</td>
                <td align="center">2 (1,8 &#8211; 2,3)</td>
                <td align="center">2 (1,4 - 2,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,80</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>HAS: indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada; HR: indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o resistente; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; MAPA: monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial; IMVE: &#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; HDL: lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; LDL: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade; HbA1c: hemoglobina glicosilada; RNL raz&#227;o neutr&#243;filo/linf&#243;cito. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas est&#227;o representadas como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP) para dados param&#233;tricos ou mediana (1&#170;, 3&#170; quartis) para dados n&#227;o param&#233;tricos. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas est&#227;o representadas em porcentagens. Os testes t de Student e de Mann-Whitney foram realizados de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados e o teste exato de Fisher foi utilizado para comparar vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Observamos que indiv&#237;duos com HR usavam um n&#250;mero maior de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos e uma propor&#231;&#227;o maior de quase todas as classes de anti-hipertensivos, com exce&#231;&#227;o de antagonistas dos receptores da angiotensina II (ARAs) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 2</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, o n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos em uso de estatina foi maior entre indiv&#237;duos com HAS quando comparados aos com HR.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Uso de medicamento por indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o resistente e hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
              <col width="25%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="center" colspan="4" style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">Hipertensos (n = 256)</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">HAS (n = 136)</th>
                <th align="center">HR (n = 120)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Drogas anti-hipertensivas</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">N&#250;mero de classes</td>
                <td align="center">2 (2 &#8211; 3)</td>
                <td align="center">4 (4 &#8211; 5)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Diur&#233;ticos (%)</td>
                <td align="center">66</td>
                <td align="center">91</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Espironolactona (%)</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IECAs (%)</td>
                <td align="center">16</td>
                <td align="center">37</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ARAs (%)</td>
                <td align="center">74</td>
                <td align="center">55</td>
                <td align="center">0,003</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">BCCs (%)</td>
                <td align="center">46</td>
                <td align="center">84</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Betabloqueadores (%)</td>
                <td align="center">14</td>
                <td align="center">69</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Outras drogas</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Agentes hipoglicemiantes (%)</td>
                <td align="center">38</td>
                <td align="center">51</td>
                <td align="center">0,05</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Estatina (%)</td>
                <td align="center">75</td>
                <td align="center">57</td>
                <td align="center">0,003</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <p>HAS: indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada; HR: indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o resistente; IECAs: inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina; ARAs: antagonistas do receptor da angiotensina; BCCs: bloqueadores do canal de c&#225;lcio. