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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">S7rhCRLnYjVmCDfTrdSYTDs</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2017000100081</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20160200</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Viewpoint</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>The CRISPR/Cas9 System and the Possibility of Genomic Edition for Cardiology</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Arend</surname>
            <given-names>Marcela Corso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Jessica Olivaes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Markoski</surname>
            <given-names>Melissa Medeiros</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Cardiologia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Laborat&#243;rio de Cardiologia Molecular e Celular</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Cardiologia Molecular e Celular - Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de (Cardiologia) - Instituto de Cardiologia/Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia - IC/FUC, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Leopoldo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos - UNISINOS, S&#227;o Leopoldo, RS - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre - UFCSPA, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Melissa Medeiros Markoski</bold>, Av. Princesa Isabel, 370. Postal Code 90620-001, Santana, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil. E-mail: <email>melissa.markoski@cardiologia.org.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Arend MC, Pereira JO, Markoski M</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>108</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>81</fpage>
      <lpage>83</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases / mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>Morbidity</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
        <kwd>Prevention &amp; Control</kwd>
        <kwd>Molecular Biology</kwd>
        <kwd>Genomics</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and their associated pathologies are among the greatest causes of morbidity and mortality, entailing approximately 17.3 deaths a year.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> This class of pathology as a whole has a multi-factor etiology. Its possible prognoses lead to public health issues, with its incidence being related to behavioral, metabolic and genetic risk factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> In spite of the fact that the treatments established for the CVDs and their possible prognoses decrease the rhythm of progression of the illness, the need to develop therapeutic approaches able to reverse the pathology and its complications is growing.</p>
      <p>The progresses in the fields of molecular and cellular biology have allowed the elucidation of molecular pathways and genetic causes involved in the establishment and progression of the CVDs, outlining a new viewpoint with regard to the prevention, treatment and possible outcomes of this pathological class. Recent discoveries, both experimental and those obtained by means of bioinformatics tools, regarding the molecular bases of cardiovascular dysfunctions, have been pointing to considerable therapeutic targets.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> However, most of these targets cannot be pharmacologically manipulated, which makes them potential candidates for genic therapy, such as the factors involved, for example, in angiogenesis, apoptosis and endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Within such context, gene manipulation may help suppress genetic factors connected to the incidence of the CVDs, as well as to mitigate the clinical complications caused by ischemic and occlusive events. Thus, the development and improvement of genome edition tools allow the creation of therapies focused in the genetic risk factors to cardiovascular damage and fundamental morphophysiological issues caused by the CVDs. In such context, the system formed by clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), and its CRISPR associated protein-9 (Cas9), stands out due to how easy it is to use it, its high specificity, easy in vitro and in vivo manipulation, in addition to the possibility of simultaneously editing multiple targets. Given the genomic complexity that intervenes in the CVDs, we shall indicate herein certain possibilities of applying the CRISPR/Cas9 tool in Cardiology.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Unraveling the CRISPR/Cas9 system</title>
