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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">RRvRGpbKMv5qYnKWx6cFdLw</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2016004500501</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20160190</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Special Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Executive Summary of the II Brazilian Guidelines for Atrial Fibrillation</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Pereira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Figueiredo</surname>
            <given-names>Marcio Jansen de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cintra</surname>
            <given-names>Fatima Dumas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Saad</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Benchimol</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kuniyoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo Ryoshim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Menezes Lorga</surname>
            <given-names>Adalberto</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>D'Avila</surname>
            <given-names>Andre Luiz Buchele</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paola</surname>
            <given-names>Angelo Amato Vincenzo de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Antonio Abunader</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Dalmo Antonio Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sobral</surname>
            <given-names>Dario Celestino</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sternick</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Back</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Darrieux</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Carlos da Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fenelon</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo Glotz de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ati&#233;</surname>
            <given-names>Jacob</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mateos</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Carlos Pach&#243;n</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Marcos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vasconcelos</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Tarc&#237;sio Medeiros de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zimerman</surname>
            <given-names>Leandro Ioschpe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Roberto Leite da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Marcio Augusto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scanavacca</surname>
            <given-names>Mauricio Ibrahim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Olga Ferreira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Sociedade Brasileira de Arritmias Card&#237;acas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Sociedade Brasileira de Arritmias Card&#237;acas (SOBRAC), S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Fatima Dumas Cintra</bold>, Disciplina de Cardiologia da UNIFESP, Rua Napole&#227;o de Barros, 715 - T&#233;rreo, Vila Clementino, SP, Postal Code 04024-002. <email>fatimacintra@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>107</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>501</fpage>
      <lpage>508</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Atrial Fibrillation/epidemiology</kwd>
        <kwd>Anticoagulants</kwd>
        <kwd>Catheter Ablation</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
        <kwd>Sleep Apnea</kwd>
        <kwd>Obstructive</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesity</kwd>
        <kwd>Genetic</kwd>
        <kwd>Alcohol Drinking</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Since 2009, when the Brazilian Society of Cardiology released the Brazilian Guidelines for Atrial Fibrillation,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> important studies on the subject have been published, particularly on new oral anticoagulants (NOACs). At least three of these drugs (dabigatran, rivaroxaban and apixaban) are currently approved for clinical use in Brazil.</p>
      <p>In addition to pharmacological treatment, new data related to non-pharmacological treatment, notably the radiofrequency ablation (RA) procedure, have expanded the indication of this therapeutic approach. For this reason, an update of the guidelines is justified.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Epidemiological changes in atrial fibrillation</title>
        <p>In the last two decades, atrial fibrillation (AF) has become a public health problem, with high consumption of health resources. AF is the most frequent sustained arrhythmia in the clinical practice, with a prevalence of 0.5% - 1.0% in the general population. According to more recent studies, however, AF prevalence is almost two times higher than that in the last decade, ranging from 1.9% in Italy to 2.9% in Sweden, possibly associated with age increase .<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> However, in addition to ageing, other potential factors may explain the increment in AF prevalence, including advances in the treatment of chronic heart diseases, leading to greater number of patients susceptible to AF. Furthermore, besides the classical risk factors for AF - hypertension, diabetes mellitus, heart valve disease, heart infarction and heart failure (HF)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> -new potential ones, including obstructive sleep apnea,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> obesity,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> alcohol consumption,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> physical exercise,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> family history and genetic factors,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> contribute to the increase in AF prevalence.</p>
        <p>The most used AF classification in the clinical practice is based on its form of presentation. "Paroxysmal AF" is defined as an episode of AF that terminates spontaneously or with medical intervention within seven days of onset. The term "permanent AF" refers to AF episodes longer than seven days, and "long-term persistent AF" is used by some authors to refer to cases longer than one year. Finally, the term "permanent AF" is used when attempts to convert to sinus rhythm have been abandoned.</p>
        <p>The prognosis of AF is related to its close association with increased risk of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, and mortality. Other important consequences of AF include cognitive changes and socioeconomic implications</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Prevention of thromboembolic phenomena</title>
        <p>Patients with AF are more likely to have blood clots, which is an inherent risk of arrhythmia. Those at very low risk do not need anticoagulation, and should be identified and considered as non-eligible for this therapy. The score used for this purpose is the CHA2DS2-VASc (initials for <italic>congestive HF, hypertension, age, diabetes mellitus, stroke, vascular disease, age, sex category</italic>) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Patients with a score of zero do not need anticoagulation, for the risk of thrombotic complications is very low. A CHA2DS2-VASc of 1 is considered a low risk (1.3% per year); in this case, anticoagulation is optional, depending on the risk of bleeding or patient's decision. All other patients have a definite indication for anticoagulation. HAS BLED (initials for hypertension, abnormal renal or liver function, stroke, bleeding, labile international normalized ratio - INR, elderly, drugs or alcohol use) is the most used score to estimate bleeding risk. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>) A score &gt; 3 indicates increased risk of bleeding by OACs. It is worth mentioning, however, that the score does not contraindicate the use of OACs, but rather gives direction on special measures aimed to make the treatment safer.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>(A) CHA2DS2-VASc score used to evaluate the risk of thromboembolic phenomena in patients with atrial fibrillation. (B) Adjusted annual event rate by score</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="50%"/>
              <col width="50%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top:hidden">
                <td align="left">[A]</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <td align="left">CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc</td>
                <td align="center">Score</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left"><bold>C</bold>ongestive heart failure/left ventricular dysfunction</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left"><bold>H</bold>ypertension</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left"><bold>A</bold>ge &#8805; 75 years</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left"><bold>D</bold>iabetes mellitus</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left"><bold>S</bold>troke/transient ischemic attack/ thromboembolism</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left"><bold>V</bold>ascular disease (prior myocardial infarction, peripheral artery disease or aortic plaque)</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left"><bold>A</bold>ge 65&#8211;74 years</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <td align="left"><bold>S</bold>ex <bold>c</bold>ategory (i.e. female gender)</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
								</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">[B]</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Escore</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>Adjusted stroke rate (%/year)*</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">0</td>
                <td align="center">0.0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">1</td>
                <td align="center">1.3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">2</td>
                <td align="center">2.2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">3</td>