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas est&#227;o apresentadas como n&#250;meros ou porcentagens. O teste de Fisher foi realizado para comparar vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos n&#237;veis de MCP-1, n&#227;o encontramos diferen&#231;a entre sujeitos com HR e HAS (153 &#177; 93 pg/mL versus 178 &#177; 120 pg/mL, respectivamente, p = 0,47) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>). No entanto, quando combinamos os grupos HR e HAS e avaliamos os n&#237;veis de MCP-1 de acordo com a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de HVE, encontramos n&#237;veis de MCP-1 inferiores em pacientes com HVE em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles sem HVE (105 pg/mL [100 - 260 pg/mL] versus 136 pg/mL [100 - 200 pg/mL], respectivamente, p = 0,005) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2A</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, quando estratificamos os n&#237;veis de IMVE de acordo com os tr&#234;s graus de gravidade da HVE, observamos que os pacientes com maior grau de hipertrofia (IMVE &gt; 125 g/m<sup>2</sup> - n&#237;vel 2) apresentaram n&#237;veis de MCP-1 mais baixos comparados com aqueles com o menor grau (n&#237;veis 0 e 1) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2B</xref>). Em segundo lugar, os sujeitos com grau mais baixo (n&#237;vel 0) e intermedi&#225;rio (n&#237;vel 1) de HVE demonstraram n&#237;veis semelhantes de MCP-1.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>N&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de MCP-1 em indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o resistente (HR, n = 119, 153 &#177; 93 pg/mL) e hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada (HAS, n = 114, 178 &#177; 120 pg/mL, p = 0,47). Os valores est&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-04-0331-70033-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>N&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de MCP-1 de acordo com (A) presen&#231;a (n = 96) ou aus&#234;ncia (n = 94) de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) (valor de corte para homens 115 g/m<sup>2</sup> e para mulheres 95 g/m<sup>2</sup>) e (B) segundo o grau de HVE em todos os indiv&#237;duos hipertensos (hipertens&#227;o resistente e hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada): n&#237;vel 0 = pacientes sem HVE (&#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo [IMVE] &lt; 115 g/m<sup>2</sup> em homens e &lt; 95 g/m<sup>2</sup> em mulheres); n&#237;vel 1 = pacientes com HVE e n&#237;veis de IMVE &lt; 121 g/m<sup>2</sup>; e n&#237;vel 2 = pacientes com n&#237;veis de IMVE &#8805; 121 g/m<sup>2</sup>. Os valores est&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP). (A) *p = 0,005 em compara&#231;&#227;o com a aus&#234;ncia de HVE e (B) *p = 0,01 em compara&#231;&#227;o com o n&#237;vel 0.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-04-0331-70033-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Por &#250;ltimo, o modelo de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica mostrou que os n&#237;veis de MCP-1 estiveram inversamente associados com a presen&#231;a de HVE ap&#243;s ajustes para IMC, idade, ra&#231;a, n&#237;vel de aldosterona e a presen&#231;a de diabetes e HR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t6">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla para a presen&#231;a de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) em todos os indiv&#237;duos hipertensos (hipertens&#227;o resistente e hipertens&#227;o leve a moderada)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                <th align="center">Raz&#227;o de chances (intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%)</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">MCP-1 &lt; 125 pg/mL</td>
                <td align="center">2,55 (1,2 - 5,2)</td>
                <td align="center">0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Presen&#231;a de diabetes</td>
                <td align="center">0,64 (0,3 - 1,1)</td>
                <td align="center">0,21</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Hipertens&#227;o resistente</td>
                <td align="center">3,7 (1,5 - 8,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,003</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Aldosterona (ng/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">1,0 (1 - 1)</td>
                <td align="center">0,97</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN6">
              <p>A MCP-1 foi categorizada pelo valor da mediana.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>O principal achado deste estudo foi a associa&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de MCP-1 e a presen&#231;a de HVE em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos, especialmente naqueles com HVE avan&#231;ada, independente de resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo.</p>