        <p>Developed from molecular organisms of the bacterial immune system, the CRISPR system allows the edition of the genome by means of splicing of the DNA by an endonuclease (Cas9), guided based on an RNA sequence, which is able to pair up with the bases of a target sequence (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> The CRISPR genetic structure, in the bacterial system, is made up of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats. The repeats and the spacers (which may contain interspacing viral sequences), when transcribed, form the transactivator RNA (or guide RNA), which serves to direct the Cas9 enzyme, a nuclease, to the target (in this case, the parasite virus sequence). Taking advantage of this strategy, both the Cas9 protein and the guide RNA can be introduced in vitro into other cells and directed to specific places in the genome, for them to cause breaks to the double strand. After this splicing, the intrinsic molecular machinery of the organism, responsible for the correction of errors in the genome, is used to alter the DNA sequence, adopting the modification. The system can thus be used both to repair mutations (restoring genic function) and to introduce new mutations (causing the genic "knockout"). Therefore, by conciliating sophisticated molecular and biotechnological techniques, the CRISPR/Cas9 system was proposed for application on genomic editing and is currently commercially available for thousands of targets.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Both the RNA and the Cas9 protein, produced in vitro, can be delivered to the cells using different mechanisms, such as the use of vectors or chemical agents.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>CRISPR/Cas9 system - target recognition mechanism. The guide RNA is designed to recognize the target sequence to be modified in the RNA and introduce modifications. When the pairing of nitrogenized bases occurs (due to the annealing of the target sequence with the region of the guide RNA protospacer), some modifications are added (represented hereby the circle) and the Cas9 enzyme is activated, causing breaks to the DNA double strand (where there are pairing flaws due to the mutations introduced). The breaks activate the intracellular repair systems that remake the double strand, accepting the modifications from the guide RNA. The new mutations generally cause flaws in the sequence and generate non-functional proteins. But the mechanism can also be used to correct mutations originally present in the DNA and generate functional proteins.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-01-0081-60200-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>The most simple applicability of the CRISPR system is connected to changing single or certain bases in genes with a well-defined allelic relationship. It is important to stress that this relationship of Mendelian dominance must be taken into account for the genic function to be achieved, both to activate it and to inhibit it. However, bi-allelic modifications have also been successfully obtained<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>. Moreover, the use of the CRISPR/Cas9 has also been proposed for embryonic stage in animal models, where the progeny can generate "founding" organisms (by recombination) containing allelic mutations that lead to the "knockout" effect or with diminished expression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> In such context, the CRISPR/Cas9 system is being quickly adopted to edit and modify genomes in several cellular types, including stem cells,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> and has been giving good results in the edition of human genes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> The press recently reported that researchers from the University of Pennsylvania have been given approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to conduct a clinical study to begin in 2017, the targets of which are 3 genes involved in cancer. Thus, the question arises regarding the possibility of applying the CRISPR/Cas9 system to such a biologically complex situation as cardiovascular diseases.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>How to use the CRISPR/Cas9 system in Cardiology</title>