                <td align="center">3.2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">4</td>
                <td align="center">4.0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">5</td>
                <td align="center">6.7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">6</td>
                <td align="center">9.8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">7</td>
                <td align="center">9.6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">8</td>
                <td align="center">6.7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">9</td>
                <td align="center">15.2</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Clinical variables evaluated by the HAS-BLED score to identify patients at risk of bleeding induced by oral anticoagulants</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="50%"/>
              <col width="50%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">HAS-BLED criteria</th>
                <th align="center">Score</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Hypertension</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Abnormal renal or liver function (1 point each)</td>
                <td align="center">1 or 2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Stroke</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Bleeding</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Labile (INR)</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Elderly (e.g. age &gt; 65 years)</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Drugs or alcohol (1 point each)</td>
                <td align="center">1 or 2</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>INR: international normalized ratio.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>There are four NOACs available for prevention of thromboembolic events: the direct factor Xa inhibitors rivaroxaban, apixaban and edoxaban and the direct fator IIa inhibitor dabigatran. Dabigatran was the first NOAC available at the market and validated by the RE-LY study (Randomized Evaluation of Long-term anticoagulant therapY with dabigatran etexilate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> This is a prospective, randomized, phase III study that compared two doses of dabigatran (110 mg and 150 mg) twice a day with adjusted doses of warfarin. The primary outcomes were stroke and systemic embolism. Warfarin 150 mg showed better safety outcomes, including major bleeding, without statistical significance. The dose of 110mg was non-inferior to warfarin, showing a reduction of 20% in bleeding rate.</p>
        <p>The ROCKET-AF (Rivaroxaban-once daily, oral, direct factor Xa inhibition compared with vitamin K antagonism for prevention of stroke and Embolism Trial in Atrial Fibrillation) study introduced rivaroxaban in clinical practice to prevent thromboembolic phenomena in patients with nonvalvular AF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> This was a double-blind study, in which 14,264 patients at high risk for thromboembolic events were randomized to receive rivaroxaban or warfarin. The dose of rivaroxaban was 20 mg per day, or 15 mg in case of patients with kidney dysfunction received 15 mg. Rivaroxaban was non-inferior to warfarin on the primary outcomes (stroke and systemic embolism). With respect to safety outcomes, there was a significant decrease in the incidence of hemorrhagic stroke and intracranial hemorrhage, with no effect on mortality rate.</p>
        <p>The ARISTOTLE (Apixaban for Reduction in Stroke and Other Thromboembolic Events in Atrial Fibrillation) was the main study on evaluation of apixaban in patients with nonvalvular AF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> This randomized, double-blind study evaluated apixaban, given in 5mg doses twice a day or in adjusted dose of 2.5 mg, twice a day, in patients with at least two of the three following factors: age older than 80 years, body weight lower than 60 kg, and a serum creatinine level greater than or equal to 1.5 mg/dL . Warfarin was used as control. As compared with warfarin, apixaban significantly reduced the risk of the efficacy outcomes (stroke and systemic embolism) by 21%, major bleeding by 31%, and all-cause mortality by 11%.</p>
        <p>Edoxaban was assessed in the ENGAGE -AF (Edoxaban versus Warfarin in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation) study.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> This was a three-arm, randomized, double-blind study on the use of warfarin and two regimens (low dose and high dose) of edoxaban. Both high-dose (60 mg once a day) and low-dose (30 mg once a day) edoxaban was non-inferior to warfarin. In patients assigned to receive edoxaban, the dose established at randomization was halved if any of the characteristics was present: creatinine clearance lower than 50 mL/minute, a body weight lower than 60 kg, or the concomitant use of a potent P-glycoprotein inhibitor (verapamil). High-dose edoxaban significantly reduced the rate of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, whereas a significant increase in ischemic stroke rate was observed in patients that received a low-dose of the drug. Therefore, the best efficacy-safety ratio was obtained from high-dose regimen. While the low-dose regimen of edoxaban provides higher safety in terms of the risk of major bleeding and hemorrhagic stroke, it tends to lose in efficacy.</p>
        <p>Recommendations for prevention of thromboembolic phenomena in nonvalvular AF are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Chart 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Chart 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recommendations for prevention of thromboembolic phenomena in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="80%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Recommendations</th>
                <th align="center">Class</th>
                <th align="center">Level of evidence</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">The CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc should be used in all patients</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Patients at low risk, with a CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc of zero, have no indication of antithrombotic therapy</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">In patients with CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc of 1, the antithrombotic therapy may be indicated, taking into consideration the risk of bleeding and patients preferences</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Patients with CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc &#8805; 2 have an indication for antithrombotic therapy</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">A</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The NOACs have caused a drastic change in the therapeutic approach to nonvalvular FA, in terms of prevention of thromboembolic events. However, drug-related hemorrhagic complications may represent a limitation. NOACs have short half-life, and hence a low-degree bleeding may be controlled by discontinuation of the drug. Different NOACs have distinct pharmacokinetic characteristics, which may influence the therapy. Dabigatran, for example, binds weakly to plasma proteins, and are potentially removed by hemodialysis. On the other hand, both riaroxaban and apixaban are not dialyzable, due to strong plasma protein binding. Activated charcoal could be used in case of anticoagulant ingestion within two hours of a hemorrhagic event, although its use is contraindicated in gastrointestinal bleeding. Activated charcoal is available in powder and may be diluted in water or juice for administration in awake patients or by nasogastric tube, at 1g/kg body weight. Despite not currently available in Brazil, there have been advances in medications that can reverse the effect of NOACs. Idarucizumab is a monoclonal antibody fragment that binds to dabigatran with higher affinity than to thrombin. The effect of idarucizumab as an anticoagulant reversal agent has been evaluated by intravenous administration; based on the results, the drug has been recently approved for clinical use in the United States.</p>
        <p> Andexanet is an inactive recombinant protein that reverses the anticoagulant effect by binding to activated factor X inhibitors (rivaroxaban, apixaban and edoxaban). The effect of its intravenous administration has been also evaluated, with satisfactory rates of reversal. It is expected that the use of andexanet in clinical practice will be approved soon.</p>
        <p>Administration of supplemental clotting factors via frozen plasma may also be an option of anticoagulant reversal. However, the concentrations of these factors are lower than in prothrombin complex concentrates (PCC), which, in turn, may be indicated for severe hemorrhage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Although the OACs continue to be the main treatment option to prevent embolic phenomena in patients with AF, the use of anticoagulants is associated with risks, especially hemorrhagic stroke and other potentially severe bleeding, such as gastrointestinal bleeding. This therapeutic limitation, associated with the severity of AF-related embolic events, has motivated the development of new strategies aimed to reduce the incidence of thromboembolic phenomena. In this context, left atrial appendage closure (LAAC) emerged as an alternative approach. The main recommendations for this treatment strategy are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Chart 2</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Chart 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recommendations for left atrial appendage closure</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="80%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Recommendations</th>
                <th align="center">Class</th>
                <th align="center">Level of evidence</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Patients at high risk for thromboembolic phenomena and with contraindication for oral anticoagulants</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Patients with cardioembolic ischemic stroke despite correct use of oral anticoagulants</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Antiarrhythmic drugs in the clinical management of atrial fibrillation</title>
