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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">zrrxYnQGBhL5CRfRgnz8XsR</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2017000200100</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20170011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2017005003103</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Special Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>I Luso-Brazilian Positioning on Central Arterial Pressure</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;a A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amodeo</surname>
            <given-names>Celso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alc&#226;ntara</surname>
            <given-names>Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nobre</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pinto</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vilela-Martin</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bastos</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Mesquita</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yugar-Toledo</surname>
            <given-names>Juan Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mota-Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Ant&#244;nio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Neves</surname>
            <given-names>Mario Fritsch Toros</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Malachias</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rodrigues</surname>
            <given-names>Manuel de Carvalho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Passarelli</surname>
            <given-names>Oswaldo</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo C&#233;sar B. Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cunha</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Guimar&#227;es</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>P&#243;voa</surname>
            <given-names>Rui</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Teresa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dias</surname>
            <given-names>Vitor Paix&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oigman</surname>
            <given-names>Wille</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Sociedade Portuguesa de Hipertens&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Sociedade Portuguesa de Hipertens&#227;o- Porto - Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Rui P&#243;voa</bold>, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, Rua Loefgreen, 1350. CEP 04040-001, Vila Mariana S&#227;o Paulo - SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>rmspovoa@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold> No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p><bold>Author contributions</bold> Conception and design of the research: P&#243;voa R, Vilela-Martin JF, Jardim PCBV, Brand&#227;o AA, Amodeo C, Alc&#226;ntara C, Barbosa E, Pinto F, Nobre F, Yugar-Toledo JC, Mota-Gomes MA, Neves MFT, Malachias MVB, Bastos M, Rodrigues MC, Passarelli Junior O, Cunha PG, Fonseca T, Dias VP, Barroso WS, Oigman W; Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content:: P&#243;voa R, Vilela-Martin JF, Jardim PCBV.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>13</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>108</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>100</fpage>
      <lpage>108</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>10</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>10</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Arterial Pressure</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Coronary Diseases/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
        <kwd>Endothelium, Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Atherosclerosis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title>Natural and accelerated vascular aging. Involved mechanisms and factors</title>
      <sec>
        <title>The vascular aging process</title>
        <p>In 2006, Dzau et al. presented the cardiovascular disease (CVD) continuum, represented by successive events/stages of disease progression from the incidence of known risk factors until death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> This whole concept had the genesis and progression of atherosclerosis as its nuclear mechanism of progression to underlying CVD. In 2010, Dzau et al. gave new emphasis to the importance of age-related structural changes in the middle layer of the arterial wall (arteriosclerosis) as a contributing mechanism for the risk of development of CVD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
				</p>
        <p>There is a natural process of wear and progressive modification of the arterial wall structure that arises from the mechanical stress of distension induced at each cardiac cycle in connection with the pulse wave amplitude and incident and reflex pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> In the absence of any other factor, this mechanism alone will produce wear on the arterial wall, promoting thickness reduction, fragmentation, and disorganization of the elastin layers. In parallel, this damaged elastic component is replaced by collagen and protein matrix, which is less capable of accommodating the incident pulse wave pressure. In addition, there is loss of integrative and functional connection between elastin layers and smooth muscle vascular cells,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> resulting in reduced distensibility and increased stiffness of the large artery wall, which can be measured by an increase in the transmission of the pulse wave velocity (PWV) and the return of the reflex wave. Thus, there is an influence on the central systolic blood pressure (cSBP), central pulse pressure, "augmentation index", and other ventricular-vascular integration indices.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The factors accelerating arterial aging are multiple: fetal programming, genetic factors, hypertension, dyslipidemias, diabetes mellitus, chronic renal disease, chronic diseases with an inflammatory component, and smoking, among others.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Accelerated vascular aging</title>
        <p>The identification of individuals with accelerated vascular aging may allow an earlier specific intervention, with control of the various risk factors. For each carotid-femoral PWV (cfPWV) increase of 1 m/s, the risk of cardiovascular death, cardiovascular event, or mortality from other causes increases between 14 and 15%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> The publication of cfPWV<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> reference values for different age groups has allowed an easier identification of individuals with early signs of arterial stiffness. However, ethnic and/or environmental exposure aspects that may also contribute to the arterial aging process should be taken into account in the definition of "normal".<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Arterial aging: relationship between microcirculation and macrocirculation, and between arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis</title>
        <p>We can identify four key milestones in the vascular aging process: 1) a progressive reduction in the distensibility of large muscular arteries; 2) a progressive increase in the reflected pressure wave, with a consequent increase in the various components of central arterial pressure; 3) a loss of the arterial stiffness gradient between the central and peripheral arteries; and 4) a progressive elimination of the impedance differential between the arterial macrocirculation and microcirculation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> This set of structural and functional changes in the arterial tree following the deterioration of the structure and function of the middle layer of the arterial wall (arteriosclerosis) is associated with the appearance and concomitant development of atherosclerosis lesions in the vessel wall, having endothelial dysfunction as a unifying mechanism.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Measures of Central and Peripheral Pressures: Differences and Advantages</title>
      <p>Brachial blood pressure (BP) measured with a sphygmomanometer cannot be considered equivalent to aortic pressure since the latter has invariably lower values. The BP varies continuously during the cardiac cycle, although in practice only the maximum value during systole and the minimum value during diastole are measured. Furthermore, the shape of the pulse wave varies along the arterial tree. With the advancement of the pulse wave from the more elastic central arteries to the more rigid peripheral arteries, the systolic peak becomes narrower and more elevated (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Considering that the diastolic BP (DBP) and the mean BP are relatively constant, the brachial systolic BP (SBP) can be 30 mmHg higher than the central systolic aortic pressure in young individuals. This phenomenon, known as amplification of systolic pressure (or pulse pressure), occurs due to several reasons, among them the smaller caliber and greater stiffness of the peripheral arteries. In addition, pulse wave reflections occur at several sites in the arterial network, such as areas with greater collagen/elastin gradient, with greater vasomotor tone and, especially, at bifurcation points. Multiple reflected pulse waves integrate into a single reflected wave that is added to the incident pulse wave, caused by the ventricular ejection. When the reflected wave reaches the incident wave earlier, there is an increase in the central systolic pressure and, consequently, a reduction in the amplification of the pulse pressure. In fact, this increase in pressure depends on several variables, especially age, gender, height, and heart rate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Female gender, advanced age, short stature, and bradycardia are associated with a lower pulse pressure amplification. Even with the control of these variables, only about 70% of the variability in the pulse pressure amplification can be explained in multiple regression models.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> This indicates that central pressure cannot be accurately estimated from the brachial pressure using statistical models, but it actually needs to be determined directly through appropriate methods.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Amplification of systolic pressure from central to peripheral arteries.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-02-0100-70011-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>Advantages</title>
        <p>Measurement of central pressure could result in greater accuracy in the diagnosis of hypertension, greater safety in the therapeutic decision, and better definition of the prognosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Some authors have identified that central pressure, compared with brachial pressure, correlates better with intermediate cardiovascular risk markers such as carotid intima-media thickness and left ventricular hypertrophy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Several studies have reported an independent relationship between central pressure and future cardiovascular events, including in elderly patients with coronary disease and chronic kidney disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> However, other studies have not found a superior predictive value for central pressure over brachial pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> This controversy exists because the methodology is still heterogeneous and the peripheral pressure, necessary for the final result, explains more than 90% of the variation in central pressure. Furthermore, derivation of central pressure requires an additional measurement, usually radial tonometry, which is also subject to errors that may contribute to the remaining 10% of the variation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Therefore, before recommending central pressure measurement for wide clinical use, standardization of the method and the calibration system, and technical limitations of the various devices available must be resolved.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Definition, evaluation and normal values of the main central parameters (central aortic pressure and carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity)</title>