        <p>The first step to suggest the use of the CRISPR/Cas9 system for a certain CVD must be based on an in-depth study of the potential molecular targets involved in the disease. In such scenario, the use of bioinformatics tools and genic sequence banks available online (such as the National Center for Biotechnology Information, NCBI; and the DNA Data Bank of Japan, DBDJ) and of predicted proteins (such as the Universal Protein Resource, UniProt, allocated to the European Molecular Biology Laboratory, EMBL), in addition to single polymorphism banks, SNP (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp</ext-link>), may assist with the process. Once the targets have been chosen, a detailed analysis of the function of the exons (codification sequences of the genes) must also be carried out. In possession of every information necessary, the guide RNA may be designed and commercially acquired. There are currently several research laboratories that are using the CRISPR/Cas9 tool to edit genes involved in CVD and testing them on cellular systems, conducting pre-clinical trials and scheduling clinical studies. Even though the cardiovascular context is complex, some pathologies are more or less connected to certain genic products, the interaction of which with other molecules is known, as described below, facilitating the feasibility of using the CRISPR/Cas9 system.</p>
        <p>One of the great issues with the maintenance of the coronary artery disease (DAC) is the elevation of the LDL, where pharmacological intervention seeks to decrease it by using statins. Given that some patients are intolerant to such substance or do not respond well to it, several researches are being carried out, focusing on inhibiting the Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), which helps degrade the LDL receptors, which causes an increase to the level of lipoprotein in the blood stream. Through the CRISPR/Cas9 system, Ding et al (2014) introduced a <italic>loss of function</italic> for the PCSK9 gene in the livers of mice, using adenoviruses as "vehicles", and showed a decrease of the cholesterol levels by over 40%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> In a study with rabbits, also focused on decreasing the progression of the atherosclerotic plaque, "knockout" animals were developed by genomic edition, by inhibiting several genes, such as Apolipoprotein E (ApoE), CD36, the LDL receptor, leptin, ryanodine receptor type 2 (RyR2), among others.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> These studies show that the CRISPR/Cas9 system is viable to alter the function of genes connected to CVDs. This favors the exploration of the use of the molecular tool for other mechanisms concerning CVDs.</p>
        <p>A good study target for a possible use of the CRISPR/Cas9 is the &#946;-adrenergic system, one of the systems responsible for vasoconstriction/vasodilation and maintenance of the blood pressure and heart rate. Add to that the fact that the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system also has a crucial role in maintaining the hemodynamic stability. Both systems are regulated by an extensive effector network, such as hormones and peptides, receptors, kinase proteins and other enzymes, working both in outside and inside the cells. In this regard, it would be very interesting to test and appraise the genomic edition tool to assist with the systemic arterial hypertension treatment.</p>
        <p>Our group, concurrently with the application of alternative therapies, such as cellular and genic therapy, to treat CVDs, developed the first clinical study in the country to promote angiogenesis, by exogenous expression, by administering a plasmid containing the cDNA related to the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in patients with refractory angina, showing that the technique is safe and improves the ventricular ejection fraction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> We are currently focusing our efforts on understanding mechanisms that may help with the interventions (surgical, pharmacological, dietetic, etc.) for CVDs, especially for dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and ischemic caridiopathies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> In collaboration with researchers from the Cancer Institute, we are using the CRISPR/Cas9 system to achieve the inactivation of the function of a tissue-specific kinase MAP, coded by gene TNNI3K, which interact with cardiac troponin I and, when exacerbated, causes a progression of the DCM, leading to heart failure and increasing the risk of death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Not just the inhibition context, but also the possibility of edition to activate genes in order to stimulate functions connected to, for example, the survival of cardiomyocytes in the after-infarction period, inducement of homing (migration, proliferation and differentiation of stem cells), increase of the level of anti-inflammatory cytokines and metalloproteinases inhibitor proteins (which lead to the pathological ventricular remodeling), in addition to other mechanisms, may be explored with regard to the CVDs. However, due to the multi-factor conditions attributed to the etiology and prognosis of this class of pathologies, the clinical transposition of results obtained through molecular analyses in in vitro cellular systems or animal models, just as with other more innovative approaches, is still a challenge.</p>