        <p>When evaluating an AF patient, the patient may be allocated to a rhythm control or to a heart rate control strategy, depending on echocardiographic features and the progress in previous therapies. In this regard, the use of antiarrhythmic (AA) agents has a relevant role in both strategies. An initial assessment should identify the presence of structural heart disease, as well as to evaluate whether the cause is reversible.</p>
        <p>There are a limited number of medications for the maintenance of sinus rhythm in Brazil. The available drugs are propaphenone, sotalol and amiodarone, and neither dofetilide nor droneadrone is available in the country. Propaphenone is useful for acute reversal and maintenance of sinus rhythm. It is a safe medication to be administered in patients with normal heart structure, but should be avoided in structural heart disease because of the risk of ventricular arrhythmia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Sotalol has shown no significant result in reversing arrhythmia acutely, but was effective in maintaining sinus rhythm in up to 72% of some groups of patients within 6 months, and thus may be useful in recurrence prevention. In addition, sotalol reduce the occurrence of symptoms by decreasing the ventricular response of the episodes due to its beta-blocker effect. The most common side effects are related to the beta-blocker effect, including tiredness and fatigue. Nevertheless, the most important symptom is prolongation of QT interval and development of torsade de pointes. Sotalol cannot be used in patients with congestive HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Amiodarone is effective in reversing and maintaining sinus rhythm. Some studies have shown superiority of this drug over the others; however, in addition to the proarrhythmic risk, amiodarone may produce important side effects in many organs. Currently, it is the available drug for patients with congestive HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Another strategy is the control of heart rate, which is important for both prevention of symptoms (e.g. palpitations, tiredness and reduced capacity for exercise), reduction of disease-related morbidity, and specially prevention of tachycardiomyopathy, which has an impact of patients' quality of life. However, the optimal heart rate in AF is still controversial. Many drugs have been tested and shown to be effective in the control of heart rate, including beta-blockers, non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers, and some antiarrhythmics, such as amiodarone and sotalol. To choose the most suitable drug, one must consider the severity of patients' symptoms, hemodynamic state, ventricular function, precipitating factors of AF and the risk for adverse events.</p>
        <p>Beta-blockers are the most commonly used medications for the control of heart rate in AF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> The main action is the blockade of adrenergic tone by competitive inhibition of the binding of cathecolamines to beta-receptors. This class of drugs mitigates the reduction in spontaneous depolarization (phase 4 of action potential), particularly in sinus node and atrioventricular (AV) node cells (reduces AV node conduction), and increases refractoriness of the His-Purkinje system. Non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers such as verapamil and diltiazem block L-type calcium channels especially in the AV node of cardiac conduction system. These drugs are effective in the control of heart rate in acute or permanent AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> via intravenous or oral administration. Digoxin is commonly used in the control of heart rate in AF, although it is not considered a first line agent for this purpose. It has a direct action on the membrane of atrial cells, ventricular cells and conduction system, by increasing vagal tone, and consequently reducing sinus node automacity and AV node conduction. Recommendations for the use of antiarrhythmic drugs in AF are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Chart 3</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Chart 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recommendations for catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation for maintenance of sinus rhythm</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="80%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Recommendations</th>
                <th align="center">Class</th>
                <th align="center">Level of evidence</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Symptomatic patients with paroxysmal AF refractory or intolerant to at least one class I/III AA drug when rhythm control is the strategy of choice</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">A</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Symptomatic patients with AF refractory or intolerant to at least one class I or III antiarrhythmic drug</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">A</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">As first therapy in patients with symptomatic, recurrent AF (before AA drugs), if this is the patient&#8217;s preference</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Symptomatic patients with long-standing persistent AF (&gt;12 months), refractory or intolerant to at least one class I or III AA drug when rhythm control is the strategy of choice</td>
                <td align="center">IIb</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">As first therapy (before class I or III AA drug) in patients with persistent AF when rhythm control is the strategy of choice</td>
                <td align="center">IIb</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Patients that cannot be treated with anticoagulants during or after the catheter ablation procedure</td>
                <td align="center">III</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; AA: antiarrhythmic</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation</title>
        <p>Intensive therapy by catheter ablation may be considered for rhythm control in AF.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Heart rate control</title>
        <p>In patients resistant or intolerant to medications for heart rate control, AV junction ablation (induction of complete AV block) with pacemaker implantation may be indicated.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Chart 4</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t6">
          <label>Chart 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recommendations for atrioventricular junction ablation in atrial fibrillation</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="80%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
              <col width="10%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Recommendations</th>
                <th align="center">Class</th>
                <th align="center">Level of evidence</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">AF affecting the therapy with ICD, in which other therapies could not be used or were not able to restore/maintain sinus rhythm or control the ventricular frequency</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">AF in patients with CRT for optimization of the therapy</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">AV node ablation with permanent ventricular stimulation is a reasonable strategy for heart rate control in cases when drug therapy is not suitable or when rhythm control is not possible</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">AV node ablation with permanent ventricular stimulation in clinically well patients</td>
                <td align="center">III</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>AF: atrial fibrillation; ICD: implantable cardioverter defibrillators; CRT: cardiac resynchronization therapy; AV: atrioventricular</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>This is a simple intervention with high success rate and low risk of complications, improving the quality of life of patients and reducing hospitalizations and HF incidence as compared with pharmacological treatments. Pacemaker implantation should be performed 4-6 weeks before the AV junction ablation for adequate maturation of electrode leads, since these patients are dependent on the pacemaker.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Rhythm control</title>
        <p>There is solid evidence that AF ablation (pulmonary vein isolation) is more effective than AA drugs in rhythm control,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> which has gradually increased the use of interventional therapy for AF. In recent international guidelines,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> ablation is recommended (Class I) in case of failure of an AA drug and also as the first choice (Class IIa) in patients with paroxysmal AF, without structural disease. Both patients with structural heart disease and patients with paroxysmal AF may be considered for ablation as the initial therapy, in case of suspicion of tachycardiomyopathy and patient's desire for this therapy.</p>
        <p>Data confirming the benefits of AF ablation in very old patients, patients with long-standing persistent AF, or advanced HF are still missing.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Its indication for asymptomatic patients has not been established yet, and is still a matter of controversy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> There is still no evidence that AF ablation is a better intervention as compared with AA drugs with respect to reduction of hard outcomes, such as mortality, HF and stroke. These issues are being addressed by ongoing studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The main objective of AF ablation is the electrical isolation of pulmonary veins. Among the available techniques, the most widely used is the conventional point-by-point radiofrequency (RF) ablation, guided by electroanatomical mapping and/or intracardiac electrocardiogram.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> The use of cryoablation balloon for circumferential ablation of pulmonary veins is an equally validated, alternative technique.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Also, the use of circular multipolar catheters (that perform simultaneous delivery of energy through all electrodes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> and laser balloon catheters<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> to create RF lesions has also increased.</p>