      <p>The SBP values vary considerably according to the place where they are obtained. The SBP is greater in the brachial artery when compared with the aorta. This difference in pressure values between the aorta and the brachial artery is a consequence of the phenomenon of peripheral amplification, which results from the difference in impedance between the large-, medium- and small-caliber arteries, especially in the bifurcations, and also the presence of several factors of interference, such as age, comorbidities (dyslipidemia, smoking, diabetes mellitus, etc.) and environmental factors (sodium).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Recent evidence indicates that central aortic pressure, the augmentation index, and cfPWV are robust markers for future cardiovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
			</p>
      <p>An important aspect in relation to central systolic pressure concerns pressure values obtained with commercial equipment by noninvasive methods. Although these values correlate well with invasive studies, they do not fully represent the central systolic pressure values, but they correctly reflect the amplification phenomenon. This static measurement is considered insufficient for a definitive validation of these methods in the stratification of cardiovascular risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Measurement of cfPWV is an appropriate method of assessing arterial aging with an excellent correlation with the risk of cardiovascular death, cardiovascular events, and mortality from other causes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> The stiffening of the distal aorta and large arteries, such as the carotid and iliac arteries, occurs due to the early return of the reflection wave, secondary to structural and functional alterations of the distal vascular wall.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the great arteries differ from medium and small arteries in relation to histology, physiology, and elastic properties, which is why it is extremely important to define the anatomical target for the action of a drug and the therapeutic target to be achieved. Evidence regarding drug treatment points to a greater ease of reversal of alterations in small-caliber arteries (muscle) than in large arteries (elastic). Thus, results obtained in one arterial segment cannot be extrapolated to other segments in the same arterial tree. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">2</xref> show the central aortic systolic pressure, augmentation index, and cfPWV values in the normal population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
			</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Central systolic aortic pressure values and the augmentation index in normal individuals<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
					</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="11%"/>
            <col width="11%"/>
            <col width="11%"/>
            <col width="11%"/>
            <col width="11%"/>
            <col width="11%"/>
            <col width="11%"/>
            <col width="11%"/>
            <col width="11%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center" colspan="4">Central aortic pressure (mmHg)</th>
              <th align="center" colspan="4">Augmentation index (%)</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center" colspan="2">Female</th>
              <th align="center" colspan="2">Male</th>
              <th align="center" colspan="2">Female</th>
              <th align="center" colspan="2">Male</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Age (years)</th>
              <th align="center">Mean</th>
              <th align="center">Percentile <break/>(10-90)</th>
              <th align="center">Mean</th>
              <th align="center">Percentile <break/>(10-90)</th>
              <th align="center">Mean</th>
              <th align="center">Percentile <break/>(10-90)</th>
              <th align="center">Mean</th>
              <th align="center">Percentile <break/>(10-90)</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">&lt;20</td>
              <td align="center">97</td>
              <td align="center">86 -109</td>
              <td align="center">105</td>
              <td align="center">96 - 113</td>
              <td align="center">14</td>
              <td align="center">9 - 20</td>
              <td align="center">19</td>
              <td align="center">11 - 24</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">20 - 29</td>
              <td align="center">95</td>
              <td align="center">80 - 110</td>
              <td align="center">103</td>
              <td align="center">92 - 115</td>
              <td align="center">12</td>
              <td align="center">5 - 19</td>
              <td align="center">15</td>
              <td align="center">6 - 24</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">30 - 39</td>
              <td align="center">98</td>
              <td align="center">84 - 119</td>
              <td align="center">103</td>
              <td align="center">88 - 120</td>
              <td align="center">8</td>
              <td align="center">0 - 17</td>
              <td align="center">13</td>
              <td align="center">4 - 23</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">40 - 49</td>
              <td align="center">102</td>
              <td align="center">87 - 123</td>
              <td align="center">106</td>
              <td align="center">90 - 123</td>
              <td align="center">6</td>
              <td align="center">0 - 15</td>
              <td align="center">11</td>
              <td align="center">2 - 21</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">50 - 59</td>
              <td align="center">110</td>
              <td align="center">93 - 127</td>
              <td align="center">110</td>
              <td align="center">96 - 126</td>
              <td align="center">5</td>
              <td align="center">0 - 13</td>
              <td align="center">9</td>
              <td align="center">2 - 18</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">60 - 69</td>
              <td align="center">114</td>
              <td align="center">97 - 129</td>
              <td align="center">114</td>
              <td align="center">97 - 128</td>
              <td align="center">6</td>
              <td align="center">1 - 12</td>
              <td align="center">8</td>
              <td align="center">2 - 17</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">&gt; 70</td>
              <td align="center">118</td>
              <td align="center">100 - 131</td>
              <td align="center">116</td>
              <td align="center">99 - 130</td>
              <td align="center">6</td>
              <td align="center">1 - 13</td>
              <td align="center">8</td>
              <td align="center">1 - 17</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <p>% = percentage increase.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t2">
        <label>Table 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity values (m/s) in normal individuals<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
					</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="33%"/>
            <col width="33%"/>
            <col width="33%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Age</th>
              <th align="center">Mean &#177; 2SD</th>
              <th align="center">Median (percentile 10 - 90)</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">&lt;30 a</td>
              <td align="center">6.6 (4.9 - 8.2)</td>
              <td align="center">6.4 (5.7 - 7.5)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">30 - 39 a</td>
              <td align="center">6.8 (4.2 - 9.4)</td>
              <td align="center">6.7 (5.3 - 8.2)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">40 - 49 a</td>
              <td align="center">7.5 (5.1 - 10.0)</td>
              <td align="center">7.4 (6.2 - 9.0)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">50 - 59 a</td>
              <td align="center">8.4 (5.1 - 11.7)</td>
              <td align="center">8.1 (6.7 - 10.4)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">60 - 69 a</td>
              <td align="center">9.7 (5.7 -13.6)</td>
              <td align="center">9.3 (7.6 - 12.1)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">&gt; 70 a</td>
              <td align="center">11.7 (6.0 - 17.5)</td>
              <td align="center">11.1 (8.6 - 15.5)</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN2">
            <p>SD: standard deviation.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Evaluation methodology - available devices and their validations</title>
      <p>The cfPWV, which directly reflects arterial stiffness, has a predictive value in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and is currently considered the gold standard method to assess arterial stiffness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The devices used to measure cfPWV have evolved over the last two decades, and their new versions have received systematic validation. Numerous studies have been published comparing invasive and noninvasive methods in different populations and among several existing noninvasive cfPWV measurement devices such as oscillometric, piezoelectric, and tonometric. Most of them have a good correlation with the methods most used in epidemiological studies, such as Complior&#174; or SphymoCor&#174;, among others. Currently, these methods involve little operator training and the ease of use and time consumed in the exam have been optimized so that they are becoming more available for use in clinical practice with good intraobserver and interobserver correlations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Some differences have been found in studies comparing devices, with higher values &#8203;&#8203;of systematically hemodynamic parameters obtained with one device in particular. The mathematical models used in different devices can lead to different results. However, in most cases, this has no translation in clinical practice, since it does not imply a change in the risk class of the individual. Nevertheless, it is prudent that the same type of equipment is used in multicenter research studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In addition to the validation of different equipment, different procedures for measuring cfPWV have also been proposed. These different procedures, such as measuring the carotid-femoral distance, can influence the results obtained if they are not also standardized. In this case, there are arguments that 80% of the direct carotid-femoral distance is the most accurate estimate for this same distance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Central parameters: differences according to age, sex, and ethnicity</title>
      <p>The best way to define normal values for central aortic pressure would be a correlation between the central aortic pressure levels obtained and the cardiovascular risk, as known for the BP obtained by the conventional or brachial method. However, these data are not yet available as results of prospective studies designed for this specific purpose, although some publications have sought to obtain these correlations between cardiovascular outcomes and central aortic pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
			</p>
      <p>One strategy would be to obtain correlations between central aortic pressure values that correspond to conventional pressure values obtained in the casual brachial artery or in the clinic. Following this strategy, population studies suggest that an optimal systolic central aortic pressure would be represented by values &lt; 110 mmHg, which would be equivalent to 120 mmHg when obtained by the conventional BP measurement. Likewise, a central aortic pressure &lt; 120 mmHg would correspond to a brachial SBP of 140 mmHg, defining as stage 1 systemic arterial hypertension a systolic central aortic pressure &#8804; 120 mmHg.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Applicability and cost-benefit relationship of the measurement of central parameters</title>
