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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Fg7ghQ4vzSgh9PXrdVKRG7j</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2016004200271</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20160097</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2016005018103</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Cardiac Regeneration using Growth Factors: Advances and Challenges</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rebou&#231;as</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana de Souza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos-Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Nereide Stela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Formiga</surname>
            <given-names>Fabio Rocha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Laborat&#243;rio de Imunopatologia Keizo-Asami</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Imunopatologia Keizo-Asami - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Biologia Celular e Molecular Aplicada</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Biologia Celular e Molecular Aplicada - Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Centro de Pesquisas Gon&#231;alo Moniz</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Curso de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Patologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Curso de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Patologia (UFBA/FIOCRUZ) - Centro de Pesquisas Gon&#231;alo Moniz, Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Salvador, BA - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Fabio Rocha Formiga</bold>. Centro de Pesquisas Gon&#231;alo Moniz, Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ). Rua Waldemar Falc&#227;o, 121, Candeal. Postal Code 40296710, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: <email>fabio.formiga@bahia.fiocruz.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Rebou&#231;as JS, Santos-Magalh&#227;es NS, Formiga FR; Acquisition of data: Rebou&#231;as JS, Formiga FR; Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript: Rebou&#231;as JS, Formiga FR; Obtaining financing: Santos-Magalh&#227;es NS, Formiga FR.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>27</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>9</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>107</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>271</fpage>
      <lpage>275</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>31</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Myocardial infarction is the most significant manifestation of ischemic heart disease and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Novel strategies targeting at regenerating the injured myocardium have been investigated, including gene therapy, cell therapy, and the use of growth factors. Growth factor therapy has aroused interest in cardiovascular medicine because of the regeneration mechanisms induced by these biomolecules, including angiogenesis, extracellular matrix remodeling, cardiomyocyte proliferation, stem-cell recruitment, and others. Together, these mechanisms promote myocardial repair and improvement of the cardiac function. This review aims to address the strategic role of growth factor therapy in cardiac regeneration, considering its innovative and multifactorial character in myocardial repair after ischemic injury. Different issues will be discussed, with emphasis on the regeneration mechanisms as a potential therapeutic resource mediated by growth factors, and the challenges to make these proteins therapeutically viable in the field of cardiology and regenerative medicine.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Myocardial Infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Ischemia</kwd>
        <kwd>Vascular Remodeling</kwd>
        <kwd>Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins</kwd>
        <kwd>Cell-and Tissue Based Therapy</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading cause of death among men and women worldwide, in all racial and ethnic groups.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> In the United States, these diseases account for approximately 57% of all deaths in the country.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> In Europe, CVD cause 4.3 million deaths every year, which represents almost half (48%) of all deaths in that continent.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> CVD are also the major death cause in Brazil, with a specific mortality rate for ischemic heart diseases of 53.8 deaths for every 100,000 inhabitants.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In the CVD group, coronary artery disease (CAD) and peripheral artery disease (PAD) are significant causes of morbidity and mortality, requiring surgical bypass procedure or angioplasty for thousands of patients. On the other hand, myocardial infarction (MI) is the most important manifestation of ischemic heart disease and is also associated with high morbidity and mortality. Ischemia is responsible for cardiac muscle damage, including the loss of cardiomyocytes. This process leads to a negative cardiac remodeling causing the cardiac tissue with a normal contractile function to be replaced by a non-functional scar tissue. The myocardium then produces a compensatory hypertrophic mechanism against ischemia-induced wound healing. However, the hypertrophy may make the heart susceptible to the onset of arrhythmias, ventricular fibrillation and massive heart attack.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Although advanced revascularization procedures (angioplasty, catheterization, bypass) have contributed to a marked reduction in mortality for CVD, a significant number of patients are not eligible to these procedures or achieve incomplete revascularization with these interventions. Consequently, many of these patients show persistent symptoms of cardiac ischemia despite intensive medical care. They probably suffer from severe diffuse atherosclerotic disease, which cannot be treated by surgery or angioplasty. Symptomatic obstructive vascular disease leads to claudication, peripheral ischemia, angina and congestive heart failure, significantly limiting the quality of life of these patients.</p>