        <p>Despite its proven efficacy, AF ablation is a high-complexity procedure that involves a nearly 4.5% risk for major complications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> In addition, AF ablation is not a curative procedure. Recurrence is common, particularly following pulmonary vein reconnections or atrial substrate progression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> In these cases, a new ablation procedure may be needed,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> and after ablation, all patients should be anticoagulated for a 2-3 month-period .<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> At the end of this period, the anticoagulants may be suspended in patients with low risk of thromboembolic phenomena.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> Since late and asymptomatic recurrences of AF may also occur after ablation,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> patients should be monitored for a long period to ensure the control of arrhythmia.</p>
        <p>Indications for AF are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Chart 3</xref>. </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>New mapping and ablation technologies</title>
        <p>Three-dimensional mapping of AF is nowadays considered the standard therapy for this condition worldwide. Aiming to visually guide the examiner in the analysis of left atrial anatomy and catheter localization, the technique allowed the reduction of radiation exposure for patients and staff.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Three-dimensional mapping systems</title>
        <p>The three-dimensional mapping systems allow a 3-D reconstruction of the left atrium and pulmonary veins by mobilization of a catheter positioned in heart chamber and in direct contact with the left atrial wall, with reduced X-ray exposition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> There is a consensus among Brazilian experts that the use of tree-dimensional mapping increases the safety of ablation procedure.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Intracardiac echocardiography</title>
        <p>In intracardiac echocardiography, the catheter is placed inside the right atrium, corresponding to an optimal adjuvant strategy in ablation procedures.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Rotational angiography</title>
        <p>Rotational angiography is a x-ray method used for image acquisition of the left atrium in the electrophysiology laboratory using a basic hemodynamic system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> The disadvantage of this method, as compared with the above described three-dimensional mapping technique, is the requirement of an ionic contrast media and a large amount of radiation.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Ablation catheter technologies</title>
        <p>Nowadays, nearly all procedures are performed using irrigated ablation catheters.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> More recently, irrigated ablation catheters with contact force sensor have become available, which measure the intensity of the interaction between the catheter and the myocardium, and may increase the efficacy of the lesion by reduction of complications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
				</p>
        <p>With respect to new energy sources, three types of sources are currently available - ultrasound, laser and cryotherapy.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Robotic navigation technologies</title>
        <p>Robotic navigation has emerged based on the high radiation exposure present in most AF catheter ablation modalities.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> However, studies demonstrating higher success or decreased complication rates with these technologies are not available yet, and their high cost is also a barrier to be overcome.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Surgical treatment for atrial fibrillation</title>
        <p>Many surgical procedures for the treatment of AF have been developed since the 80's. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> The Cox-Maze III procedure, or labyrinth surgery, is the gold standard for surgical treatment of AF. The key components in this procedure and in most of the new surgical techniques for AF are also pulmonary vein isolation and atrial appendage resection.</p>
        <p>Although the Maze surgery may be performed by a minimally invasive approach, involving a small chest incision, the technique requires 45-60 minutes of extracorporeal circulation (when performed by experienced hands) and cardioplegia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> Furthermore, although this procedure may be performed alone, the surgery is commonly indicated for patients that require surgical interventions for other conditions, such as valvular and ischemic heart diseases.</p>
        <p>Today, few patients are referred to surgery for AF alone. Even in those undergoing a surgical approach for other reasons, surgeons are reluctant to perform the Maze surgery, due to its complexity and magnitude.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Hybrid treatment of atrial fibrillation</title>
        <p>The so called "hybrid procedures" combine the minimally invasive epicardial surgery with electrophysiological mapping techniques and endocardial catheter ablation. This mixed approach is aimed to patients with persistent AF or long-standing persistent AF, to whom the use of one of these techniques alone would be unsatisfactory.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In general, the initial results of hybrid procedures have been encouraging, especially considering the complexity of the treated population (persistent, long-standing AF). However, these results have been obtained from small samples. It is expected that the use of hybrid procedures expands as improvements in these techniques are made.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
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          <name>
            <surname>Saad</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Benchimol</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kuniyoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo Ryoshim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lorga</surname>
            <given-names>Adalberto Menezes</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>D'Avila</surname>
            <given-names>Andre Luiz Buchele</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paola</surname>
            <given-names>Angelo Amato Vincenzo de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Antonio Abunader</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Dalmo Antonio Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sobral</surname>
            <given-names>Dario Celestino</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sternick</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Back</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Darrieux</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Carlos da Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fenelon</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo Glotz de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ati&#233;</surname>
            <given-names>Jacob</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mateos</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Carlos Pach&#243;n</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Marcos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vasconcelos</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Tarc&#237;sio Medeiros de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zimerman</surname>
            <given-names>Leandro Ioschpe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Roberto Leite da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Marcio Augusto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scanavacca</surname>
            <given-names>Mauricio Ibrahim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Olga Ferreira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <institution content-type="original">Sociedade Brasileira de Arritmias Card&#237;acas (SOBRAC), S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Fatima Dumas Cintra</bold>, Disciplina de Cardiologia da UNIFESP, Rua Napole&#227;o de Barros, 715 - T&#233;rreo, Vila Clementino, SP, CEP 04024-002. <email>fatimacintra@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial/epidemiologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Anticoagulantes</kwd>
        <kwd>Abla&#231;&#227;o por Cateter</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
        <kwd>Apneia Obstrutiva do Sono</kwd>
        <kwd>Gen&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Consumo de &#193;lcool</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Desde 2009, quando a Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia divulgou as Diretrizes Brasileiras de Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> foram publicados v&#225;rios estudos importantes sobre o tema, particularmente com respeito aos Novos Anticoagulantes Orais (NACO). Pelo menos tr&#234;s desses medicamentos (dabigatrana, rivaroxabana e apixabana) encontram-se atualmente aprovados para uso cl&#237;nico no Brasil.</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m do tratamento farmacol&#243;gico, novos dados relacionados com o tratamento n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico, notadamente a abla&#231;&#227;o com radiofrequ&#234;ncia (RF), permitiram ampliar a indica&#231;&#227;o para o uso dessa modalidade terap&#234;utica, tornando-se importante uma atualiza&#231;&#227;o da antiga diretriz.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Mudan&#231;as epidemiol&#243;gicas da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