        <p>Fortes evid&#234;ncias apoiam o papel do processo inflamat&#243;rio na hipertens&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Tanto os pacientes com HR quanto aqueles com HAS apresentam n&#237;veis mais elevados de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias, que por sua vez est&#227;o relacionados com LOA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> A MCP-1 &#233; uma citocina proinflamat&#243;ria com potente atividade quimiot&#225;tica para mon&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> O recrutamento e a ativa&#231;&#227;o dos mon&#243;citos em modelos de ratos parecem estar envolvidos com a hipertens&#227;o e o processo de LOA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> atrav&#233;s do aumento do estresse oxidativo na parede vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Al&#233;m disso, camundongos com aus&#234;ncia de receptor para a MCP-1 n&#227;o apresentam fibrose card&#237;aca ou ac&#250;mulo de fibroblastos no cora&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s infus&#227;o de angiotensina,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> sugerindo que a MCP-1 e seu receptor possam ter um papel importante no dano card&#237;aco.</p>
        <p>Um estudo recente mostrou que indiv&#237;duos com HR t&#234;m n&#237;veis mais elevados de MCP-1 quando comparados a indiv&#237;duos normotensos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> No entanto, n&#227;o encontramos diferen&#231;as nos n&#237;veis de MCP-1 entre indiv&#237;duos com HR e HAS, sugerindo uma aus&#234;ncia de associa&#231;&#227;o entre a MCP-1 e resist&#234;ncia a medicamentos anti-hipertensivos.</p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos n&#237;veis de MCP-1 em pacientes hipertensos, os dados s&#227;o limitados e conflitantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Um estudo mostrou n&#237;veis mais elevados de MCP-1 em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o arterial sem tratamento em compara&#231;&#227;o a controles e pacientes com hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Mirhafez et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> propuseram que as citocinas s&#227;o dependentes do est&#225;gio da hipertens&#227;o. De fato, estes autores encontraram n&#237;veis de MCP-1 semelhantes entre indiv&#237;duos normotensos, com pr&#233;-hipertens&#227;o e com hipertens&#227;o est&#225;gio 2, mas n&#237;veis mais elevados de MCP-1 em indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o est&#225;gio 1 em compara&#231;&#227;o com os seus controles.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Por outro lado, encontramos n&#237;veis semelhantes de MCP-1 entre indiv&#237;duos com HR e HAS, apesar das diferen&#231;as de PAS entre os grupos. Al&#233;m disso, uma an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla mostrou que n&#227;o houve influ&#234;ncia dos n&#237;veis de PA na MCP-1 circulante, ap&#243;s ajuste para potenciais confundidores (dados n&#227;o mostrados).</p>
        <p>&#201; bem descrito que indiv&#237;duos com HR representam um grupo com fen&#243;tipo desfavor&#225;vel em compara&#231;&#227;o com indiv&#237;duos com HAS. Com isto, esperava-se que o subgrupo com HR tivesse n&#237;veis elevados de aldosterona,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> presen&#231;a de HVE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> e um n&#250;mero maior de indiv&#237;duos da ra&#231;a negra, uma vez que estas s&#227;o caracter&#237;sticas estreitamente relacionadas com a presen&#231;a de HR. No entanto, n&#227;o existem dados na literatura mostrando uma influ&#234;ncia destes par&#226;metros sobre n&#237;veis de MCP-1.</p>
        <p>Da mesma maneira que os n&#237;veis semelhantes de MCP-1 em nossos grupos, n&#227;o encontramos diferen&#231;a nos n&#237;veis de prote&#237;na C reativa e n&#250;mero de mon&#243;citos entre indiv&#237;duos com HR e HAS, mostrando que o estado inflamat&#243;rio possa ser semelhante em ambos os grupos, corroborando outros estudos que n&#227;o encontraram diferen&#231;a em alguns mediadores inflamat&#243;rios entre esses grupos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Os achados semelhantes entre a HR e a HAS podem indicar um processo inflamat&#243;rio independente da PA.</p>
        <p>O dano card&#237;aco &#233; uma resposta adaptativa &#224; sobrecarga cr&#244;nica da PA, resultando em crescimento hipertr&#243;fico de cardiomi&#243;citos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> At&#233; o momento, o mecanismo subjacente envolvido nesta LOA permanece desconhecido, embora evid&#234;ncias apoiem o fato de que c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias especializadas - incluindo mon&#243;citos - contribuam para a les&#227;o tecidual atrav&#233;s da intera&#231;&#227;o c&#233;lula-a-c&#233;lula realizada por quimiocinas como a MCP-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Recentemente, a ideia de que o sistema imunol&#243;gico inato desempenhe um papel importante na fase inicial e nas fases cr&#244;nicas da les&#227;o card&#237;aca tem sido aventada. Um estudo experimental no