      <p>Although it is not part of the stratification routine in hypertensive patients, the central aortic pressure has attracted increasing interest due to its predictive value for the occurrence of cardiovascular events, as well as for the differential evaluation of the different anti-hypertensive drugs, when compared with the traditional determination of the brachial pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> The augmentation index and the pulse pressure measured by carotid tonometry have been considered independent predictors of cardiovascular mortality in end-stage renal disease. However, the predictive value of the central aortic pressure, when compared with that of the brachial BP showed no significant differences.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Nevertheless, the recommendation for its routine use requires further studies. As an exception and as an added value, isolated systolic hypertension is observed in youths, since the brachial artery SBP in these individuals may be increased due to an exaggerated amplification of the central pressure wave, which would be normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
			</p>
      <p>There are no data verifying the cost-benefit relationship of central aortic pressure determination, extrapolating it from small studies with the use of angiotensin II receptor blocker (e.g., losartan), which reduces central aortic pressure and may bring some additional benefit when using it in addition to the reduction of brachial BP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Isolated systolic hypertension in young adults: true hypertension and spurious hypertension</title>
      <p>The pathophysiological mechanism of isolated systolic hypertension in elderly and young individuals is not the same. In addition, information on the prognosis of both is scarce and the guidelines currently available offer different recommendations on how to address these situations depending on the age group.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Isolated systolic hypertension in young adults (ISHY) was described in 1999 as a "spurious" elevation of the SBP or pseudo-elevation of the SBP (&gt; 140 mmHg) with normal values &#8203;&#8203;of diastolic pressure (&lt; 90 mmHg) resulting from a phenomenon of amplification of the peripheral arterial pulse waveform.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> ISHY is more common in male athletes, in individuals who are taller, and in those with higher body mass index.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> The prevalence of ISHY shows a significant variation (between 2% and 16%) in exclusively male cohorts and has obesity and tobacco as two of the main determinants.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> The noninvasive evaluation of the central pressure and pulse wave amplification in the upper limbs has a precise indication in these cases, since it allows the identification of young adults with "spurious" isolated systolic hypertension, sparing them from being labeled as "hypertensive patients".<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> The identification of patients with ISHY should be complemented by outpatient monitoring to exclude white coat hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
			</p>
      <p>ISHY has increased in prevalence and, given the lack of information about it, there are controversies about how to intervene in this situation. If on the one hand the values of central aortic pressure in individuals with ISHY are lower than those found in true hypertensive patients, they are higher than those obtained in normotensive patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> The study by Yano et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> of 2015, showed a higher cardiovascular risk in this group when compared with individuals with optimal BP, but the study did not include an assessment of the central pressure for a possible differentiation between the groups.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> With the information available, the management is to carefully monitor with nonpharmacological measures, with a more aggressive management reserved for situations of greater associated cardiovascular risk, at least until new data are available.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Prognostic value of the ambulatory arterial stiffness index</title>
      <p>The ambulatory arterial stiffness index (AASI) is used for the evaluation of arterial stiffness and is calculated based on the slope of the diastolic pressure <italic>versus</italic> the values from the systolic pressure in outpatient monitoring, evaluating the dynamic relationship between the DBP and the SBP in 24 hours.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Thus, for any increase in the distension of the artery wall, the SBP and DBP values tend to increase in parallel, whereas in a rigid artery, there is an increase in the value of SBP accompanied by a lower elevation or even a decrease in DBP. Li et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> confirmed in a healthy Chinese population that there was a significant correlation coefficient between AASI and cfPWV, which is the gold standard method.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The AASI depends on the degree of functional and structural integrity of the arteries, and may also depend on the ejected systolic volume and the reflection waves.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Because the AASI is dependent on the mechanical properties of small arteries and reflection waves, this index correlates well with pulse pressure and augmentation index, and has a good correlation with some markers of lesion in target organs (ventricular hypertrophy, carotid lesion, and microalbuminuria).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Some studies have shown a relationship between AASI and global and cardiovascular mortality, as well as a relationship with stroke in normotensive individuals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> Nevertheless, this prognostic value is still debatable and is related to the degree of decrease during sleep and other factors, such as heart rate and peripheral vascular resistance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> Moreover, its reproducibility is poor (around 50-68%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Central parameters as predictors of arterial hypertension</title>
      <p>There is evidence that increased arterial stiffness is a precursor to the occurrence of hypertension and not a consequence of increased BP. The increase in cfPWV preceded the appearance of hypertension over 7 years in an analysis of the Framingham Heart Study.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> The Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging also demonstrated an association between increased cfPWV and a higher incidence of hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Other central parameters emerged as predictors of hypertension, such as increased brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity, increased proximal aortic stiffness assessed by echocardiography, and increased carotid artery stiffness, as demonstrated in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The increase in aortic stiffness correlated with a lower sensitivity of the baroreflex, a precursor mechanism for the development of hypertension, as well as an increase in the BP variability.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Central parameters and cardiovascular risk</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Role of the carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes</title>
        <p>The cfPWV is the most studied central parameter; consequently, there is a greater amount of evidence related to this parameter. Thus, it has been demonstrated that the cfPWV has an independent predictive value for different cardiovascular outcomes in different subgroups, as in patients with hypertension, type 2 diabetes, elderly and in those with end-stage renal disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> Even in apparently healthy individuals, cfPWV is an independent predictor of coronary disease and stroke.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> When the predictive values for cfPWV and peripheral pressure have been compared, the cfPWV showed an infallible superiority.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> A systematic review including 16 studies with 17,635 participants revealed that for each increase of one standard deviation in cfPWV, the risk ratio was 1.35 (95% confidence interval [95%CI] 1.22 - 1.50, p &lt; 0.001) for coronary disease, 1.54 (95%CI, 1.34 - 1.78, p &lt; 0.001) for stroke, and 1.45 (95%CI, 1.30 - 1.61, p &lt; 0.001) for cardiovascular disease. These risk ratios were even higher in younger participants and remained significant even after adjustment for the presence of conventional cardiovascular risk factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Small studies have shown that the persistent elevation of pulse wave velocity during the treatment of hypertension or cardiovascular disease is associated with a high risk for a cardiovascular event.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Role of the carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity in the stratification of cardiovascular risk</title>
        <p>Studies have shown that the addition of cfPWV to traditional risk factors involved in scores such as Framingham and SCORE, and even atherosclerosis measures, significantly increases the predictive value for cardiovascular outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> They also indicated that cfPWV aggregates information for the stratification of cardiovascular risk, with the potential for clinical applicability. The use of cfPWV allowed to reclassify the cardiovascular risk range of the individuals and was able to improve the evaluation of the prognosis of cardiovascular risk in 10 years in individuals with intermediate risk by 13%, according to a recent systematic review.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> Thus, the presence of an elevated cfPWV measurement added to classic risk factors indicates an excess of cardiovascular risk and suggests the need for a more rigorous multifactorial approach.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Role of central aortic pressure as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes</title>
        <p>One of the first publications to draw the attention of the scientific community to the role of central aortic pressure in cardiovascular outcomes, regardless of the peripheral BP values, was the Conduit Artery Function Evaluation (CAFE) study in 2006. In this analysis, the hypertensive patients who presented a greater reduction of the systolic component of the central aortic pressure to the same level of reduction of the BP values &#8203;&#8203;obtained by the conventional evaluation had a lower incidence of cardiovascular outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> In that same year, the European Society of Cardiology published a position drawing attention to the fact that brachial measurements overestimate the central BP values &#8203;&#8203;and that the systolic component of central aortic pressure, as well as central pulse pressure, are better predictors of cardiovascular outcomes, especially in patients with hypertension and chronic kidney disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Other publications have also drawn attention to this superiority when comparing central measurements with brachial ones obtained from ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> On the other hand, a meta-analysis of 11 longitudinal studies showed that both central aortic systolic pressure and central pulse pressure were independent markers of outcome and cardiovascular mortality, but were not superior to the values &#8203;&#8203;obtained by conventional measurement (peripheral pressure assessment, p = 0.057).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Relationship of central parameters with target-organ lesions and associated clinical conditions</title>