          <p>Nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas, a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) tornou-se um importante problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica, com grande consumo de recursos em sa&#250;de. A FA &#233; a arritmia sustentada mais frequente na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, e sua preval&#234;ncia na popula&#231;&#227;o geral foi estimada entre 0,5 e 1%. Estudos mais recentes, entretanto, demonstram que a preval&#234;ncia &#233; quase o dobro da observada na d&#233;cada passada, variando de 1,9%, na It&#225;lia, a 2,9%, na Su&#233;cia, possivelmente associado ao aumento da idade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Entretanto, al&#233;m do envelhecimento outros potenciais fatores podem ser levantados para explicar o incremento na preval&#234;ncia de FA. Um deles &#233; a maior habilidade de tratamento de doen&#231;as card&#237;acas cr&#244;nicas, contribuindo para um n&#250;mero maior de indiv&#237;duos suscet&#237;veis a FA. Al&#233;m disso, associado aos fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos - hipertens&#227;o, diabetes, doen&#231;a valvar, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> - novos fatores de risco potenciais, como apneia obstrutiva do sono,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> obesidade,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> consumo de bebidas alco&#243;licas,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> hist&#243;ria familiar e fatores gen&#233;ticos,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> que contribuem &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o da preval&#234;ncia da FA.</p>
          <p>A classifica&#231;&#227;o mais utilizada na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica refere-se &#224; forma de apresenta&#231;&#227;o da FA. Define-se "FA parox&#237;stica" aquela que &#233; revertida espontaneamente ou com interven&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica em at&#233; 7 dias de seu in&#237;cio. Epis&#243;dios com dura&#231;&#227;o superior a 7 dias t&#234;m o nome de "FA persistente". Alguns estudos utilizam a terminologia de "AF persistente de longa dura&#231;&#227;o" para designar os casos com dura&#231;&#227;o superior a 1 ano. Finalmente, o termo "FA permanente" &#233; utilizado nos casos em que as tentativas de revers&#227;o ao ritmo sinusal n&#227;o ser&#227;o mais institu&#237;das.</p>
          <p>O progn&#243;stico da FA est&#225; relacionado a sua clara associa&#231;&#227;o com aumento do risco de acidente vascular cerebral (AVC), isqu&#234;mico ou hemorr&#225;gico, e mortalidade. Altera&#231;&#245;es cognitivas, IC e implica&#231;&#245;es socioecon&#244;micas tamb&#233;m s&#227;o consequ&#234;ncias importantes da FA.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos</title>
          <p>Devido &#224; maior propens&#227;o de pacientes com FA de apresentarem risco inerente &#224; pr&#243;pria arritmia de formar co&#225;gulos, parece clara a necessidade de se identificar os pacientes de menor risco e exclu&#237;-los da necessidade de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, de tal forma que n&#227;o sejam eleg&#237;veis &#224; anticoagula&#231;&#227;o apenas os pacientes com risco muito baixo. O escore utilizado para essa finalidade &#233; o escore CHA2DS2 VASc (iniciais para <italic>congestive heart failure, hypertension, age, diabetes mellitus, atroke, vascular disease, age, sex category</italic>) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> A grande vantagem de sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o &#233; que pacientes com escore zero n&#227;o necessitam de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, pois o risco de complica&#231;&#227;o tromb&#243;tica, neste caso, &#233; muito baixo. No caso de CHA2DS2-VASc igual a 1, o risco &#233; considerado baixo (1,3% ao ano), e a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o &#233; opcional e fica na depend&#234;ncia do risco de sangramento e op&#231;&#227;o do paciente. Todos os demais pacientes apresentam indica&#231;&#227;o formal para a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o. O escore de risco para hemorragia mais empregado na atualidade &#233; o HAS-BLED (iniciais de <italic>hypertension, abnormal renal or liver function, stroke, bleeding, labile international normalized ratio - INR, elderly, drugs or alcohol use</italic> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 2</xref>), cuja pontua&#231;&#227;o &gt; 3 indica maior risco de hemorragia pelo ACO. Deve-se destacar, contudo, que esse escore n&#227;o contraindica o uso de ACO, mas orienta quanto &#224; necessidade de cuidados especiais para tornar o tratamento mais seguro.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t7">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>(A) Escore de CHA2DS2-VASc utilizado para avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco para fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos em pacientes portadores de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. (B) Taxa ajustada de eventos por ano de acordo com o escore</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="50%"/>
                <col width="50%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody>
                <tr style="border-top:hidden">
                  <td align="left">[A]</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                  <td align="left">
                    <bold>CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>Pontua&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva / disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Hipertens&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Idade &#8805; 75 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Diabetes mellitus</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">AVC / ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio /tromboembolismo</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Doen&#231;a vascular (hist&#243;ria de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica ou placa ateroscler&#243;tica)</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Idade 65&#8211;74 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                  <td align="left">Sexo feminino</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">
									</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">[B]</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid;border-top-width:thin;border-top-style:solid">
                  <td align="left">
                    <bold>Escore</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>Taxa ajustada de AVC (%/ano)*</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">0</td>
                  <td align="center">0.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">1</td>
                  <td align="center">1.3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">2</td>
                  <td align="center">2.2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">3</td>
                  <td align="center">3.2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">4</td>
                  <td align="center">4.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">5</td>
                  <td align="center">6.7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">6</td>
                  <td align="center">9.8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">7</td>
                  <td align="center">9.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">8</td>
                  <td align="center">6.7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">9</td>
                  <td align="center">15.2</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <p>AVC: acidente vascular cerebral.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t8">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas empregadas para identifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com risco de hemorragia pelos anticoagulantes orais inclu&#237;das no escore HAS-BLED</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="50%"/>
                <col width="50%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Risco HAS-BLED</th>
                  <th align="center">Pontua&#231;&#227;o</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Hipertens&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Altera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o renal ou hep&#225;tica (1 ponto cada)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 ou 2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">AVC</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Sangramento</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">LabilidadeRNI</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Idade avan&#231;ada (&gt; 65 anos)</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Uso de drogas ou &#225;lcool (1 ponto cada)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 ou 2</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN5">
                <p>AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; RNI: Raz&#227;o Normalizada Internacional.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>S&#227;o 4 os NACOs dispon&#237;veis para a preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos em pacientes portadores de FA. Tratam-se dos inibidores diretos do fator Xa, como a rivaroxabana, a apixabana e a edoxabana, e o inibidor do fator IIa, dabigatrana. A dabigatrana foi o primeiro NACO disponibilizado no mercado e validado pelo estudo RE-LY (Randomized Evaluation of Long-term anticoagulante therapY with dabigatran etexilate)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Trata-se de um estudo prospectivo, randomizado, fase III que comparou duas doses de dabigatrana (110 mg e 150 mg) duas vezes ao dia com doses ajustadas de varfarina. Os desfechos prim&#225;rios foram AVC e embolia sist&#234;mica. A dose de 150 mg foi superior &#224; varfarina nos desfechos de seguran&#231;a, incluindo sangramento maior, sem diferen&#231;as significativas. A dose de 110 mg foi n&#227;o inferior &#224; varfarina, com 20% de redu&#231;&#227;o na taxa de sangramento.</p>