      <p>Treatment of MI includes the use of drugs (antiplatelet agents, oral anticoagulants, nitrates, &#946;-adrenergic blockers, ACE inhibitors, and others), surgical reperfusion and revascularization procedures, and, in more complex cases, heart transplantation. In the past decade, there was growing investigation on new strategies for regeneration of the injured myocardium, including gene therapy,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> cell therapy,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> and the use of growth factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> The later has also been investigated for the induction of therapeutic angiogenesis for peripheral arterial disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The use of growth factors has aroused interest in cardiovascular medicine because of the direct action of these factors on several cell functions such as adhesion, proliferation, migration, and others. When obstruction of the coronary artery flow occurs, induction of angiogenesis by growth factors represents an important mechanism of myocardial repair and protection under hypoxic conditions, resulting in the formation of new vessels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Consequently, tissue perfusion increases, ultimately leading to a better cardiac function.</p>
      <p>On the other hand, the regenerative potential of growth factors has gained great importance in the context of cell therapy. Studies have demonstrated that the benefits derived from the administration of stem cells in the infarct area result, to a greater extent, from the paracrine effect of the growth factors secreted by the cells implanted than from the direct action of the cells in the infarct tissue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> These factors show the potential of inducing different regeneration mechanisms: positive remodeling of the extracellular matrix, proliferation of adult cardiomyocytes, recruiting/homing of cardiac stem cells, antiapoptotic and/or angiogenic effect.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Together, these mechanisms may reduce inflammation, fibrosis and inadequate perfusion of the ischemic myocardium, promoting tissue repair and improvement of the cardiac function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Despite the mechanisms of growth-factor-induced tissue regeneration, the therapeutic potential of these proteins is limited by their short biological half-life, low plasma stability and low specificity to target organs. In fact, Hwang and Kloner administered a cocktail of growth factors in rats intraperitoneally and did not observe benefits in the cardiac function, reduction of the infarct size or increase in vascularization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Thus, the clinical use of growth factors depends on new formulation technologies able to increase their half-lives, keep their bioactivity, and control their local delivery in target tissues. In this context, micro- and nanostructured systems have been used as delivery platforms,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> and are a promising formulation strategy for the therapeutic use of growth factors for cardiac regeneration.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The objective of this review is to address the strategic role of growth factor therapy for cardiac regeneration, considering its innovative and multifactorial character on cardiac repair after an ischemic injury.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Mechanisms of cardiac regeneration</title>
        <p>The innate capacity of the human heart for self-regeneration is not enough to compensate the loss of cardiac muscle after an ischemic injury.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Unlike what is observed with skeletal muscles, in which satellite cells and myoblasts form new myocytes a few days after an injury, cardiomyocytes from the border zone of the infarct rarely divide after an ischemic event.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> In a lesion induced by infarct, the heart loses approximately 50 g of muscle, and this can result in the death of 2 billion cardiomyocytes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> This myocardial aggression triggers and modulates tissue reparative changes, including dilatation, hypertrophy, and formation of a collagen scar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> In relation to cell renewal, the mechanisms of endogenous repair are not enough to induce significant renewal of the muscle mass lost after the ischemic injury.</p>