      <p>Numerous studies have demonstrated that central BP measurement is promising in terms of better correlation with cardiovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> Differences in central and peripheral arterial pulsatility are difficult to be attributed to cardiovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> No studies have so far demonstrated robust evidence that central BP adds a new model of cardiovascular risk stratification in relation to the conventional SBP and DBP measurement. A recent analysis of data from the Framingham Offspring Cohort<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> demonstrated a strong correlation between central aortic pressure and the incidence of cardiovascular events. A follow-up of up to 6.8 years in a population of 2,492 individuals (mean age 66 &#177; 9 years) has shown that 6% had a cardiovascular event. In a multivariate analysis, the measurement of central aortic pressure in this population correlated significantly with cardiovascular events. The CAFE study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> recruited 2,199 patients from the five centers of the ASCOT study and performed tonometry by radial artery applanation for analysis of central BP and pulse wave. Although the two arms of the study presented similar brachial pressure reduction (difference of 0.7 mmHg, 95%CI 0.4 - 1.7, p = 0.2), there was a reduction in central aortic pressure with statistical significance in the group that used amlodipine (central aortic systolic pressure 4.3 mmHg, 95%CI 3.3 - 5.4, p &lt; 0.0001; and central aortic pulse pressure 3.0 mmHg, 95%CI 2.1 - 3.9, p &lt; 0.0001). A <italic>post hoc</italic> analysis of this study demonstrated that central BP was significantly associated with combined cardiovascular outcomes and the development of renal failure (p &lt; 0.05).</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Implication of the central parameters in the strategy for the treatment of hypertension</title>
      <p>Despite the adequate reduction of (peripheral) BP with anti-hypertensive treatment, the results on clinical outcomes have shown a significant difference attributed to the pleiotropic effects of anti-hypertensive drugs on the elastic properties of large arteries (aorta), on the central aortic pressure, and on the cfPWV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>
				<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref> shows the effects of different classes of anti-hypertensive drugs on central hemodynamics.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t3">
        <label>Table 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Comparative effect of different classes of anti-hypertensive drugs on central hemodynamics</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="40%"/>
            <col width="14%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
            <col width="10%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Classes of anti-hypertensive drugs</th>
              <th align="center">CSaP</th>
              <th align="center">CDaP</th>
              <th align="center">Amplification</th>
              <th align="center">Reflection</th>
              <th align="center">cfPWV</th>
              <th align="center">PAP </th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Beta-blockers</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8593;&#8593;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8593;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Calcium channel blockers</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;/&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8593;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8593;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Angiotensin II AT1 receptor blockers</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;/&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8593;/&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Diuretics</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8592;&#8594;/&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Nitrates</td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
              </td>
              <td align="center">
                <bold>&#8592;&#8594;/&#8595;</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN3">
            <p>CSaP: central systolic aortic pressure; CDaP: central diastolic aortic pressure; cfPWV: carotid femoral pulse wave velocity; PAP: peripheral arterial pressure.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <sec>
        <title>Beta-blockers</title>
        <p>The CAFE study compared the effect of beta-blockers on the central pressure for a similar peripheral BP, and the atenolol/thiazide group showed higher aortic central pressure values &#8203;&#8203;when compared with the amlodipine/perindopril group.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Nebivolol (a beta-blocker with a vasodilatory effect) and carvedilol (an anti-hypertensive with alpha- and beta-blocking effects) compared with atenolol promoted a greater reduction in central aortic pressure and pulse amplification.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref> Nebivolol reduces central aortic pressure and the augmentation index in mildly hypertensive patients after 3 months of treatment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Calcium channel blockers</title>
        <p>Calcium channel blockers reduce oxidative stress in experimental models and decrease central aortic pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> The AORTA study compared the addition of azelnidipine or amlodipine to hypertensive patients using olmesartan and demonstrated that the azelnidipine group achieved a greater reduction in central aortic pressure and in the augmentation index, and a greater regression in left ventricular hypertrophy and left ventricular diastolic dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors</title>
        <p>The reduction in central aortic pressure demonstrated in comparative studies with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) can be attributed to possible mechanisms involving reduction in compliance and oxidative stress, structural remodeling of the vascular wall, collagen/elastin relationship, anti-inflammatory effect and consequent relaxation of the vascular smooth muscle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Angiotensin II AT1 receptor blockers</title>
        <p>Valsartan and captopril reduce to a similar extent the central aortic pressure and the cfPWV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> The EXPLOR study compared valsartan/amlodipine <italic>versus</italic> amlodipine/atenolol for a similar BP reduction in the peripheral artery. Central aortic pressure and cfPWV showed a greater reduction in the valsartan/amlodipine group.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> Studies with other AT1 receptor blockers have shown similar results.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diuretics</title>
        <p>Diuretics appear to have no beneficial effect on central hemodynamics.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Nitrates</title>
        <p>The effects of nitrates on central aortic pressure are attributed to the relaxation of the vascular smooth muscle of medium-caliber arteries that result in a reduction in the reflection wave amplitude, a reduction in the pulse wave velocity, and an increase in the effective reflection distance. Isosorbide mononitrate has also been evaluated in hypertensive patients and demonstrated a greater reduction in central aortic pressure than in peripheral BP and a greater reduction in the augmentation index without a significant change in the heart rate. On the other hand, nitrates do not influence cfPWV.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn2">
        <p>Sources of Funding There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <label>3</label>
        <p>Study Association This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ref-list>
      <title>References</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <mixed-citation>1 Dzau VJ, Antman EM, Black HR, Hayes DL, Manson JE, Plutzky J, et al. The cardiovascular disease continuum validated: clinical evidence of improved patient outcomes: part II: Clinical trial evidence (acute coronary syndromes through renal disease) and future directions. Circulation. 2006 19;114(25):2871-91.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Dzau</surname>
              <given-names>VJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Antman</surname>
              <given-names>EM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Black</surname>
              <given-names>HR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hayes</surname>
              <given-names>DL</given-names>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Especial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>I Posicionamento Luso-Brasileiro de Press&#227;o Arterial Central</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;a A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amodeo</surname>
            <given-names>Celso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alc&#226;ntara</surname>
            <given-names>Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nobre</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pinto</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vilela-Martin</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bastos</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Mesquita</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yugar-Toledo</surname>
            <given-names>Juan Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mota-Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Ant&#244;nio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Neves</surname>
            <given-names>Mario Fritsch Toros</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Malachias</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rodrigues</surname>
            <given-names>Manuel de Carvalho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Passarelli</surname>
            <given-names>Oswaldo</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo C&#233;sar B. Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cunha</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Guimar&#227;es</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>P&#243;voa</surname>
            <given-names>Rui</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Teresa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dias</surname>
            <given-names>Vitor Paix&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oigman</surname>
            <given-names>Wille</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Sociedade Portuguesa de Hipertens&#227;o- Porto - Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Rui P&#243;voa</bold>, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, Rua Loefgreen, 1350. CEP 04040-001, Vila Mariana S&#227;o Paulo - SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>rmspovoa@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold> Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p><bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold> Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: P&#243;voa R, Vilela-Martin JF, Jardim PCBV, Brand&#227;o AA, Amodeo C, Alc&#226;ntara C, Barbosa E, Pinto F, Nobre F, Yugar-Toledo JC, Mota-Gomes MA, Neves MFT, Malachias MVB, Bastos M, Rodrigues MC, Passarelli Junior O, Cunha PG, Fonseca T, Dias VP, Barroso WS, Oigman W; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: P&#243;voa R, Vilela-Martin JF, Jardim PCBV.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Press&#227;o Arterial</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a das Coron&#225;rias/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