          <p>O estudo ROCKET-AF (<italic>Rivaroxaban-once daily, oral, direct factor Xa inhibition compared with vitamin K antagonism for prevention of stroke and Embolism Trial in Atrial Fibrillation</italic>) foi o respons&#225;vel por introduzir a rivaroxabana na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica para preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos no paciente com FA n&#227;o valvar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Foi um estudo duplo-cego, que randomizou 14.264 pacientes de alto risco para eventos tromboemb&#243;licos para rivaroxabana ou varfarina. A dose de rivaroxabana foi 20 mg ao dia, e pacientes com preju&#237;zo da fun&#231;&#227;o renal receberam 15 mg do medicamento. A rivaroxabana foi n&#227;o inferior a varfarina para o desfecho prim&#225;rio de AVC e embolia sist&#234;mica. Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos desfechos de seguran&#231;a, houve redu&#231;&#227;o significativa no AVC hemorr&#225;gico e sangramento intracraniano, sem impacto na taxa de mortalidade.</p>
          <p>O ARISTOTLE (Apixaban for Reduction in Stroke and Other Thromboembolic Events in Atrial Fibrillation) foi o principal estudo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da apixabana em pacientes com FA n&#227;o valvar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Esse estudo duplo-cego, randomizado, analisou a dose de 5,0 mg duas vezes ao dia, ou a dose ajustada de 2,5 mg duas vezes ao dia, nos pacientes com pelo menos dois dos tr&#234;s fatores a seguir: com idade superior a 80 anos, peso abaixo de 60 kg e creatinina s&#233;rica igual ou superior a 1,5 mg/dL. O controle foi realizado com varfarina. Quando comparada &#224; varfarina, a apixabana reduziu significativamente o risco dos desfechos de efic&#225;cia (AVC e embolia sist&#234;mica) em 21%, de sangramento maior em 31% e de mortalidade por todas as causas em 11%.</p>
          <p>A edoxabana foi avaliada pelo estudo ENGAGE-AF (Edoxaban versus Warfarin in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> duplo-cego e randomizado, com tr&#234;s bra&#231;os (varfarina, edoxabana alta dose e edoxabana baixa dose). A edoxabana mostrou-se n&#227;o inferior &#224; varfarina, tanto no regime de alta dose (60 mg uma vez ao dia), quanto no regime de baixa dose (30 mg uma vez ao dia). Nos pacientes alocados para receberem edoxabana, a dose foi reduzida &#224; metade da indicada na randomiza&#231;&#227;o quando um dos fatores estivesse presentes: <italic>clearance</italic> de creatinina inferior a 50 mL/minuto, peso inferior a 60 kg e uso concomitante a inibidores potentes da glicoprote&#237;na P (basicamente Verapamil). Analisando-se o regime de alta dose da edoxabana, houve redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na ocorr&#234;ncia de AVC (isqu&#234;micos e hemorr&#225;gicos). J&#225; no regime de baixa dose, identificou-se aumento significativo de AVC isqu&#234;mico no grupo da edoxabana. Dessa forma, a melhor rela&#231;&#227;o de efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a ocorreu no regime de alta dose, enquanto que o regime de baixa dose tende a perder em efic&#225;cia, conferindo maior seguran&#231;a quanto ao risco de sangramentos maiores e AVC hemorr&#225;gicos.</p>
          <p>As recomenda&#231;&#245;es para preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos na FA n&#227;o valvar encontram-se no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Quadro 1</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t9">
            <label>Quadro 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial n&#227;o valvar</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="80%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th align="center">Classe</th>
                  <th align="center">N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">O escore CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc deve ser empregado em todos os pacientes</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Pacientes de baixo risco, com CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc igual a zero, n&#227;o t&#234;m indica&#231;&#227;o de terapia antitromb&#243;tica</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Em pacientes com escore CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc igual a 1, a terapia antitromb&#243;tica pode ser institu&#237;da, levando-se em considera&#231;&#227;o o risco de sangramento e as prefer&#234;ncias do paciente</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Pacientes com escore CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc &#8805; 2 t&#234;m indica&#231;&#227;o de terapia antitromb&#243;tica</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">A</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Os NACO trouxeram uma dr&#225;stica mudan&#231;a na abordagem terap&#234;utica da FA n&#227;o valvar em termos de preven&#231;&#227;o de acidentes tromboemb&#243;licos. Entretanto, as complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas relacionadas ao uso dessas drogas podem representar uma limita&#231;&#227;o. Os NACO s&#227;o f&#225;rmacos de meia-vida curta, portanto um sangramento de pequena intensidade pode ser solucionado simplesmente pela suspens&#227;o da droga. As caracter&#237;sticas farmacocin&#233;ticas s&#227;o distintas entre os NACO e tais peculiaridades podem determinar mudan&#231;as de conduta. A dabigatrana, por exemplo, &#233; um f&#225;rmaco que apresenta fraca liga&#231;&#227;o &#224;s prote&#237;nas plasm&#225;ticas, sendo potencialmente removida por hemodi&#225;lise. A rivaroxabana e a apixabana, por outro lado, n&#227;o s&#227;o subst&#226;ncias dialis&#225;veis, dada a sua forte liga&#231;&#227;o proteica no plasma. O carv&#227;o ativado pode ser utilizado nos casos de ingest&#227;o do anticoagulante at&#233; 2 horas do evento hemorr&#225;gico. &#201; conveniente salientar que seu uso &#233; contraindicado em situa&#231;&#245;es de hemorragia digestiva. O carv&#227;o ativado est&#225; dispon&#237;vel sob a forma de p&#243; e pode ser administrado dilu&#237;do em &#225;gua ou suco, se o paciente estiver acordado, ou por sonda nasog&#225;trica, na dose de 1 g por kg de peso corporal. Embora n&#227;o estejam dispon&#237;veis atualmente no Brasil, existem avan&#231;os com rela&#231;&#227;o a medicamentos que possam reverter a a&#231;&#227;o dos NACO. O Idarucizumab &#233; um fragmento de anticorpo monoclonal, que se liga &#224; dabigatrana com mais afinidade que &#224; trombina. Seu uso intravenoso para reverter o efeito anticoagulante j&#225; foi avaliado e, com base nos resultados, o medicamento foi recentemente aprovado para uso cl&#237;nico nos Estados Unidos.</p>
          <p>A Andexanet, por sua vez, &#233; uma prote&#237;na recombinante inativa que se liga aos inibidores do fator X ativado (rivaroxabana, apixabana e edoxabana), revertendo o seu efeito anticoagulante. Os efeitos da administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa j&#225; foram avaliados, com taxa de revers&#227;o satisfat&#243;ria, e &#233; esperado que o seu uso cl&#237;nico tamb&#233;m seja aprovado.</p>
          <p>A administra&#231;&#227;o de Plasma Fresco Congelado pode ser realizada mas, como medida de suplementa&#231;&#227;o de fatores de coagula&#231;&#227;o apresenta concentra&#231;&#245;es muito inferiores &#224;s observadas nos Concentrados de Complexos Protromb&#237;nicos (CCP). A indica&#231;&#227;o de CCP &#233; razo&#225;vel em situa&#231;&#245;es de hemorragias graves.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Apesar de os agentes ACO continuarem como a principal op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica na preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos emb&#243;licos em pacientes com FA, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o dos anticoagulantes oferece riscos, especialmente a ocorr&#234;ncia de AVC hemorr&#225;gico e outras hemorragias potencialmente graves, como o sangramento gastrintestinal. Essa limita&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica, associada &#224; gravidade dos eventos emb&#243;licos relacionados &#224; FA, motivou o desenvolvimento de novas estrat&#233;gias com o objetivo de reduzir a taxa de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos. Dessa forma, a oclus&#227;o do ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo (AAE) surgiu como outra forma de terap&#234;utica. As principais recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a utiliza&#231;&#227;o desses dispositivos encontram-se no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Quadro 2</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t10">
            <label>Quadro 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para oclus&#227;o percut&#226;nea do ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="80%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th align="center">Classe</th>
                  <th align="center">N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Pacientes com alto risco para fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos e contraindica&#231;&#227;o ao uso de anticoagulantes orais</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Pacientes com AVC isqu&#234;mico de origem cardioemb&#243;lica apesar do correto uso de um anticoagulantes orais</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN6">
                <p>AVC: acidente vascular cerebral.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas mais utilizadas no manejo cl&#237;nico da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
          <p>Ap&#243;s a avalia&#231;&#227;o de um caso de FA, o paciente pode ser alocado na estrat&#233;gia de controle do ritmo ou controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, de acordo com suas caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas, ecocardiogr&#225;ficas e evolu&#231;&#227;o de tratamentos anteriores. Nesse cen&#225;rio, o uso de drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas (AA) apresenta papel relevante em ambas as estrat&#233;gias. A avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial deve definir a presen&#231;a de cardiopatia estrutural, assim como avaliar se a causa &#233; revers&#237;vel.</p>