        <p>In most cases, genetic, environmental and behavioral factors work together to entail a CVD. Even though, in certain cases, likely factors of prediction of the outcomes are observed, it is not yet possible to accurately forecast the influence of the activation/inactivation of genes in relation to the clinical statuses. Lastly, just as with any new technology, the risks, physiological adaptations, implications of the immune response and maintenance of homeostasis, which may be modulated by the CRISPR/Cas9 system, need to be very well assessed. But the possibility of using the new molecular tool in Cardiology can be glimpsed and perhaps, in the near future, come to benefit the population's health.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>M. M. M. is a professor and advisor at the Graduate Program in Health Sciences - Cardiology of IC/FUC.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Ponto de vista</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>O Sistema CRISPR/Cas9 e a Possibilidade de Edi&#231;&#227;o Gen&#244;mica para a Cardiologia</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Arend</surname>
            <given-names>Marcela Corso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Jessica Olivaes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Markoski</surname>
            <given-names>Melissa Medeiros</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Cardiologia Molecular e Celular - Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de (Cardiologia) - Instituto de Cardiologia/Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia - IC/FUC, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos - UNISINOS, S&#227;o Leopoldo, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre - UFCSPA, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Melissa Medeiros Markoski</bold>, Av. Princesa Isabel, 370. CEP 90620-001, Santana, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil. E-mail: <email>melissa.markoski@cardiologia.org.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Arend MC, Pereira JO, Markoski M</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaramos n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares / mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Morbidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
        <kwd>Preven&#231;&#227;o e Controle</kwd>
        <kwd>Biologia Molecular</kwd>
        <kwd>Gen&#244;mica</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) e suas patologias associadas encontram-se entre as maiores causas de morbidade e mortalidade, acarretando cerca de 17,3 milh&#245;es de mortes por ano.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Como um todo, essa classe patol&#243;gica apresenta etiologia multifatorial. Seus poss&#237;veis progn&#243;sticos levam a problemas de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica, estando sua incid&#234;ncia relacionada a fatores de risco comportamentais, metab&#243;licos e gen&#233;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Apesar dos tratamentos preconizados para as DCV e seus poss&#237;veis progn&#243;sticos diminu&#237;rem o ritmo de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a, cresce a necessidade de se desenvolver abordagens terap&#234;uticas capazes de reverter a patologia e suas complica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        <p>Os avan&#231;os no campo da biologia molecular e celular v&#234;m possibilitando a elucida&#231;&#227;o de vias moleculares e causas gen&#233;ticas envolvidas no estabelecimento e progress&#227;o das DCV, tra&#231;ando um novo ponto de vista sobre a preven&#231;&#227;o, tratamento e poss&#237;veis desfechos dessa classe patol&#243;gica. Recentes descobertas, tanto experimentais quanto obtidas por ferramentas de bioinform&#225;tica, a respeito das bases moleculares das disfun&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, v&#234;m apontando alvos terap&#234;uticos consider&#225;veis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Entretanto, a maioria destes alvos n&#227;o pode ser farmacologicamente manipulada, o que os torna candidatos potenciais para a terapia g&#234;nica, como &#233; o caso dos fatores envolvidos, por exemplo, com angiog&#234;nese, apoptose e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Dentro desse contexto, a manipula&#231;&#227;o de genes pode auxiliar na supress&#227;o de fatores gen&#233;ticos relacionados &#224; incid&#234;ncia das DCV, bem como na minimiza&#231;&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas causadas por eventos isqu&#234;micos e oclusivos. Assim, o desenvolvimento e o aprimoramento de ferramentas de edi&#231;&#227;o de genomas possibilitam o surgimento de terapias focadas nos fatores de risco gen&#233;ticos ao dano cardiovascular e nos