        <p>Cardiomyocyte proliferation plays a key role in cardiac regeneration in some vertebrates, but the proliferative capacity of these cells is limited in the adult hearts of mammals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Another potential cell renewal mechanism is the mobilization of progenitor cells from the bone marrow to the ischemic area and their differentiation into functional cardiomyocytes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> However, mobilization and homing of these progenitors are also not enough to induce significant regeneration. The myocardium also shelters a population of resident cardiac stem cells (CSC) with potential to differentiate into cardiomyocytes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> The CSC seem to account for the baseline turnover of cardiomyocytes. However, this renewal probably occurs at very low rates in the absence of lesion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The efficacy of these endogenous mechanisms of tissue repair is limited by the hostile microenvironment of the infarcted myocardium, which is characterized by ischemia, inflammation, fibrosis and inadequate angiogenesis. This microenvironment probably prevents, the CSC activation. On the other hand, excessive inflammation also prevents progenitors mobilization and homing. The formation of fibrotic tissue is necessary to prevent muscle rupture after infarction, but the high level of fibrosis represents an important physical barrier to myocardial cell regeneration.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Therefore, mitigation of this hostile environment should contribute to cardiac repair, especially the reduction of local inflammation, apoptosis and fibrosis, as well as the increase in vascularization in the infarct and peri-infarct areas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Growth factors inducing regenerative mechanisms</title>
        <p>Angiogenesis refers to the development of blood vessels from a pre-existing vascular bed. From the medical point of view, the objective is to stimulate vessel growth in patients with conditions characterized by insufficient blood flow, such as ischemic heart diseases and peripheral vascular diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>As regards the latter aspect, the identification of growth factors that induce the angiogenic process stimulated the interest in the use of these proteins for the induction of therapeutic angiogenesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> In the case of myocardial infarction, angiogenic therapy with growth factors may salvage the ischemic tissue at early stages of infarction, by supplying the tissue with new vessels. This process is essential to prevent heart failure through the control of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and contractility.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> In fact, angiogenesis is the main growth factor-induced reparative mechanism and has been the mechanism most often investigated in experimental studies and clinical trials on injured myocardium repair. Most of these studies have dedicated their efforts toward the angiogenic and regenerative potential of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> and fibroblast growth factor (FGF).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Mitigation of the ischemic injury in the cardiac tissue may be induced by antiapoptotic factors, which exert potentially cardioprotective effects. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) was first identified as a hepatocyte mitogen, with chemotactic and antiapoptotic actions in different cell types.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> In rats undergoing ischemia and reperfusion, intravenous administration of HGF reduced apoptosis in cardiomyocytes and the infarct size.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Other antiapoptotic factors with therapeutic potential in cardiac regeneration include platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF-BB)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> and protein thymosin &#946;4<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>, IL-11<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>, IL-33<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>, and others.</p>
        <p>Endogenous mechanisms mediated by progenitors and stem cells include mobilization and homing of bone marrow progenitors as well as CSC activation. These cells may differentiate into new cardiomyocytes after the ischemic injury, but their number is reduced or they are insufficiently activated to produce significant muscular regeneration. Some proteins show the potential to mobilize bone marrow progenitors to the cardiac lesion area or activate CSC. These properties may be therapeutically explored as regenerative mechanisms activated by growth factors or recombinant proteins, such as the granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> HGF,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> stromal cell-derived factor (SDF-1),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> and others.</p>
        <p>The paradigm of the heart as a completely differentiated organ was contested based on the identification of mitogens able to induce adult cardiomyocytes to enter into the cell cycle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> This process opens the possibility to stimulate a new regeneration mechanism in the infarcted heart, leading to the formation of a population of new cardiomyocytes capable of replacing the cell mass lost due to the ischemic injury. Three extracellular factors have been identified for their ability to activate receptors involved in cardiomyocyte proliferation: acidic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-1),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> neuregulin (NRG-1),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> and periostin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> Treatment of infarcted rats with FGF-1 in combination with a mitogen-activating protein kinase (MAPK) p38 resulted in increased cardiomyocyte mitosis and improved cardiac function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> Studies have demonstrated improved cardiac function in infarcted mice treated with daily injections of NRG-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> A summary of growth factor-induced cardiac regeneration mechanisms is shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Main growth factors inducing the mechanisms of cardiac regeneration</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Factor</th>