          <p>Para a manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal h&#225; um n&#250;mero limitado de medicamentos no Brasil, j&#225; que n&#227;o temos dispon&#237;veis dofetilide e dronedarona. As drogas dispon&#237;veis no Brasil s&#227;o: propafenona, sotalol e amiodarona. A propafenona &#233; um f&#225;rmaco &#250;til tanto na revers&#227;o aguda como na manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal. &#201; uma medica&#231;&#227;o segura em pacientes com cora&#231;&#227;o estruturalmente normal, mas deve ser evitado na presen&#231;a de cardiopatia estrutural, pelo risco de induzirem a arritmias ventriculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> O sotalol &#233; um f&#225;rmaco sem resultados significativos na revers&#227;o aguda da arritmia, mas &#250;til na preven&#231;&#227;o de recorr&#234;ncias, com descri&#231;&#227;o de manuten&#231;&#227;o de ritmo sinusal em at&#233; 72% dos pacientes em 6 meses em determinados grupos. Al&#233;m disso, diminui sintomas por reduzir a resposta ventricular dos epis&#243;dios devido ao seu efeito betabloqueador. Os efeitos colaterais mais comuns s&#227;o aqueles ligados ao efeito betabloqueador, como cansa&#231;o e fadiga. No entanto, o mais importante &#233; o prolongamento do intervalo QT e desenvolvimento de <italic>torsade de pointes</italic>. O sotalol n&#227;o pode ser utilizado em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> A amiodarona &#233; bastante efetiva na revers&#227;o e manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal. Alguns estudos demonstram superioridade dessa medica&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o as demais, contudo, al&#233;m do risco proarr&#237;tmico, a amiodarona pode apresentar efeitos colaterais importantes em v&#225;rios &#243;rg&#227;os. Atualmente, &#233; a medica&#231;&#227;o dispon&#237;vel para pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Outra estrat&#233;gia para abordar esses pacientes &#233; o controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, importante para a preven&#231;&#227;o de sintomas (p.ex. palpita&#231;&#245;es, cansa&#231;o e redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade de exerc&#237;cio), redu&#231;&#227;o da morbidade associada &#224; doen&#231;a, e principalmente preven&#231;&#227;o de taquicardiomiopatia, o que impacta na qualidade de vida do paciente. Entretanto, os par&#226;metros de frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#243;tima na FA ainda permanecem controversos. V&#225;rios f&#225;rmacos foram testados e provaram ser eficazes no controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Entre eles, est&#227;o os betabloqueadores, os bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio n&#227;o diidropirid&#237;nicos e alguns antiarr&#237;tmicos, como, por exemplo, a amiodarona e o sotalol. Para a escolha, &#233; importante considerar o grau de sintomas do paciente, o estado hemodin&#226;mico, a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, os fatores precipitantes da FA e o risco de eventos adversos.</p>
          <p>Os betabloqueadores s&#227;o os medicamentos mais comumente utilizados para o controle da frequ&#234;ncia na FA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> T&#234;m como a&#231;&#227;o principal o bloqueio do t&#244;nus adren&#233;rgico por meio da inibi&#231;&#227;o competitiva da liga&#231;&#227;o catecolaminas-receptores beta. Seus representantes reduzem o declive da despolariza&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea (fase 4 do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o), particularmente nas c&#233;lulas no n&#243; sinusal e do n&#243; atrioventricular (AV) (reduzem a condu&#231;&#227;o pelo n&#243; AV). Tamb&#233;m aumentam a refratariedade do sistema His-Purkinje. Os bloqueadores de canais de c&#225;lcio n&#227;o diidropiridinicos como o verapamil e o diltiazem bloqueiam os canais de c&#225;lcio do tipo L do sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aco principalmente no n&#243; AV. S&#227;o eficazes para controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na FA aguda ou permanente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> tanto na administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa quanto oral. A digoxina &#233; comumente utilizada mesmo n&#227;o sendo considerada um agente de primeira linha para o controle da frequ&#234;ncia na FA. Atua diretamente na membrana das c&#233;lulas atriais, ventriculares e do sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o, com efeito principal no aumento do t&#244;nus vagal, reduzindo assim a automaticidade do n&#243; sinusal e lentificando a condu&#231;&#227;o pelo n&#243; AV. As recomenda&#231;&#245;es para utiliza&#231;&#227;o de drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas na FA encontra-se no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t11">Quadro 3</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t11">
            <label>Quadro 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial para manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="80%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th align="center">Classe</th>
                  <th align="center">N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Pacientes sintom&#225;ticos com FA parox&#237;stica refrat&#225;ria ou intolerante a pelo menos uma droga AA das classes I ou III, quando a estrat&#233;gia de controle do ritmo &#233; desejada</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Pacientes sintom&#225;ticos selecionados com FA persistente refrat&#225;ria ou intolerante a pelo menos uma droga AA das classes I ou III</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica sintom&#225;tica recorrente como primeira terapia (antes de medica&#231;&#245;es AAs), sendo esta a op&#231;&#227;o do paciente</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Pacientes sintom&#225;ticos com FA persistente de longa dura&#231;&#227;o (&gt; 12 meses) quando refrat&#225;ria ou intolerante a pelo menos uma droga AA das classes I ou III e quando a estrat&#233;gia de controle do ritmo &#233; desejada</td>
                  <td align="center">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Como primeira terapia (antes de medica&#231;&#245;es AA classe I ou III) em pacientes com FA persistente quando a estrat&#233;gia de controle do ritmo &#233; desejada</td>
                  <td align="center">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Pacientes que n&#227;o podem ser tratados com anticoagulante durante e ap&#243;s o procedimento</td>
                  <td align="center">III</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN7">
                <p>FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; AA: antiarr&#237;tmicas.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
          <p>A terapia invasiva da FA por meio da abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter pode ser considerada nos cen&#225;rios do controle da frequ&#234;ncia ou do ritmo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>Nos pacientes resistentes ou intolerantes ao uso de f&#225;rmacos para o controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o implante de marcapasso, associado &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o da jun&#231;&#227;o AV (indu&#231;&#227;o de bloqueio AV total), pode ser indicado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t12">Quadro 4</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t12">
            <label>Quadro 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para abla&#231;&#227;o da jun&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="80%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="10%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th align="center">Classe</th>
                  <th align="center">N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">FA gerando terapias inapropriadas do CDI, em que outros m&#233;todos terap&#234;uticos foram incapazes ou n&#227;o puderam ser usados para restaura&#231;&#227;o/manuten&#231;&#227;o do ritmo sinusal ou controle da frequ&#234;ncia ventricular</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">FA em portadores de TRC para a otimiza&#231;&#227;o da ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">A abla&#231;&#227;o do n&#243; AV com estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular permanente &#233; razo&#225;vel como estrat&#233;gia de controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, quando a terapia com medicamentos &#233; inadequada e o controle do ritmo n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Abla&#231;&#227;o do n&#243; AV com estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular permanente em pacientes bem controlados clinicamente</td>
                  <td align="center">III</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN8">
                <p>FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; CDI: cardioversor desfibrilador implant&#225;vel; TRC: terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca; AV: atrioventricular.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Esta interven&#231;&#227;o &#233; simples, com elevada taxa de sucesso e baixo risco de complica&#231;&#245;es, melhorando a qualidade de vida e reduzindo hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es e incid&#234;ncia de IC quando comparada com o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico. O implante do marcapasso deve preceder &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o da jun&#231;&#227;o AV em 4 a 6 semanas, a fim de possibilitar adequada matura&#231;&#227;o dos cabos-eletrodos, posto que o paciente fica dependente do marcapasso.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Controle do ritmo</title>