        <kwd>Endot&#233;lio Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Aterosclerose</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>Envelhecimento vascular natural e acelerado. Mecanismos e fatores envolvidos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>O Processo de envelhecimento vascular</title>
          <p>Em 2006, Dzau et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> apresentaram o <italic>continuum</italic> da doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV), representado por sucessivos eventos/etapas de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a desde a incid&#234;ncia de conhecidos fatores de risco at&#233; a morte.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Todo este conceito tinha como mecanismo nuclear da evolu&#231;&#227;o para DCV subjacente a g&#234;nese e progress&#227;o da aterosclerose. Em 2010, Dzau et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> deram nova &#234;nfase &#224; import&#226;ncia das altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais da camada m&#233;dia da parede arterial associadas &#224; idade (arteriosclerose) como mecanismo contributivo para o risco de desenvolvimento de DCV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Existe um processo natural de desgaste e modifica&#231;&#227;o progressiva da estrutura da parede arterial, que adv&#233;m do estresse mec&#226;nico de distens&#227;o induzido a cada ciclo card&#237;aco em conex&#227;o com a amplitude da onda de pulso e de press&#227;o incidente e reflexa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Na aus&#234;ncia de qualquer outro fator, este mecanismo por si s&#243; produzir&#225; desgaste da parede arterial, promovendo redu&#231;&#227;o da espessura, fragmenta&#231;&#227;o e desorganiza&#231;&#227;o das l&#226;minas de elastina. Paralelamente, este componente el&#225;stico danificado &#233; substitu&#237;do por col&#225;geno e matriz proteica, que apresenta menor capacidade de acomodar a press&#227;o da onda de pulso incidente. Al&#233;m disso, ocorre perda da conex&#227;o integradora e funcional entre as camadas de elastina e as c&#233;lulas vasculares do m&#250;sculo liso,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> resultando em redu&#231;&#227;o da distensibilidade e aumento da rigidez da parede das grandes art&#233;rias, que pode ser medido por um aumento da velocidade de transmiss&#227;o da onda de pulso e do retorno da onda reflexa. Com isto, ocorre influ&#234;ncia na press&#227;o arterial (PA) sist&#243;lica (PAS) central, na press&#227;o de pulso central, no "&#237;ndice de incremento" e em outros &#237;ndices de integra&#231;&#227;o ventr&#237;culo-vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Os fatores aceleradores do envelhecimento arterial s&#227;o m&#250;ltiplos: programa&#231;&#227;o fetal, fatores gen&#233;ticos, hipertens&#227;o arterial, dislipidemias, diabetes mellitus, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas com componente inflamat&#243;rio, tabagismo, entre outros.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Envelhecimento vascular acelerado</title>
          <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos com envelhecimento vascular acelerado pode permitir uma interven&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica mais precoce, com controle dos diversos fatores de risco. Para cada aumento de 1 m/s de velocidade da onda de pulso (VOP) carot&#237;deo-femoral (VOPcf), o risco de morte cardiovascular, evento cardiovascular ou mortalidade por outras causas aumenta entre 14 e 15%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> A publica&#231;&#227;o de valores de refer&#234;ncia da VOPcf<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> para diferentes faixas et&#225;rias veio permitir uma identifica&#231;&#227;o mais f&#225;cil de indiv&#237;duos que apresentam sinais precoces de rigidez arterial. Entretanto, devem ser levados em conta na defini&#231;&#227;o do "normal" os aspectos &#233;tnicos e/ou de exposi&#231;&#227;o ambiental que podem tamb&#233;m contribuir para o processo de envelhecimento arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Envelhecimento arterial: rela&#231;&#227;o entre microcircula&#231;&#227;o e macrocircula&#231;&#227;o e entre arteriosclerose e aterosclerose</title>
          <p>Podemos identificar quatro marcos essenciais no processo de envelhecimento vascular: 1) uma progressiva redu&#231;&#227;o da distensibilidade das grandes art&#233;rias musculares; 2) um progressivo aumento da onda de press&#227;o refletida, com consequente aumento dos diversos componentes da press&#227;o arterial central; 3) uma perda do gradiente de rigidez arterial entre as art&#233;rias centrais e perif&#233;ricas; 4) uma progressiva elimina&#231;&#227;o do diferencial de imped&#226;ncia entre a macrocircula&#231;&#227;o e microcircula&#231;&#227;o arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> A este conjunto de modifica&#231;&#245;es estruturais e funcionais da &#225;rvore arterial na sequ&#234;ncia de deteriora&#231;&#227;o da estrutura e fun&#231;&#227;o da camada m&#233;dia da parede arterial (arteriosclerose) junta-se o aparecimento e concomitante desenvolvimento de les&#245;es de aterosclerose na parede do vaso, tendo como mecanismo unificador a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medidas das press&#245;es central e perif&#233;rica: diferen&#231;as e vantagens</title>
        <p>A PA braquial medida com esfigmoman&#244;metro n&#227;o pode ser considerada equivalente da press&#227;o a&#243;rtica, pois esta apresenta valores invariavelmente mais baixos. A PA varia continuamente durante o ciclo card&#237;aco, embora na pr&#225;tica sejam medidos apenas o valor m&#225;ximo durante a s&#237;stole e o valor m&#237;nimo durante a di&#225;stole. Al&#233;m disso, a forma da onda de pulso varia ao longo da &#225;rvore arterial. Com o avan&#231;o da onda de pulso das art&#233;rias centrais mais el&#225;sticas para as art&#233;rias perif&#233;ricas mais r&#237;gidas, o pico sist&#243;lico se torna mais estreito e elevado (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>). Considerando que a PA diast&#243;lica (PAD) e a PA m&#233;dia sejam relativamente constantes, a press&#227;o sist&#243;lica braquial pode ser 30 mmHg maior que a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica sist&#243;lica em indiv&#237;duos jovens. Este fen&#244;meno conhecido como amplifica&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica (ou da press&#227;o de pulso) ocorre por diversos motivos, entre eles o menor calibre e maior rigidez das art&#233;rias perif&#233;ricas. Al&#233;m disso, reflex&#245;es da onda de pulso ocorrem em diversos locais da rede arterial, como regi&#245;es de maior gradiente col&#225;geno/elastina, de maior tono vasomotor e, especialmente, nos pontos de bifurca&#231;&#227;o. M&#250;ltiplas ondas de pulso refletidas se integram em uma &#250;nica onda refletida que se soma &#224; onda de pulso incidente, originada pela eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Quando a onda refletida atinge mais precocemente a onda incidente, ocorre um incremento na press&#227;o sist&#243;lica central e, consequentemente, uma redu&#231;&#227;o na amplifica&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de pulso. De fato, este incremento de press&#227;o depende de diversas vari&#225;veis, principalmente idade, g&#234;nero, altura e frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Sexo feminino, idade avan&#231;ada, baixa estatura e bradicardia est&#227;o associados com menor amplifica&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de pulso. Mesmo com o controle dessas vari&#225;veis, somente cerca de 70% da variabilidade na amplifica&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de pulso pode ser explicada em modelos de regress&#227;o m&#250;ltipla.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Isso indica que a press&#227;o central n&#227;o pode ser estimada com precis&#227;o a partir da press&#227;o braquial utilizando modelos estat&#237;sticos, mas necessita realmente ser determinada diretamente atrav&#233;s de m&#233;todos adequados.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Amplifica&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica das art&#233;rias centrais para as art&#233;rias perif&#233;ricas.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-02-0100-70011-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>Vantagens</title>
          <p>A medida da press&#227;o central poderia resultar em benef&#237;cios em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; maior precis&#227;o para o diagn&#243;stico da hipertens&#227;o arterial, maior seguran&#231;a na decis&#227;o terap&#234;utica e melhor defini&#231;&#227;o do progn&#243;stico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Alguns autores identificaram que a press&#227;o central, comparada com a press&#227;o braquial, correlaciona-se melhor com marcadores intermedi&#225;rios de risco cardiovascular como espessamento m&#233;dio-intimal da car&#243;tida e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Diversos estudos relataram uma rela&#231;&#227;o independente entre a press&#227;o central e futuros eventos cardiovasculares, incluindo pacientes idosos com doen&#231;a coronariana e com doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> N&#227;o obstante, outros estudos n&#227;o encontraram um valor preditor superior da press&#227;o central sobre a press&#227;o braquial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Esta controv&#233;rsia existe porque a metodologia ainda &#233; heterog&#234;nea e a press&#227;o perif&#233;rica, necess&#225;ria para o resultado final, explica mais de 90% da varia&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o central. Al&#233;m disso, a deriva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o central requer uma medida adicional, geralmente tonometria radial, tamb&#233;m sujeita a erros que podem contribuir com os 10% restantes da varia&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Por isso, antes da medida da press&#227;o central ser recomendada para amplo uso cl&#237;nico, a padroniza&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;todo e do sistema de calibra&#231;&#227;o e as limita&#231;&#245;es t&#233;cnicas dos diversos aparelhos dispon&#237;veis devem ser resolvidas.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Defini&#231;&#227;o, avalia&#231;&#227;o e valores normais dos principais par&#226;metros centrais (press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica e velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;deo-femoral)</title>
        <p>Os valores de PAS variam consideravelmente de acordo com o local de registro. A PAS &#233; mais alta na art&#233;ria braquial quando comparada &#224; aorta. Essa diferen&#231;a de valores de press&#245;es entre a aorta e a art&#233;ria braquial &#233; consequ&#234;ncia do fen&#244;meno da amplifica&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica, que resulta da diferen&#231;a de imped&#226;ncia entre as art&#233;rias de grande calibre e as de m&#233;dio e pequeno calibre, especialmente nas bifurca&#231;&#245;es e, ainda, da presen&#231;a de diversos fatores de interfer&#234;ncia como idade, comorbidades (dislipidemia, tabagismo, diabetes mellitus etc.) e fatores ambientais (s&#243;dio).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Recentes evid&#234;ncias assinalam que a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica, o &#237;ndice de incremento e a VOPcf s&#227;o marcadores robustos de eventos cardiovasculares futuros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Um aspecto importante em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; press&#227;o sist&#243;lica central diz respeito a valores de press&#227;o obtidos com equipamentos comerciais por m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos. Embora estes valores tenham boa correla&#231;&#227;o com estudos invasivos, n&#227;o representam integralmente os valores da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica central, mas refletem corretamente o fen&#244;meno da amplifica&#231;&#227;o. Essa mensura&#231;&#227;o est&#225;tica &#233; considerada insuficiente para valida&#231;&#227;o definitiva desses m&#233;todos na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A mensura&#231;&#227;o da VOPcf &#233; um m&#233;todo apropriado de avalia&#231;&#227;o do envelhecimento arterial com excelente correla&#231;&#227;o com risco de morte cardiovascular, eventos cardiovasculares e mortalidade por outras causas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> O enrijecimento da aorta distal e das grandes art&#233;rias, como as car&#243;tidas e as il&#237;acas, ocorre devido ao retorno precoce da onda de reflex&#227;o, secund&#225;ria a altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais e funcionais da parede vascular distal.</p>