                <th align="center">Mechanisms</th>
                <th align="center">Reference</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">VEGF</td>
                <td align="center">Angiogenesis</td>
                <td align="center">30-33</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FGF</td>
                <td align="center">Angiogenesis</td>
                <td align="center">31,34-36</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" rowspan="2">HGF</td>
                <td align="center">Antiapoptosis</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">37,38, 44</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">CSCs chemotaxis</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SDF-1</td>
                <td align="center">Hematopoietic stem cells mobilization and homing</td>
                <td align="center">45</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IGF-1</td>
                <td align="center">Stem cells and progenitor cells viability and differentiation</td>
                <td align="center">52</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PDGF</td>
                <td align="center">Antiapoptosis</td>
                <td align="center">39</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" rowspan="2">G-CSF</td>
                <td align="center">Antiapoptosis</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">43</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Hematopoietic stem cells mobilization and homing</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Intermedin</td>
                <td align="center">Angiogenesis</td>
                <td align="center">53</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Angiopoietin</td>
                <td align="center">Angiogenesis, remodeling and vascular stabilization</td>
                <td align="center">54</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Periostin</td>
                <td align="center">Cardiomyocyte proliferation</td>
                <td align="center">49</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Neuregulin-1</td>
                <td align="center">Cardiomyocyte proliferation</td>
                <td align="center">47</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Erythropoietin</td>
                <td align="center">Antiapoptosis</td>
                <td align="center">55</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN01">
              <p>VEGF: vascular endothelium growth factor isoforms; FGF: fibroblast growth factor; HGF: Hepatocyte growth factor; SDF-1: stromal cell-derived factor; IGF&#8209;1: Insulin&#8209;like growth factor 1; PDGF: platelet-derived growth factor; G-CSF: granulocyte colony stimulating factor.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Challenges in growth factor formulation</title>
        <p>In the past two decades, intensive research on the mechanisms of cardiac regeneration has resulted in considerable advances in the discovery of therapeutic targets related to several growth factors. These proteins have been evaluated in experimental studies and clinical trials, which have demonstrated the safety and potential efficacy of these factors in the treatment of ischemic heart diseases, particularly myocardial infarction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> However, an important challenge for establishing protein therapy for these diseases is the development of formulation technologies capable of ensuring the reparative mechanisms of these biomolecules and making them clinically viable.</p>
        <p>Aspects related to dosage, route of administration, protein stability and biocompatibility should be considered. The ability of these formulations to incorporate multiple factors also represents a critical issue, considering the multifactorial character of the mechanisms involved in myocardial repair following ischemia. Together, these aspects have been previously reviewed and should guide the rational development of growth factor formulations for protein and/or cell therapy focusing on cardiac generation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Micro- and nanostructured controlled delivery systems show several advantages over conventional formulations that deliver biopharmaceuticals in their free form, usually in an aqueous vehicle for intravenous administration. By permitting a more adequate pharmacokinetic profile to the effects of the active compound, micro- and nanoformulations facilitate patient's adherence to treatment; provide protection to the active ingredient against enzymatic degradation; permit specific targeting to an organ or target-structure; local and controlled delivery of the molecule of interest. Polymeric systems (hydrogels, scaffolds, micro- and nanoparticles)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> and lipid systems (liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> have been used as cardiac delivery platforms of growth factors, which can be obtained from natural biomaterials (collagen/gelatin, fibrin, hyaluronic acid, alginate, chitosan, etc.) and synthetic materials (polyesters, amino acid polymers, polyacrylamide derivatives, and others).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Polyesters such as poly (lactic acid-co-glycolic acid, PLGA) and polycaprolactone (PCL) are polymers approved for the use in drug delivery systems because of their low immunogenic potential and adequate biodegradation profile. Previous studies have demonstrated the biocompatibility of PLGA microparticles with the cardiac tissue and the efficacy of these particles as delivery systems of VEGF in the experimental treatment of myocardial infarction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> Recently, Formiga and colleagues have demonstrated the efficacy of these microparticles as cardiac delivery systems of FGF-1 and NRG-1, ensuring the regenerative effects of these factors in an rat myocardial infarction model.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Perspectives</title>