problemas morfofisiol&#243;gicos fundamentais causados pelas DCV. Nesse contexto, o sistema formado por repeti&#231;&#245;es palindr&#244;micas curtas, interespa&#231;adas e regularmente agrupadas (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats</italic>, CRISPR), e sua prote&#237;na associada-9 (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>CRISPR associated protein-9</italic>, Cas9), destaca-se devido ao seu f&#225;cil uso, alta especificidade, f&#225;cil manipula&#231;&#227;o <italic>in vitro</italic> e <italic>in vivo</italic>, al&#233;m da possibilidade da edi&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;ltiplos alvos simultaneamente. Considerando-se a complexidade gen&#244;mica que interv&#233;m nas DCV, indicaremos aqui algumas possibilidades de aplica&#231;&#227;o da ferramenta CRISPR/Cas9 no &#226;mbito da Cardiologia.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Desvendando o sistema CRISPR/Cas9</title>
          <p>Desenvolvido a partir de mecanismos moleculares do sistema imunol&#243;gico bacteriano, o sistema CRISPR possibilita a edi&#231;&#227;o do genoma atrav&#233;s de clivagem do DNA por uma endonuclease (Cas9), guiada a partir de uma sequ&#234;ncia de RNA, que &#233; capaz de se parear com as bases de uma sequ&#234;ncia-alvo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> A estrutura gen&#233;tica do CRISPR, no sistema bacteriano, &#233; constitu&#237;da de repeti&#231;&#245;es palindr&#244;micas curtas, agrupadas e regularmente interespa&#231;adas. As repeti&#231;&#245;es e os espa&#231;adores (que podem conter sequ&#234;ncias virais intercalantes), quando transcritos, formam o <italic>RNA transativador</italic> (ou RNA guia), que serve para direcionar a enzima Cas9, uma nucleasse, ao alvo (neste caso, a sequ&#234;ncia do v&#237;rus parasita). Aproveitando-se desta estrat&#233;gia, tanto a prote&#237;na Cas9 quanto o RNA guia, podem ser introduzidos <italic>in vitro</italic> em outras c&#233;lulas e direcionados a locais espec&#237;ficos do genoma, para que provoquem quebras na fita dupla. Ap&#243;s esta clivagem, a maquinaria molecular intr&#237;nseca do organismo, respons&#225;vel pela corre&#231;&#227;o de erros no genoma, &#233; utilizada para alterar a sequ&#234;ncia de DNA, adotando a modifica&#231;&#227;o. Desta forma, o sistema pode ser utilizado tanto para reparar muta&#231;&#245;es (restaurando a fun&#231;&#227;o g&#234;nica) quanto para introduzir muta&#231;&#245;es novas (causando o "nocaute" g&#234;nico). Assim, conciliando sofisticadas t&#233;cnicas moleculares e biotecnol&#243;gicas, o sistema CRISPR/Cas9 foi proposto para aplica&#231;&#227;o em edi&#231;&#227;o gen&#244;mica e hoje j&#225; se encontra comercialmente dispon&#237;vel para milhares de alvos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Ambos, RNA guia e prote&#237;na Cas9, produzidos <italic>in vitro</italic>, podem ser entregues &#224;s c&#233;lulas usando diferentes mecanismos, tais como uso de vetores ou agentes qu&#237;micos.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f2">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Sistema CRISPR/Cas9 - mecanismo de reconhecimento do alvo. O RNA guia &#233; projetado para reconhecer a sequ&#234;ncia-alvo a ser modificada no DNA e introduzir modifica&#231;&#245;es. Quando o pareamento de bases nitrogenadas ocorre (em fun&#231;&#227;o do anelamento da sequ&#234;ncia-alvo com a regi&#227;o do protoespa&#231;ador do RNA guia), algumas modifica&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o adicionadas (aqui, representadas pelo c&#237;rculo) e a enzima Cas9 &#233; acionada, causando quebras na dupla-fita de DNA (onde h&#225; falhas de pareamento em raz&#227;o das muta&#231;&#245;es introduzidas). As quebras ativam os sistemas de reparo intracelulares que refazem a dupla-fita, aceitando as modifica&#231;&#245;es oriundas do RNA guia. As novas muta&#231;&#245;es, de forma geral, causam falhas na sequ&#234;ncia e geram prote&#237;nas n&#227;o-funcionais. Mas o mecanismo pode ser utilizado tamb&#233;m para corrigir muta&#231;&#245;es originalmente presentes no DNA e gerar prote&#237;nas funcionais.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-108-01-0081-60200-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>A aplicabilidade mais simples do sistema CRISPR est&#225; relacionada &#224; modifica&#231;&#227;o de &#250;nicas ou poucas bases em genes com rela&#231;&#227;o al&#233;lica bem definida. &#201; importante salientar que esta rela&#231;&#227;o de domin&#226;ncia mendeliana deve ser considerada para que se atinja a fun&#231;&#227;o g&#234;nica, tanto para ativ&#225;-la quanto para inibi-la. Entretanto, modifica&#231;&#245;es bial&#233;licas tamb&#233;m t&#234;m sido obtidas com sucesso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Al&#233;m disso, o uso do CRISPR/Cas9 tamb&#233;m tem sido proposto para est&#225;gio embrion&#225;rio em modelos animais, onde a prog&#234;nie pode gerar organismos "fundadores" (por recombina&#231;&#227;o), contendo muta&#231;&#245;es al&#233;licas que levam ao efeito "nocaute" ou de express&#227;o diminu&#237;da.