in&#237;cio da fase inflamat&#243;ria da cicatriza&#231;&#227;o do infarto revelou um acentuado aumento nos n&#237;veis de MCP-1, resultando em intensa infiltra&#231;&#227;o de mon&#243;citos no mioc&#225;rdio, enquanto uma situa&#231;&#227;o inversa foi observada na fase cr&#244;nica - uma redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de MCP-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, Weinberger et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> demonstraram que os macr&#243;fagos no mioc&#225;rdio sofrem mudan&#231;as din&#226;micas ao curso da vida e o CCL-2 - receptor para MCP-1 - ajuda a identificar especialmente macr&#243;fagos que migraram recentemente da circula&#231;&#227;o. Considerando ambos os estudos em conjunto, n&#243;s especulamos que a MCP-1 possa tamb&#233;m variar durante o desenvolvimento de LOA na hipertens&#227;o, na qual a MCP-1 est&#225; suprimida em pacientes com HVE e hipertens&#227;o arterial de longa dura&#231;&#227;o. Isso pode contribuir para apoiar os nossos achados de que a MCP-1 possa ser regulada de maneira diferente de acordo com o grau de dano ao &#243;rg&#227;o.</p>
        <p>&#201; importante destacar que os medicamentos anti-hipertensivos t&#234;m algumas propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias e podem exercer influ&#234;ncia sobre as quimiocinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Consistente com estes relat&#243;rios, foi encontrada uma diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de MCP-1 ap&#243;s administra&#231;&#227;o de inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina (IECA).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Por outro lado, o uso de losartana n&#227;o alterou os n&#237;veis de MCP-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Os autores sugeriram que apenas os IECAs poderiam mudar os n&#237;veis de MCP-1 atrav&#233;s de um aumento de &#243;xido n&#237;trico e s&#237;ntese de prostaglandinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> No entanto, o mecanismo preciso ainda merece maior investiga&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Uma vez que indiv&#237;duos com HR estavam em uso de um maior n&#250;mero de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos em compara&#231;&#227;o aos indiv&#237;duos com HAS, n&#243;s avaliamos a potencial influ&#234;ncia destas medica&#231;&#245;es sobre os n&#237;veis de MCP-1. Uma an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla, ajustada para idade, presen&#231;a de HVE e HR, revelou que apenas os betabloqueadores estiveram independentemente associados com os n&#237;veis de MCP-1 (coeficiente beta = 55, erro padr&#227;o [EP] = 20, p &lt; 0,01). No entanto, esta poss&#237;vel interfer&#234;ncia pode n&#227;o ter afetado o resultado do nosso estudo, j&#225; que indiv&#237;duos com HR apresentavam n&#237;veis semelhantes de MCP-1 em rela&#231;&#227;o aos com HAS, apesar do uso de uma maior propor&#231;&#227;o de agentes betabloqueadores.</p>
        <p>Uma vez que os n&#237;veis de MCP-1 n&#227;o refletem necessariamente a sua concentra&#231;&#227;o tecidual, esta seria apontada como a principal limita&#231;&#227;o do nosso estudo. Podemos tamb&#233;m citar como limita&#231;&#245;es a falta de um grupo controle de normotensos e a poss&#237;vel interfer&#234;ncia dos medicamentos anti-hipertensivos nos n&#237;veis de MCP-1. No entanto, devido a raz&#245;es &#233;ticas, o <italic>washout</italic> destes medicamentos em pacientes com HR n&#227;o deve ser realizado. Por conseguinte, como este &#233; um estudo observacional, n&#227;o podemos inferir uma rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre o remodelamento card&#237;aco e as altera&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de MCP-1.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Os n&#237;veis semelhantes de citocina em indiv&#237;duos com HR e HAS e os n&#237;veis mais baixos de MCP-1 em pacientes com HVE sugerem (i) uma poss&#237;vel redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de MCP-1 em pacientes hipertensos com est&#225;gio avan&#231;ado de dano card&#237;aco e (ii) alta ativa&#231;&#227;o da migra&#231;&#227;o de mon&#243;citos pela MCP-1 nestes pacientes hipertensos que est&#227;o desenvolvendo altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais card&#237;acas. A modula&#231;&#227;o de quimiocinas representa uma interessante abordagem terap&#234;utica; portanto, mais estudos cl&#237;nicos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para definir o potencial envolvimento dos cursos da hipertens&#227;o e do remodelamento card&#237;aco e altera&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de MCP-1.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado pela FAPESP e CNPq.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