        <p>Future perspectives for the use of cardioregenerative factors are related to the development of new formulation technologies combined with smart, biocompatible, non-invasive materials. These advances should work as multifunctional structures that combine therapeutic and diagnostic functions in a single micro- or nanostructurated. Additionally, they will allow specific ligand-guided targeting on the material surface. The translational potential of these technologies is predictable, considering the diversity of growth factor-induced regeneration mechanisms. These processes should be explored with more clinical interest both as protein therapy and as adjuvant in stem-cell therapy for cardiac regeneration.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was partially funded by CNPq (461865/2014-9).</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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            <name>
              <surname>Diaz-Herraez</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Abizanda</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sim&#243;n-Yarza</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tamayo</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Biodegradation and heart retention of polymeric microparticles in a rat model of myocardial ischemia</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Pharm Biopharm</source>
          <year>2013</year>
          <volume>85</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>665</fpage>
          <lpage>672</lpage>
        </element-citation>
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        <mixed-citation>62 Formiga FR, Pelacho B, Garbayo E, Imbuluzqueta I, Diaz-Herraez P, Abizanda G, et al. Controlled delivery of fibloblast growth factor-1 and neuregulin-1 from biodegradable microparticles promotes cardiac repair in a rat myocardial infarction model through activation of endogenous regeneration. J Control Release. 2014;173:132-9.</mixed-citation>
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          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Formiga</surname>
              <given-names>FR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pelacho</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Garbayo</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Imbuluzqueta</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Diaz-Herraez</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Abizanda</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Controlled delivery of fibloblast growth factor-1 and neuregulin-1 from biodegradable microparticles promotes cardiac repair in a rat myocardial infarction model through activation of endogenous regeneration</article-title>
          <source>J Control Release</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>173</volume>
          <fpage>132</fpage>
          <lpage>139</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Regenera&#231;&#227;o Card&#237;aca com Fatores de Crescimento: Avan&#231;os e Desafios</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rebou&#231;as</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana de Souza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos-Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Nereide Stela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Formiga</surname>
            <given-names>Fabio Rocha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Imunopatologia Keizo-Asami - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Biologia Celular e Molecular Aplicada - Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Curso de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Patologia (UFBA/FIOCRUZ) - Centro de Pesquisas Gon&#231;alo Moniz, Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Salvador, BA - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Fabio Rocha Formiga</bold>. Centro de Pesquisas Gon&#231;alo Moniz, Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ). Rua Waldemar Falc&#227;o, 121, Candeal. CEP 40296710, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>fabio.formiga@bahia.fiocruz.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Rebou&#231;as JS, Santos-Magalh&#227;es NS, Formiga FR; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Rebou&#231;as JS; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Rebou&#231;as JS, Formiga FR; Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Santos-Magalh&#227;es NS, Formiga FR.