        <p>Portanto, as grandes art&#233;rias diferem das art&#233;rias de m&#233;dio e pequeno calibre em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; histologia, fisiologia e propriedades el&#225;sticas, raz&#227;o pela qual definir o alvo anat&#244;mico para a&#231;&#227;o de um medicamento e o alvo terap&#234;utico a ser alcan&#231;ado s&#227;o de extrema import&#226;ncia. As evid&#234;ncias em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento medicamentoso apontam para uma maior facilidade de revers&#227;o das altera&#231;&#245;es em art&#233;rias de pequeno calibre (musculares) do que em grandes art&#233;rias (el&#225;sticas). Assim, resultados obtidos em um segmento arterial n&#227;o podem ser extrapolados para outros segmentos da mesma &#225;rvore arterial. As <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabelas 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">2</xref> mostram os valores da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica sist&#243;lica, &#237;ndice de incremento e VOPcf na popula&#231;&#227;o normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
				</p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Valores de press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica sist&#243;lica e &#237;ndice de incremento em indiv&#237;duos normais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
						</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
              <col width="11%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="4">Press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica (mmHg)</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="4">&#205;ndice de incremento (%)</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2">Feminino</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2">Masculino</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2">Feminino</th>
                <th align="center" colspan="2">Masculino</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Idade (anos)</th>
                <th align="center">M&#233;dia</th>
                <th align="center">Percentil<break/> (10-90)</th>
                <th align="center">M&#233;dia</th>
                <th align="center">Percentil<break/> (10-90)</th>
                <th align="center">M&#233;dia</th>
                <th align="center">Percentil<break/> (10-90)</th>
                <th align="center">M&#233;dia</th>
                <th align="center">Percentil<break/> (10-90)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">&lt;20</td>
                <td align="center">97</td>
                <td align="center">86 -109</td>
                <td align="center">105</td>
                <td align="center">96 - 113</td>
                <td align="center">14</td>
                <td align="center">9 - 20</td>
                <td align="center">19</td>
                <td align="center">11 - 24</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">20 - 29</td>
                <td align="center">95</td>
                <td align="center">80 - 110</td>
                <td align="center">103</td>
                <td align="center">92 - 115</td>
                <td align="center">12</td>
                <td align="center">5 - 19</td>
                <td align="center">15</td>
                <td align="center">6 - 24</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">30 - 39</td>
                <td align="center">98</td>
                <td align="center">84 - 119</td>
                <td align="center">103</td>
                <td align="center">88 - 120</td>
                <td align="center">8</td>
                <td align="center">0 - 17</td>
                <td align="center">13</td>
                <td align="center">4 - 23</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">40 - 49</td>
                <td align="center">102</td>
                <td align="center">87 - 123</td>
                <td align="center">106</td>
                <td align="center">90 - 123</td>
                <td align="center">6</td>
                <td align="center">0 - 15</td>
                <td align="center">11</td>
                <td align="center">2 - 21</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">50 - 59</td>
                <td align="center">110</td>
                <td align="center">93 - 127</td>
                <td align="center">110</td>
                <td align="center">96 - 126</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
                <td align="center">0 - 13</td>
                <td align="center">9</td>
                <td align="center">2 - 18</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">60 - 69</td>
                <td align="center">114</td>
                <td align="center">97 - 129</td>
                <td align="center">114</td>
                <td align="center">97 - 128</td>
                <td align="center">6</td>
                <td align="center">1 - 12</td>
                <td align="center">8</td>
                <td align="center">2 - 17</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">&gt; 70</td>
                <td align="center">118</td>
                <td align="center">100 - 131</td>
                <td align="center">116</td>
                <td align="center">99 - 130</td>
                <td align="center">6</td>
                <td align="center">1 - 13</td>
                <td align="center">8</td>
                <td align="center">1 - 17</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>% = percentual de incremento.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Valores da velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;deo-femoral (m/s) em indiv&#237;duos normais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
						</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Idade</th>
                <th align="center">M&#233;dia &#177; 2DP</th>
                <th align="center">Mediana (percentil 10 - 90)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">&lt;30 a</td>
                <td align="center">6,6 (4,9 - 8,2)</td>
                <td align="center">6,4 (5,7 - 7,5)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">30 - 39 a</td>
                <td align="center">6,8 (4,2 - 9,4)</td>
                <td align="center">6,7 (5,3 - 8,2)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">40 - 49 a</td>
                <td align="center">7,5 (5,1 - 10,0)</td>
                <td align="center">7,4 (6,2 - 9,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">50 - 59 a</td>
                <td align="center">8,4 (5,1 - 11,7)</td>
                <td align="center">8,1 (6,7 - 10,4)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">60 - 69 a</td>
                <td align="center">9,7 (5,7 -13,6)</td>
                <td align="center">9,3 (7,6 - 12,1)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">&gt; 70 a</td>
                <td align="center">11,7 (6,0 - 17,5)</td>
                <td align="center">11,1 (8,6 - 15,5)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <p>DP: desvio padr&#227;o.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Metodologia de avalia&#231;&#227;o - equipamentos dispon&#237;veis e suas valida&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>A VOPcf, que reflete diretamente a rigidez arterial, tem valor preditivo na morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular e &#233; atualmente considerada o m&#233;todo padr&#227;o-ouro na avalia&#231;&#227;o da rigidez arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Os aparelhos utilizados para medi&#231;&#227;o da VOPcf t&#234;m evolu&#237;do nas duas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, e suas novas vers&#245;es t&#234;m recebido valida&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica. T&#234;m sido publicados m&#250;ltiplos estudos de compara&#231;&#227;o entre m&#233;todos invasivos e n&#227;o invasivos em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es e entre v&#225;rios aparelhos existentes de medi&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva da VOPcf, como oscilom&#233;tricos, piezoel&#233;tricos e tonom&#233;tricos. A maioria deles apresenta uma boa correla&#231;&#227;o com os m&#233;todos mais utilizados em estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos, como por exemplo o Complior&#174; ou o SphymoCor&#174;, entre outros. Atualmente, esses m&#233;todos envolvem pouco treino do operador e a facilidade de uso e o tempo consumido no exame t&#234;m sido otimizados, de modo que v&#227;o se tornando mais dispon&#237;veis para utiliza&#231;&#227;o na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, com boas correla&#231;&#245;es intraobservador e interobservador.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Algumas diferen&#231;as t&#234;m sido encontradas em estudos de compara&#231;&#227;o entre aparelhos, com valores de par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos sistematicamente mais elevados obtidos com um determinado equipamento. Os modelos matem&#225;ticos utilizados nos diversos equipamentos podem levar a resultados diferentes. Por&#233;m, na maior parte dos casos, isto n&#227;o tem tradu&#231;&#227;o na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, uma vez que n&#227;o implicam em mudan&#231;a na classe de risco do indiv&#237;duo. Apesar disso, &#233; prudente que o mesmo tipo de equipamento seja utilizado em estudos multic&#234;ntricos de investiga&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m da valida&#231;&#227;o de diferentes equipamentos, diferentes procedimentos para medi&#231;&#227;o da VOPcf t&#234;m sido tamb&#233;m propostos. Estes diferentes procedimentos, como por exemplo a medi&#231;&#227;o da dist&#226;ncia car&#243;tida-femoral, podem influenciar os resultados obtidos se n&#227;o forem tamb&#233;m padronizados. Neste caso, existem argumentos para que 80% da dist&#226;ncia direta car&#243;tida-femoral seja a estimativa mais exata para essa mesma dist&#226;ncia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Par&#226;metros centrais: diferen&#231;as de acordo com idade, sexo e etnia</title>
        <p>A melhor forma de se definir valores de normalidade para a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica seria por meio de uma correla&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica obtidos e o risco cardiovascular, como conhecido para a PA obtida pelo m&#233;todo convencional ou braquial. Por&#233;m, esses dados n&#227;o s&#227;o ainda dispon&#237;veis como resultados de estudos prospectivos delineados para esse fim espec&#237;fico, embora algumas publica&#231;&#245;es tenham buscado obter essas correla&#231;&#245;es entre desfechos cardiovasculares e press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Uma estrat&#233;gia seria a obten&#231;&#227;o de correla&#231;&#245;es entre valores de press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica que correspondessem a valores convencionados de press&#227;o na art&#233;ria braquial casual ou de consult&#243;rio. Seguindo esta estrat&#233;gia, estudos populacionais sugerem que uma press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica sist&#243;lica &#243;tima seria representada por valores &lt; 110 mmHg, o que seria equivalente a 120 mmHg quando obtido pela medida de PA convencional. Do mesmo modo, uma press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica &lt; 120 mmHg corresponderia a valor de PAS braquial de 140 mmHg, configurando-se hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica est&#225;gio 1 a obten&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica sist&#243;lica &#8804; 120 mmHg.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Aplicabilidade e rela&#231;&#227;o custo-benef&#237;cio da medida dos par&#226;metros centrais</title>