          <p>Evid&#234;ncias s&#243;lidas indicam que a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA (isolamento das veias pulmonares, VP) &#233; mais eficaz do que as drogas AA para controle do ritmo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Esse sucesso ampliou paulatinamente as indica&#231;&#245;es para o tratamento intervencionista da FA. Diretrizes internacionais recentes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> indicam a abla&#231;&#227;o como op&#231;&#227;o (Classe I) para a falha de uma droga AA e tamb&#233;m como primeira escolha (Classe IIa) em pacientes selecionados com FA parox&#237;stica, sem doen&#231;a estrutural. Pacientes com cardiopatia estrutural e FA parox&#237;stica igualmente podem ser considerados para abla&#231;&#227;o como terapia inicial, desde que se suspeite de taquicardiomiopatia e que o paciente deseje realizar abla&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Faltam dados que comprovem o benef&#237;cio do procedimento nos pacientes muito idosos, pacientes com FA persistente de longa dura&#231;&#227;o, ou IC avan&#231;ada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> A indica&#231;&#227;o para pacientes assintom&#225;ticos ainda n&#227;o est&#225; estabelecida, sendo motivo de grande controv&#233;rsia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Ainda n&#227;o existem evid&#234;ncias de que a interven&#231;&#227;o seja superior &#224; dos f&#225;rmacos AA, no tocante &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de desfechos duros, como mortalidade, IC e acidentes vasculares cerebrais. Estudos em andamento est&#227;o avaliando esses pontos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O objetivo principal da abla&#231;&#227;o de FA &#233; o isolamento el&#233;trico das VP. Dentre as v&#225;rias t&#233;cnicas dispon&#237;veis para esse fim, a abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofrequ&#234;ncia (RF) convencional ponto a ponto, com aux&#237;lio de mapeamento eletroanat&#244;mico e/ou ecocardiografia intracard&#237;aca, &#233; a mais utilizada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> A crioabla&#231;&#227;o, que utiliza cateter bal&#227;o para obter o isolamento circunferencial das VP, &#233; uma t&#233;cnica alternativa igualmente validada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Cateteres multipolares em forma espiral capazes de liberar energia de RF por meio de todos os eletrodos simultaneamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> e cateteres bal&#227;o a laser<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> tamb&#233;m v&#234;m ganhando espa&#231;o para criar les&#245;es ao redor das VP.</p>
          <p>A despeito de sua comprovada efic&#225;cia, a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA &#233; um procedimento de alta complexidade, com risco de complica&#231;&#245;es maiores em torno de 4,5%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Al&#233;m disso, abla&#231;&#227;o de FA n&#227;o &#233; curativa. Recorr&#234;ncias s&#227;o comuns, e ocorrem devido &#224; reconex&#227;o das VP ou &#224; progress&#227;o do substrato atrial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Nesses casos, um novo procedimento de abla&#231;&#227;o pode ser necess&#225;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Ap&#243;s a abla&#231;&#227;o, todos os pacientes devem ser anticoagulados por 2 a 3 meses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Ao final desse prazo, a suspens&#227;o dos anticoagulantes est&#225; autorizada apenas nos pacientes com baixo risco de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> Como recorr&#234;ncias tardias e assintom&#225;ticas da FA podem acontecer, principalmente ap&#243;s a abla&#231;&#227;o,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> &#233; necess&#225;rio monitorar o paciente por per&#237;odos prolongados, para assegurar o controle da arritmia.</p>
          <p>As indica&#231;&#245;es para a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA est&#227;o elencadas no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Quadro 3</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Novas tecnologias de mapeamento e abla&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>Atualmente, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de sistemas de mapeamento tridimensional para a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA &#233; considerada no mundo inteiro o tratamento padr&#227;o. Com o objetivo de orientar visualmente o operador no entendimento da complexidade anat&#244;mica do &#225;trio esquerdo (AE), assim como na localiza&#231;&#227;o do cateter, a t&#233;cnica permitiu a diminui&#231;&#227;o da quantidade de radia&#231;&#227;o para o paciente e para toda a equipe envolvida no procedimento.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sistemas de mapeamento tridimensional</title>
          <p>Os sistemas dispon&#237;veis possibilitam reconstruir de forma tridimensional o AE e as VP por meio da mobiliza&#231;&#227;o de um cateter posicionado na cavidade e em contato direto com a parede do AE, com significativa redu&#231;&#227;o de exposi&#231;&#227;o ao raio X.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
					</p>
          <p>H&#225; consenso entre os especialistas brasileiros de que o uso do mapeamento tridimensional aumenta a seguran&#231;a do procedimento.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ecocardiografia intracard&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A ecocardiografia intracard&#237;aca consiste na utiliza&#231;&#227;o de uma sonda de ecocardiograma posicionada no &#225;trio direito, sendo hoje um &#243;timo recurso adjuvante nos procedimentos de abla&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Angiografia rotacional</title>
          <p>A angiografia rotacional &#233; um m&#233;todo radiol&#243;gico utilizado para se adquirir a imagem do AE no laborat&#243;rio de eletrofisiologia utilizando um equipamento de hemodin&#226;mica b&#225;sico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> A desvantagem desse m&#233;todo em rela&#231;&#227;o ao mapeamento tridimensional, descrito acima, &#233; a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de contraste i&#244;nico, al&#233;m de uma grande quantidade de radia&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tecnologias dos cateteres de abla&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>Atualmente, os cateteres de abla&#231;&#227;o irrigados s&#227;o utilizados em praticamente todos os procedimentos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> Mais recentemente, os cateteres irrigados passaram a estar dispon&#237;veis tamb&#233;m com a tecnologia de controle de contato, que &#233; capaz de medir a intensidade da intera&#231;&#227;o cateter-mioc&#225;rdio, parecendo aumentar a efic&#225;cia da les&#227;o com a diminui&#231;&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Quanto &#224;s novas fontes de energia, existem dispon&#237;veis tr&#234;s variedades, todas j&#225; em utiliza&#231;&#227;o nesses cateteres: ultrassom, laser e crioterapia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tecnologias de navega&#231;&#227;o rob&#243;tica</title>
          <p>A elevada exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o imposta pela maioria das modalidades de abla&#231;&#227;o fez surgir a navega&#231;&#227;o rob&#243;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> No entanto, n&#227;o existem, at&#233; o momento, estudos que comprovem maior sucesso ou diminui&#231;&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es com esses sistemas. Ainda, o elevado custo &#233; uma grande barreira a ser vencida.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tratamento cir&#250;rgico da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
          <p>V&#225;rios procedimentos foram desenvolvidos para o tratamento cir&#250;rgico da FA desde a d&#233;cada de 1980.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> A cirurgia de Cox-Maze III, ou cirurgia do labirinto, &#233; o padr&#227;o-ouro para o tratamento cir&#250;rgico da FA. Os componentes-chave da cirurgia de Maze, bem como na maioria das novas t&#233;cnicas cir&#250;rgicas desenvolvidas para tratar a FA, permanecem o isolamento das VP e a ressec&#231;&#227;o do ap&#234;ndice atrial.</p>
          <p>Apesar de a cirurgia de Maze poder ser minimamente invasiva, utilizando uma pequena incis&#227;o na parede tor&#225;cica, a opera&#231;&#227;o requer 45 a 60 minutos de circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea (quando realizada por m&#227;os experientes) e cardioplegia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> Al&#233;m disso, embora possa ser realizada isoladamente, a opera&#231;&#227;o &#233; comumente indicada para pacientes que necessitem ser submetidos &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca por outras doen&#231;as, como as valvulopatias ou as cardiomiopatias isqu&#234;micas.</p>
          <p>Hoje, poucos pacientes s&#227;o referidos para um procedimento cir&#250;rgico de abla&#231;&#227;o de FA isoladamente. Mesmo naqueles submetidos &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca por outras raz&#245;es, os cirurgi&#245;es s&#227;o relutantes em adicionar a cirurgia de Maze, devido a sua complexidade e magnitude.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tratamento h&#237;brido da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
          <p>Os chamados "procedimentos h&#237;bridos" combinam cirurgia epic&#225;rdica minimamente invasiva com mapeamento eletrofisiol&#243;gico e abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter endoc&#225;rdico. O objetivo dessa t&#233;cnica mista &#233; tratar, em especial, pacientes com FA persistente ou persistente de longa dura&#231;&#227;o, nos quais essas t&#233;cnicas utilizadas isoladamente teriam resultados insatisfat&#243;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>
					</p>
          <p>No geral, os resultados iniciais publicados com os procedimentos h&#237;bridos s&#227;o expressivos, principalmente considerando a maior complexidade da popula&#231;&#227;o tratada (FA persistente e de longa dura&#231;&#227;o), por&#233;m com n&#250;mero restrito de pacientes. &#201; esperado que o aprimoramento da t&#233;cnica permita a sua maior utiliza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