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>O infarto do mioc&#225;rdio representa a manifesta&#231;&#227;o mais significativa da cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica e est&#225; associado a elevada morbimortalidade. Novas estrat&#233;gias v&#234;m sendo investigadas com o intuito de regenerar o mioc&#225;rdio lesionado, incluindo a terapia g&#234;nica, a terapia celular e a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de fatores de crescimento. A terapia com fatores de crescimento despertou interesse em medicina cardiovascular, devido aos mecanismos de regenera&#231;&#227;o induzidos por essas biomol&#233;culas, incluindo angiog&#234;nese, remodelamento da matriz extracelular, prolifera&#231;&#227;o de cardiomi&#243;citos e recrutamento de c&#233;lulas-tronco, dentre outros. Em conjunto, tais mecanismos promovem a repara&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio e a melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Esta revis&#227;o pretende abordar o papel estrat&#233;gico da terapia, com fatores de crescimento, para a regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, considerando seu car&#225;ter inovador e multifatorial sobre o reparo do mioc&#225;rdio ap&#243;s dano isqu&#234;mico. Diferentes quest&#245;es ser&#227;o discutidas, destacando-se os mecanismos de regenera&#231;&#227;o como recurso terap&#234;utico potencial mediado por fatores de crescimento e os desafios para tornar essas prote&#237;nas terapeuticamente vi&#225;veis no &#226;mbito da cardiologia e da medicina regenerativa.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>Isquemia Mioc&#225;rdica</kwd>
        <kwd>Remodela&#231;&#227;o Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Pept&#237;deos e Prote&#237;nas de Sinaliza&#231;&#227;o Intercelular</kwd>
        <kwd>Terapia Baseada em Transplante de C&#233;lulas e Tecidos</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) s&#227;o a primeira causa de morte entre homens e mulheres no mundo, entre todos os grupos raciais e &#233;tnicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Nos Estados Unidos, essas enfermidades s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por aproximadamente 57% de todas as mortes no pa&#237;s.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Na Europa, as DCV causam 4.3 milh&#245;es de mortes a cada ano, o que representa quase metade (48%) de todas as mortes nesse continente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> As DCV tamb&#233;m s&#227;o as principais causas de morte no Brasil, com uma taxa de mortalidade espec&#237;fica para doen&#231;as isqu&#234;micas do cora&#231;&#227;o de 53,8 &#243;bitos para cada 100.000 habitantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>No grupo das DCV, a doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) e a doen&#231;a arterial obstrutiva perif&#233;rica (DAOP) s&#227;o importantes causas de morbidade e mortalidade, exigindo procedimento de <italic>bypass</italic> cir&#250;rgico ou angioplastia em milhares de pacientes. Por outro lado, o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IM) representa a manifesta&#231;&#227;o mais significativa da cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica e tamb&#233;m est&#225; associado a elevada morbimortalidade. A isquemia &#233; respons&#225;vel pelo dano ao m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco, incluindo a perda de cardiomi&#243;citos. Esse processo produz um remodelamento negativo do cora&#231;&#227;o causando a substitui&#231;&#227;o do tecido card&#237;aco com fun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til normal por um tecido cicatrizado n&#227;o funcional. O mioc&#225;rdio, ent&#227;o, produz um mecanismo compensat&#243;rio hipertr&#243;fico contra a cicatriza&#231;&#227;o induzida pela isquemia. Entretanto, a hipertrofia pode tornar o cora&#231;&#227;o suscept&#237;vel ao aparecimento de arritmias, fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular e ataque card&#237;aco fulminante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Apesar de os procedimentos avan&#231;ados de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o (angioplastia, cateterismo, bypass) terem contribu&#237;do para uma redu&#231;&#227;o marcante na mortalidade por DCV, um n&#250;mero significativo de pacientes n&#227;o s&#227;o candidatos a esses procedimentos ou alcan&#231;am revasculariza&#231;&#227;o incompleta com tais interven&#231;&#245;es. Consequentemente, muitos desses pacientes apresentam sintomas persistentes de isquemia card&#237;aca, apesar dos cuidados m&#233;dicos intensivos. Eles devem sofrer de doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica severa difusa, a qual n&#227;o pode ser tratada com cirurgia ou angioplastia. A doen&#231;a vascular obstrutiva sintom&#225;tica resulta em claudica&#231;&#227;o, isquemia perif&#233;rica, angina e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva, limitando de maneira significativa a qualidade de vida de tais pacientes.</p>
        <p>O tratamento do IM inclui o uso de f&#225;rmacos (antiplaquet&#225;rios, anticoagulantes orais, nitratos, bloqueadores &#946;-adren&#233;rgicos e inibidores da ECA entre outros), procedimentos de reperfus&#227;o e de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica e, nos casos mais complexos, o transplante de cora&#231;&#227;o. Na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada, houve uma crescente investiga&#231;&#227;o sobre novas estrat&#233;gias para regenerar o mioc&#225;rdio lesionado, incluindo a terapia g&#234;nica,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> a terapia celular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> e a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de fatores de crescimento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Essa &#250;ltima estrat&#233;gia tamb&#233;m tem sido investigada para a indu&#231;&#227;o de angiog&#234;nese terap&#234;utica na doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O uso de fatores de crescimento despertou interesse em medicina cardiovascular devido &#224;s a&#231;&#245;es diretas dos fatores sobre diversas fun&#231;&#245;es celulares como ades&#227;o, prolifera&#231;&#227;o e migra&#231;&#227;o, entre outras. Diante da oclus&#227;o do fluxo arterial coronariano, a indu&#231;&#227;o de angiog&#234;nese por fatores de crescimento representa um importante mecanismo de reparo e prote&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio sob condi&#231;&#245;es de hipoxia, resultando na forma&#231;&#227;o de novos vasos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Consequentemente, produz-se um aumento da perfus&#227;o tecidual gerando, em &#250;ltima inst&#226;ncia, uma melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