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Nesse contexto, o sistema CRISPR/Cas9 est&#225; sendo rapidamente adotado para a edi&#231;&#227;o e modifica&#231;&#227;o de genomas em v&#225;rios tipos celulares, incluindo c&#233;lulas-tronco,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> e mostrando bons resultados na edi&#231;&#227;o de genes humanos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Recentemente, a imprensa reportou que pesquisadores da Universidade da Pensilv&#226;nia receberam aprova&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic> (FDA) para conduzir um estudo cl&#237;nico a ser iniciado em 2017, tendo como alvo 3 genes envolvidos em c&#226;ncer. Assim, surge o questionamento sobre a possibilidade de aplica&#231;&#227;o do sistema CRISPR/Cas9 para uma situa&#231;&#227;o t&#227;o biologicamente complexa como a da doen&#231;a cardiovascular.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Como utilizar o sistema CRISPR/Cas9 na Cardiologia</title>
          <p>O primeiro passo para se sugerir o uso do sistema CRISPR/Cas9 para uma determinada DCV deve basear-se em um estudo aprofundado sobre os potenciais alvos moleculares envolvidos com a doen&#231;a. Neste cen&#225;rio, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de ferramentas de bioinform&#225;tica e bancos de sequ&#234;ncias g&#234;nicas dispon&#237;veis na internet (como o <italic>National Center for Biotechnology Information</italic>, NCBI; e <italic>DNA Data Bank of Japan</italic>, DBDJ) e de prote&#237;nas preditas (como o Universal <italic>Protein Resource</italic>, UniProt, alocado no <italic>European Molecular Biology Laboratory</italic>, EMBL), al&#233;m de bancos de polimorfismos &#250;nicos, <italic>SNP</italic> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp</ext-link>), podem auxiliar no processo. Uma vez que os alvos tenham sido escolhidos, uma an&#225;lise detalhada sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o dos <italic>exons</italic> (sequ&#234;ncias codificadoras dos genes) tamb&#233;m dever&#225; ser realizada. De posse de todas as informa&#231;&#245;es necess&#225;rias, os RNA guia podem ser projetados e adquiridos comercialmente. Atualmente, j&#225; existem muitos laborat&#243;rios de pesquisa que est&#227;o utilizando a ferramenta CRISPR/Cas9 para editar genes envolvidos com DCV e testando em sistemas celulares, realizando ensaios pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos e projetando estudos cl&#237;nicos. Embora o contexto cardiovascular seja complexo, algumas patologias est&#227;o mais ou menos relacionadas a determinados produtos g&#234;nicos, cuja intera&#231;&#227;o com outras mol&#233;culas j&#225; &#233; conhecida, conforme descrito a seguir, facilitando a viabilidade de utiliza&#231;&#227;o do sistema CRISPR/Cas9.</p>
          <p>Um dos grandes problemas na manuten&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) &#233; a eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de LDL, em que a interven&#231;&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica busca sua redu&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s do uso de estatinas. Uma vez que alguns pacientes s&#227;o intolerantes ou refrat&#225;rios a este f&#225;rmaco, est&#227;o sendo conduzidas muitas pesquisas com foco na inibi&#231;&#227;o da pr&#243;-prote&#237;na convertase subtilisina tipo 9 (PCSK9), que auxilia na degrada&#231;&#227;o de receptores do LDL, o que causa aumento do n&#237;vel da lipoprote&#237;na na corrente sangu&#237;nea. Atrav&#233;s do sistema CRISPR/Cas9, Ding e colaboradores (2014) introduziram <italic>perda de fun&#231;&#227;o</italic> para o gene da PCSK9 no f&#237;gado de camundongos, utilizando adenov&#237;rus como "ve&#237;culos", e mostraram diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de colesterol em mais de 40%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Em um estudo com coelhos, tamb&#233;m focado na diminui&#231;&#227;o da progress&#227;o da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, foram desenvolvidos animais "nocautes", por edi&#231;&#227;o gen&#244;mica, atrav&#233;s da inibi&#231;&#227;o de diversos genes, como a Apolipoprote&#237;na E (ApoE), CD36, o receptor de LDL, leptina, o receptor rianod&#237;nico tipo 2 (RyR2), entre outros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Estes estudos apontam que o sistema CRISPR/Cas9 &#233; vi&#225;vel para alterar a fun&#231;&#227;o de genes relacionados a DCV. Isto favorece a explora&#231;&#227;o do uso da ferramenta molecular para outros mecanismos que concernem &#224; DCV.</p>