        <p>Apesar de n&#227;o fazer parte da rotina de estratifica&#231;&#227;o do hipertenso, a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica tem atra&#237;do interesse crescente em fun&#231;&#227;o do seu valor preditivo para a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares, bem como para a avalia&#231;&#227;o diferencial dos v&#225;rios medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, quando comparada com a tradicional determina&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o braquial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> O &#237;ndice de incremento e a press&#227;o de pulso, medidos por tonometria carot&#237;dea, foram considerados preditores independentes de mortalidade cardiovascular na doen&#231;a renal terminal. Contudo, o valor preditivo da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica, quando comparado com o da PA braquial, n&#227;o mostrou diferen&#231;as significativas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Entretanto, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o para o seu uso de rotina exige ainda mais estudos. Admite-se como exce&#231;&#227;o e como valor acrescido, a hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada no jovem, j&#225; que nestes indiv&#237;duos pode haver uma PAS braquial aumentada em virtude de uma exagerada amplifica&#231;&#227;o da onda de press&#227;o central, que estaria normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
        <p>N&#227;o existem dados que comprovem a rela&#231;&#227;o custo-benef&#237;cio da determina&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica, extrapolando-se de pequenos estudos com o uso de bloqueador do receptor da angiotensina II (ex., losartan), que reduz a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica, podendo trazer algum benef&#237;cio adicional no seu uso para al&#233;m da redu&#231;&#227;o da PA braquial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica isolada no jovem: hipertens&#227;o verdadeira e hipertens&#227;o esp&#250;ria</title>
        <p>O mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico da hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica isolada no idoso e no jovem n&#227;o &#233; o mesmo. Adicionalmente, as informa&#231;&#245;es sobre o progn&#243;stico em ambos s&#227;o escassas e as diretrizes atualmente dispon&#237;veis trazem diferentes recomenda&#231;&#245;es sobre como abordar estas situa&#231;&#245;es em fun&#231;&#227;o da faixa et&#225;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada no adulto jovem (HSIJ) foi descrita em 1999 como uma eleva&#231;&#227;o "esp&#250;ria" da PAS ou pseudoeleva&#231;&#227;o da PAS (&gt; 140 mmHg) com valores normais de press&#227;o diast&#243;lica (&lt; 90 mmHg) que resulta de um fen&#244;meno de amplifica&#231;&#227;o da onda de pulso arterial a n&#237;vel perif&#233;rico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> A HSIJ &#233; mais comum em atletas masculinos, em indiv&#237;duos com estatura mais elevada e naqueles com maior &#237;ndice de massa corporal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> A preval&#234;ncia da HSIJ apresenta uma varia&#231;&#227;o significativa (entre 2% a 16%) em coortes exclusivamente masculinas e possui a obesidade e o tabaco como dois dos principais determinantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> A avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva da press&#227;o central e da amplifica&#231;&#227;o da onda de pulso no membro superior tem indica&#231;&#227;o precisa nestes casos, pois permite identificar adultos jovens com hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada "esp&#250;ria", poupando-os de serem rotulados como "pacientes hipertensos".<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> A identifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com HSIJ deve ser complementada pela monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial para a exclus&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o do avental branco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A HSIJ tem aumentado em preval&#234;ncia e, diante da pouca informa&#231;&#227;o a seu respeito, h&#225; controv&#233;rsias sobre como intervir nesta situa&#231;&#227;o. Se por um lado os valores da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica em indiv&#237;duos com HSIJ s&#227;o mais baixos que os encontrados em hipertensos verdadeiros, s&#227;o mais elevados que os obtidos em normotensos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> O estudo de Yano et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> em 2015, mostrou maior risco cardiovascular neste grupo, quando comparado a indiv&#237;duos com press&#227;o &#243;tima, mas o estudo n&#227;o incluiu avalia&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o central para uma poss&#237;vel diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre os grupos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Com as informa&#231;&#245;es existentes, a conduta &#233; de acompanhamento cuidadoso com medidas n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas, com uma atua&#231;&#227;o mais agressiva reservada a situa&#231;&#245;es de maior risco cardiovascular associado, pelo menos at&#233; que novos dados estejam dispon&#237;veis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Valor progn&#243;stico do &#237;ndice ambulatorial de rigidez arterial (<italic>ambulatory arterial stiffness index</italic>)</title>
        <p>O &#237;ndice ambulatorial de rigidez arterial (<italic>ambulatory arterial stiffness index</italic>, AASI) &#233; utilizado para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da rigidez arterial e calculado com base no declive da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica <italic>versus</italic> valores da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica na monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial, avaliando a rela&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica entre a PAD e a PAS nas 24 horas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Assim, para qualquer aumento na distens&#227;o da parede da art&#233;ria, os valores da PAS e da PAD tendem a aumentar em paralelo, enquanto em uma art&#233;ria r&#237;gida, ocorre aumento do valor da PAS acompanhado de uma menor eleva&#231;&#227;o, ou at&#233; de uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da PAD. Li et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> em uma popula&#231;&#227;o chinesa saud&#225;vel, confirmaram haver um coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o significativo entre o AASI e a VOPcf, que &#233; o m&#233;todo padr&#227;o-ouro.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O AASI depende do grau de integridade funcional e estrutural das art&#233;rias, e pode depender ainda do volume sist&#243;lico ejetado e das ondas de reflex&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em vista do AASI ser dependente das propriedades mec&#226;nicas das pequenas art&#233;rias e das ondas de reflex&#227;o, este &#237;ndice se correlaciona bem com a press&#227;o de pulso e com os &#237;ndices de incremento, al&#233;m de ter boa correla&#231;&#227;o com alguns marcadores de les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo (hipertrofia ventricular, les&#227;o carot&#237;dea e microalbumin&#250;ria).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Alguns estudos mostram uma rela&#231;&#227;o do AASI com a mortalidade global e cardiovascular, al&#233;m de uma rela&#231;&#227;o com acidente vascular encef&#225;lico em indiv&#237;duos normotensos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> Entretanto, este valor progn&#243;stico ainda &#233; discut&#237;vel e est&#225; relacionado com o grau de descenso durante o sono e outros fatores, tais como a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e a resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a reprodutibilidade &#233; sofr&#237;vel e est&#225; em torno de 50-68%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Par&#226;metros centrais como preditores de hipertens&#227;o arterial</title>
        <p>H&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que o aumento da rigidez arterial seja um precursor do surgimento de hipertens&#227;o arterial e n&#227;o uma consequ&#234;ncia do aumento tensional. O aumento da VOPcf precedeu o aparecimento da hipertens&#227;o ao longo de 7 anos na an&#225;lise do <italic>Framingham Heart Study</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> O <italic>Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging</italic> tamb&#233;m demonstrou associa&#231;&#227;o entre o aumento da VOPcf e uma maior incid&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Outros par&#226;metros centrais foram revelados como preditores de hipertens&#227;o, como o aumento da VOP braquial-tornozelo, o aumento da rigidez a&#243;rtica proximal avaliada por ecocardiografia e a maior rigidez da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida, como demonstrado no estudo <italic>Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities</italic> (ARIC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O aumento da rigidez a&#243;rtica foi correlacionado a uma menor sensibilidade do barorreflexo, um mecanismo precursor do desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o, assim como a um aumento da variabilidade da PA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Par&#226;metros centrais e risco cardiovascular</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Papel da velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;deo-femoral como preditora de desfechos cardiovasculares</title>
          <p>A VOPcf &#233; o par&#226;metro central mais estudado; consequentemente, existe uma maior quantidade de evid&#234;ncias relacionadas a ela. Assim, demonstrou-se que a VOPcf tem valor preditivo independente para diferentes desfechos cardiovasculares em diferentes subgrupos, como em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o, diabetes tipo 2, idosos e naqueles com insufici&#234;ncia renal terminal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> Mesmo em indiv&#237;duos aparentemente saud&#225;veis, a VOPcf &#233; um preditor independente de doen&#231;a coronariana e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> Quando os valores preditivos da VOPcf e da press&#227;o perif&#233;rica foram comparados, a VOPcf mostrou uma superioridade infal&#237;vel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> Uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica que incluiu 16 estudos com 17.635 participantes revelou que para cada aumento de um desvio padr&#227;o na VOPcf, a raz&#227;o de risco foi de 1,35 (intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% [IC95%] 1,22 - 1,50, p &lt; 0,001) para a doen&#231;a coronariana, 1,54 (IC95% 1,34 - 1,78, p &lt; 0,001) para o acidente vascular encef&#225;lico e 1,45 (IC95% 1,30 - 1,61, p &lt; 0,001) para a doen&#231;a cardiovascular. Estas raz&#245;es de risco foram ainda maiores nos participantes mais jovens e permaneceram significativas mesmo ap&#243;s ajuste para a presen&#231;a de fatores de risco cardiovascular convencionais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Pequenos estudos t&#234;m demonstrado que a eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente da VOP durante o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o arterial ou de doen&#231;a cardiovascular est&#225; associada com um risco elevado para um evento cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Papel da velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;deo-femoral na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular</title>