        <p>Por outro lado, o potencial regenerativo dos fatores de crescimento ganhou not&#243;ria import&#226;ncia no &#226;mbito da terapia celular. Estudos comprovaram que os benef&#237;cios observados ap&#243;s a aplica&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas tronco na &#225;rea infartada se devem mais ao efeito par&#225;crino dos fatores de crescimento secretados pelas c&#233;lulas implantadas do que pela a a&#231;&#227;o direta das c&#233;lulas no tecido infartado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Esses fatores apresentam o potencial de induzir distintos mecanismos de regenera&#231;&#227;o: remodelamento positivo da matriz extracelular, prolifera&#231;&#227;o de cardiomi&#243;citos adultos, recrutamento/homing de c&#233;lulas tronco card&#237;acas, efeito antiapopt&#243;tico e/ou angiog&#234;nico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Em conjunto, esses mecanismos podem reduzir a inflama&#231;&#227;o, a fibrose e a perfus&#227;o inadequada do mioc&#225;rdio isqu&#234;mico, promovendo repara&#231;&#227;o tecidual e melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Apesar dos mecanismos de regenera&#231;&#227;o tecidual induzidos por fatores de crescimento, o potencial terap&#234;utico dessas prote&#237;nas &#233; limitado pela sua curta meia-vida biol&#243;gica, baixa estabilidade em plasma e pouca especificidade aos &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo. De fato, Hwang e Kloner administraram um coquetel de fatores de crescimento em ratos por via intraperitonial e n&#227;o observaram benef&#237;cios na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, redu&#231;&#227;o do tamanho do infarto ou aumento da vasculariza&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Dessa forma, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica dos fatores de crescimento depende de novas tecnologias de formula&#231;&#227;o capazes de aumentar sua meia-vida, manter sua bioatividade e controlar sua libera&#231;&#227;o local nos tecidos-alvo. Nesse contexto, sistemas micro e nanoestruturados t&#234;m sido utilizados como plataformas de libera&#231;&#227;o de mol&#233;culas bioativas,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> sendo uma estrat&#233;gia de formula&#231;&#227;o promissora para o uso terap&#234;utico de fatores de crescimento no &#226;mbito na regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Esta revis&#227;o pretende abordar o papel estrat&#233;gico da terapia com fatores de crescimento para a regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, considerando seu car&#225;ter inovador e multifatorial sobre o reparo card&#237;aco ap&#243;s um dano isqu&#234;mico.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Mecanismos de regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A capacidade inata de autorregenera&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o humano &#233; insuficiente para compensar a perda de m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco ap&#243;s um dano isqu&#234;mico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Diferentemente do que acontece com o m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, no qual as c&#233;lulas sat&#233;lites e mioblastos formam novos mi&#243;citos em poucos dias ap&#243;s a les&#227;o, cardiomi&#243;citos da zona lim&#237;trofe do infarto raramente se dividem ap&#243;s o evento isqu&#234;mico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Em uma les&#227;o provocada por infarto, o cora&#231;&#227;o perde aproximadamente 50 g de m&#250;sculo, o que pode resultar na morte de 2 bilh&#245;es de cardiomi&#243;citos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Essa agress&#227;o ao mioc&#225;rdio dispara e modula altera&#231;&#245;es reparadoras no tecido, incluindo dilata&#231;&#227;o, hipertrofia e forma&#231;&#227;o de cicatriz de col&#225;geno.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; renova&#231;&#227;o celular, os mecanismos de reparo end&#243;geno s&#227;o insuficientes para induzir renova&#231;&#227;o significativa da massa muscular perdida ap&#243;s o dano isqu&#234;mico.</p>
          <p>A prolifera&#231;&#227;o de cardiomi&#243;citos exerce um papel fundamental na regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca de alguns vertebrados, mas a capacidade proliferativa dessas c&#233;lulas &#233; limitada no cora&#231;&#227;o adulto de mam&#237;feros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Outro potencial mecanismo de renova&#231;&#227;o celular &#233; a mobiliza&#231;&#227;o de progenitores da medula &#243;ssea para a &#225;rea isqu&#234;mica e sua diferencia&#231;&#227;o em cardiomi&#243;citos funcionais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Contudo, a mobiliza&#231;&#227;o e o <italic>homing</italic> desses progenitores tamb&#233;m s&#227;o insuficientes para induzir regenera&#231;&#227;o significativa. O mioc&#225;rdio tamb&#233;m alberga uma popula&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas-tronco card&#237;acas residentes (CSCs) com o potencial para diferenciar-se em cardiomi&#243;citos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> As CSCs parecem ser respons&#225;veis pelo <italic>turnover</italic> basal dos cardiomi&#243;citos, mas tal renova&#231;&#227;o ocorre, provavelmente, em taxas muito reduzidas na aus&#234;ncia de les&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A efic&#225;cia desses mecanismos end&#243;genos de reparo tecidual &#233; limitada pelo microambiente hostil do mioc&#225;rdio infartado, caracterizado