          <p>Um bom alvo de estudo para poss&#237;vel utiliza&#231;&#227;o do CRISPR/Cas9 &#233; o sistema &#946;-adren&#233;rgico, um dos respons&#225;veis pela vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o/vasodilata&#231;&#227;o e manuten&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial e do ritmo card&#237;aco. Somado a isto, o sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona tamb&#233;m possui papel primordial na manuten&#231;&#227;o da estabilidade hemodin&#226;mica. Ambos os sistemas s&#227;o regulados por uma extensa rede de efetores, como horm&#244;nios e pept&#237;deos, receptores, prote&#237;nas quinases e outras enzimas, tanto atuantes no meio extracelular como no interior das c&#233;lulas. Neste sentido, seria muito interessante testar e avaliar a ferramenta de edi&#231;&#227;o gen&#244;mica para auxiliar no tratamento da hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica.</p>
          <p>Nosso grupo, em concomit&#226;ncia &#224; aplica&#231;&#227;o de terapias alternativas, como a celular e g&#234;nica, para tratamento de DCV, desenvolveu o primeiro estudo cl&#237;nico do pa&#237;s para promo&#231;&#227;o de angiog&#234;nese, por express&#227;o ex&#243;gena, atrav&#233;s da administra&#231;&#227;o de um plasm&#237;deo contendo o cDNA relativo ao gene do fator de crescimento endotelial vascular (VEGF) em pacientes portadores de angina refrat&#225;ria, mostrando que a t&#233;cnica &#233; segura e melhora a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Atualmente, temos concentrado nossos esfor&#231;os no entendimento de mecanismos que possam auxiliar nas interven&#231;&#245;es (cir&#250;rgicas, farmacol&#243;gicas, diet&#233;ticas, etc.) para DCV, principalmente para cardiomiopatia dilatada (CMD) e cardiopatias isqu&#234;micas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Em colabora&#231;&#227;o com pesquisadores do Instituto do C&#226;ncer, estamos utilizando o sistema CRISPR/Cas9 para alcan&#231;ar a inativa&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o de uma MAP quinase tecido-espec&#237;fica, codificada pelo gene <italic>TNNI3K</italic>, que interage com a troponina I card&#237;aca e, quando exacerbada, causa progress&#227;o da CMD levando &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e aumentando o risco de morte.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
					</p>
          <p>N&#227;o apenas o contexto inibit&#243;rio, mas a possibilidade de edi&#231;&#227;o para ativa&#231;&#227;o de genes de maneira a estimular fun&#231;&#245;es relacionadas, por exemplo, &#224; sobreviv&#234;ncia de cardiomi&#243;citos no p&#243;s-infarto, indu&#231;&#227;o de <italic>homing</italic> (migra&#231;&#227;o, prolifera&#231;&#227;o e diferencia&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas-tronco), aumento do n&#237;vel de citocinas anti-inflamat&#243;rias e de prote&#237;nas inibidoras de metaloproteinases (que levam ao remodelamento ventricular patol&#243;gico), al&#233;m de outros mecanismos, pode vir a ser explorada no &#226;mbito das DCV. Entretanto, devido &#224;s condi&#231;&#245;es multifatoriais atribu&#237;das &#224; etiologia e progn&#243;stico dessa classe de patologias, a transposi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de resultados obtidos por an&#225;lises moleculares em sistemas celulares <italic>in vitro</italic> ou em modelos animais, assim como ocorre para outras abordagens mais inovadoras, ainda &#233; um desafio.</p>
          <p>Na maioria dos casos, fatores gen&#233;ticos, ambientais e comportamentais atuam em conjunto para o estabelecimento de DCV. Embora, em alguns casos, sejam observados prov&#225;veis fatores preditores dos desfechos, ainda n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel prever com exatid&#227;o a influ&#234;ncia da ativa&#231;&#227;o/inativa&#231;&#227;o de genes em rela&#231;&#227;o aos quadros cl&#237;nicos. Finalmente, como para qualquer nova tecnologia, os riscos, as adapta&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas, as implica&#231;&#245;es com a resposta imune, a manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostasia, que venham a ser modulados pelo sistema CRISPR/Cas9, precisam ser muito bem avaliados. Mas a possibilidade de uso da nova ferramenta molecular na Cardiologia pode ser vislumbrada e talvez, em um futuro pr&#243;ximo, vir a beneficiar a sa&#250;de da popula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
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          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>M. M. M. &#233; professora e orientadora junto ao Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de - Cardiologia do IC/FUC.</p>
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