          <p>Estudos demonstraram que a adi&#231;&#227;o da VOPcf a fatores de risco tradicionais envolvidos em escores como o de Framingham e o SCORE, e mesmo a medidas de aterosclerose, aumenta significativamente o valor preditivo para desfechos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> Tamb&#233;m indicaram que a VOPcf agrega informa&#231;&#227;o para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular, com potencial de aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o da VOPcf permitiu reclassificar a faixa de risco cardiovascular dos indiv&#237;duos e foi capaz de melhorar em 13% a avalia&#231;&#227;o do progn&#243;stico de risco cardiovascular em 10 anos em indiv&#237;duos de risco intermedi&#225;rio, segundo uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica recente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> Sendo assim, a presen&#231;a de uma medida elevada da VOPcf adicionada a fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos indica excesso de risco cardiovascular e sugere a necessidade de uma abordagem multifatorial mais rigorosa.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Papel da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica como preditora de desfechos cardiovasculares</title>
          <p>Uma das primeiras publica&#231;&#245;es a chamar a aten&#231;&#227;o da comunidade cient&#237;fica para o papel da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica nos desfechos cardiovasculares, independente dos valores perif&#233;ricos da PA, foi o estudo <italic>Conduit Artery Function Evaluation</italic> (CAFE) em 2006. Nesta an&#225;lise, os pacientes hipertensos que apresentaram maior redu&#231;&#227;o do componente sist&#243;lico da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica para um mesmo n&#237;vel de redu&#231;&#227;o dos valores de PA obtidos pela avalia&#231;&#227;o convencional, tiveram menor incid&#234;ncia de desfechos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> Naquele mesmo ano, a Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia publicou um posicionamento chamando a aten&#231;&#227;o para o fato de que as medidas braquiais superestimam os valores centrais da PA e que o componente sist&#243;lico da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica, assim como a press&#227;o de pulso central, s&#227;o melhores preditores de desfechos cardiovasculares, principalmente em pacientes portadores de hipertens&#227;o e de doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Outras publica&#231;&#245;es tamb&#233;m chamaram aten&#231;&#227;o para esta superioridade, inclusive quando foram comparadas as medidas centrais com as braquiais obtidas pela monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da PA (MAPA).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> Por outro lado, uma metan&#225;lise de 11 estudos longitudinais demonstrou que tanto a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica sist&#243;lica quanto a press&#227;o de pulso central foram marcadores independentes de desfechos e mortalidade cardiovascular, mas n&#227;o foram superiores aos valores obtidos por medida convencional (avalia&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica da press&#227;o; p = 0,057).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Rela&#231;&#227;o dos par&#226;metros centrais com as les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo e condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas associadas</title>
        <p>In&#250;meros estudos demonstraram a medida da PA central como sendo promissora em termos de melhor correla&#231;&#227;o com eventos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> &#201; dif&#237;cil atribuir diferen&#231;as da pulsatibilidade arterial central e perif&#233;rica a eventos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> Nenhum estudo demonstrou, at&#233; o momento, evid&#234;ncia robusta que a PA central adiciona um novo modelo de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; medida convencional da PAS e PAD. Uma an&#225;lise recente de dados do <italic>Framingham Offspring Cohort</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> demonstrou uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica e a incid&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares. Um acompanhamento por at&#233; 6,8 anos de uma popula&#231;&#227;o de 2.492 indiv&#237;duos (idade m&#233;dia de 66 &#177; 9 anos) mostrou que 6% apresentaram um evento cardiovascular. Em an&#225;lise multivariada, a medida da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica nessa popula&#231;&#227;o se correlacionou de maneira significativa com eventos cardiovasculares. O estudo CAFE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> recrutou 2.199 pacientes a partir dos cinco centros do estudo ASCOT e realizou tonometria por aplana&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria radial para an&#225;lise da PA central e da onda de pulso. Apesar dos dois bra&#231;os do estudo terem apresentado uma redu&#231;&#227;o press&#243;rica braquial similar (diferen&#231;a de 0,7 mmHg, IC95% -0,4 - 1,7, p = 0,2), houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica com signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica no grupo que fez uso de anlodipino (press&#227;o sist&#243;lica a&#243;rtica central 4,3 mmHg, IC95% 3,3 - 5,4, p &lt; 0,0001; e press&#227;o de pulso a&#243;rtica central 3,0 mmHg, IC95% 2,1 - 3,9, p &lt; 0,0001). Uma an&#225;lise <italic>post hoc</italic> deste estudo demonstrou que a press&#227;o arterial central se associou significativamente aos desfechos cardiovasculares combinados e ao desenvolvimento de insufici&#234;ncia renal (p &lt; 0,05).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Implica&#231;&#227;o dos par&#226;metros centrais na estrat&#233;gia de tratamento da hipertens&#227;o arterial</title>
        <p>Apesar da adequada redu&#231;&#227;o da PA (perif&#233;rica) com tratamento anti-hipertensivo, os resultados sobre desfechos cl&#237;nicos mostraram diferen&#231;a significante atribu&#237;da a efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos dos anti-hipertensivos sobre as propriedades el&#225;sticas das grandes art&#233;rias (aorta), sobre a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica e a VOPcf.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref> mostra os efeitos de diferentes classes de anti-hipertensivos sobre a hemodin&#226;mica central.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t6">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Efeito comparativo de diferentes classes de anti-hipertensivos sobre a hemodin&#226;mica central</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="40%"/>
              <col width="14%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Classes de anti-hipertensivos</th>
                <th align="center">PCaS</th>
                <th align="center">PCaD</th>
                <th align="center">Amplifica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center">Reflex&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center">VOPcf</th>
                <th align="center">PAP </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Betabloqueadores</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8593;&#8593;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8593;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;/&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8593;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8593;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Bloqueadores dos receptores AT1 da angiotensina II</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;/&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8593;/&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Diur&#233;ticos</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8592;&#8594;/&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Nitratos</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8592;&#8594;</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#8592;&#8594;/&#8595;</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN6">
              <p>PCaS: press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica sist&#243;lica; PCaD: press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica diast&#243;lica; VOPcf: velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;deo-femoral; PAP: press&#227;o arterial perif&#233;rica.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <sec>
          <title>Betabloqueadores</title>
          <p>O estudo CAFE comparou efeito dos betabloqueadores sobre a press&#227;o central para o mesmo valor de PA perif&#233;rica, e o grupo atenolol/tiazida mostrou maiores valores de press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica quando comparado ao grupo anlodipina/perindopril.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O nebivolol (betabloqueador com efeito vasodilatador) e o carvedilol (anti-hipertensivo com efeito alfa e beta bloqueador) em compara&#231;&#227;o com atenolol promoveram uma maior redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica e da amplifica&#231;&#227;o de pulso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref> O nebivolol reduz a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica e o &#237;ndice de incremento em hipertensos leves ap&#243;s 3 meses de tratamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio</title>
          <p>Os bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio reduzem o estresse oxidativo em modelos experimentais e diminuem a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> O estudo AORTA comparou a adi&#231;&#227;o de azelnidipina ou anlodipina em hipertensos em uso de olmesartana e demonstrou que o grupo que recebeu azelnidipina obteve uma maior redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica e do &#237;ndice de incremento, e maior regress&#227;o da hipertrofia de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina</title>
          <p>A redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica demonstrada em estudos comparativos com inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina (IECAs) pode ser atribu&#237;da a poss&#237;veis mecanismos envolvendo redu&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia, diminui&#231;&#227;o do estresse oxidativo, recomposi&#231;&#227;o estrutural da parede vascular, rela&#231;&#227;o col&#225;geno/elastina, efeito anti-inflamat&#243;rio e consequente relaxamento da musculatura lisa vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Bloqueadores dos receptores AT1 da angiotensina II</title>
          <p>A valsartana e o captopril reduzem de forma semelhante a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica e a VOPcf.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> O estudo EXPLOR comparou valsartana/anlodipina <italic>versus</italic> anlodipina/atenolol para redu&#231;&#227;o semelhante da PA em art&#233;ria perif&#233;rica. A press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica e a VOPcf mostraram maior redu&#231;&#227;o no grupo da valsartana/anlodipina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> Estudos com outros bloqueadores dos receptores AT1 mostraram resultados semelhantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diur&#233;ticos</title>
          <p>Diur&#233;ticos parecem n&#227;o ter nenhum efeito ben&#233;fico sobre a hemodin&#226;mica central.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Nitratos</title>
          <p>Os efeitos dos nitratos sobre a press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica s&#227;o atribu&#237;dos ao relaxamento da musculatura lisa vascular das art&#233;rias de m&#233;dio calibre que resultam em redu&#231;&#227;o da amplitude da onda de reflex&#227;o, redu&#231;&#227;o da velocidade da onda de pulso e aumento da dist&#226;ncia efetiva de reflex&#227;o. O mononitrato de isossorbida tamb&#233;m foi avaliado em hipertensos e demonstrou maior redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o central a&#243;rtica do que da PA perif&#233;rica, e maior redu&#231;&#227;o do &#237;ndice de incremento sem modifica&#231;&#227;o significante da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Por outro lado, os nitratos n&#227;o influenciam VOPcf; por conseguinte, o efeito sobre a rigidez arterial &#233; m&#237;nimo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