por isquemia, inflama&#231;&#227;o, fibrose e angiog&#234;nese inadequada. Esse microambiente deve evitar, por exemplo, a ativa&#231;&#227;o de CSCs. Por outro lado, a inflama&#231;&#227;o excessiva tamb&#233;m evita a mobiliza&#231;&#227;o e o <italic>homing</italic> de progenitores. A forma&#231;&#227;o de tecido fibr&#243;tico &#233; necess&#225;ria para evitar a ruptura muscular ap&#243;s o infarto, mas o alto n&#237;vel de fibrose representa uma importante barreira f&#237;sica para a regenera&#231;&#227;o celular do mioc&#225;rdio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Portanto, a mitiga&#231;&#227;o desse ambiente hostil deve contribuir para o reparo card&#237;aco, principalmente a redu&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o, apoptose e fibrose locais bem como o aumento da vasculariza&#231;&#227;o nas &#225;reas infartadas e peri-infartadas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fatores de crescimento indutores de mecanismos regenerativos</title>
          <p>Angiog&#234;nese se refere ao crescimento de vasos sangu&#237;neos a partir de um leito vascular pr&#233;-existente. Do ponto de vista cl&#237;nico, o objetivo &#233; estimular o crescimento de novos vasos em pacientes sob condi&#231;&#245;es caracterizadas por baixa perfus&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, como as doen&#231;as isqu&#234;micas do cora&#231;&#227;o e doen&#231;as vasculares perif&#233;ricas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Nesse &#250;ltimo aspecto, a identifica&#231;&#227;o de fatores de crescimento indutores do processo angiog&#234;nico estimulou o interesse pela utiliza&#231;&#227;o dessas prote&#237;nas para induzir angiog&#234;nese terap&#234;utica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> No caso do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, a terapia angiog&#234;nica com fatores de crescimento pode salvar o tecido isqu&#234;mico nos est&#225;gios iniciais do infarto, suprindo o tecido com novos vasos. Esse processo &#233; essencial para prevenir a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, mantendo o controle da hipertrofia e contratilidade dos cardiomi&#243;citos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> De fato, a angiog&#234;nese &#233; o principal mecanismo reparador induzido por fatores de crescimento e tem sido o mecanismo mais investigado em estudos experimentais e ensaios cl&#237;nicos para reparar o mioc&#225;rdio lesionado. A maioria desses estudos dedicou seus esfor&#231;os ao potencial angiog&#234;nico e regenerativo das isoformas do fator de crescimento do endot&#233;lio vascular (VEGF)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> e do fator de crescimento de fibroblastos (FGFs).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A mitiga&#231;&#227;o do dano isqu&#234;mico no tecido card&#237;aco pode ser induzida por fatores antiapopt&#243;ticos, os quais exercem efeitos potencialmente cardioprotetores. O fator de crescimento de hepat&#243;cito (HGF) foi inicialmente identificado como um mit&#243;geno de hepat&#243;citos, mas com a&#231;&#245;es quimiot&#225;tica e antiapopt&#243;tica em diferentes tipos celulares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Em ratos submetidos &#224; isquemia e reperfus&#227;o, a administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de HGF reduziu a apoptose em cardiomi&#243;citos e o tamanho do infarto.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Outros fatores antiapopt&#243;ticos com potencial terap&#234;utico na regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca incluem o fator de crescimento derivado de plaquetas (PDGF-BB)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> e a prote&#237;na timosina &#946;4,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> IL-11,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> IL-33,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> dentre outros.</p>
          <p>Mecanismos end&#243;genos mediados por progenitores e c&#233;lulas-tronco incluem a mobiliza&#231;&#227;o e o <italic>homing</italic> de progenitores da medula &#243;ssea bem como a ativa&#231;&#227;o das CSCs. Essas c&#233;lulas podem diferenciar-se em novos cardiomi&#243;citos ap&#243;s o dano isqu&#234;mico, mas s&#227;o numericamente reduzidas ou insuficientemente ativadas para produzir regenera&#231;&#227;o muscular significativa. Algumas prote&#237;nas apresentam o potencial de mobilizar os progenitores da medula &#243;ssea para a &#225;rea da les&#227;o card&#237;aca ou de ativar as CSCs. Essas propriedades podem ser exploradas terapeuticamente como mecanismos de regenera&#231;&#227;o ativados por fatores de crescimento ou prote&#237;nas recombinantes, como o fator estimulante de col&#244;nias de granul&#243;citos (G-CSF),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> HGF,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> o fator derivado de c&#233;lulas estromais-1 (SDF-1),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> dentre outros.</p>
          <p>O paradigma do cora&#231;&#227;o como um &#243;rg&#227;o completamente diferenciado foi contestado a partir da identifica&#231;&#227;o de mit&#243;genos capazes de induzir cardiomi&#243;citos adultos a entrar em ciclo celular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> Tal processo abre a possibilidade para estimular um novo mecanismo de regenera&#231;&#227;o no cora&#231;&#227;o infartado, levando &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de uma popula&#231;&#227;o de novos cardiomi&#243;citos capazes de substituir a massa celular perdida em fun&#231;&#227;o do dano isqu&#234;mico. Tr&#234;s fatores extracelulares foram identificados por sua capacidade de ativar receptores envolvidos na prolifera&#231;&#227;o de cardiomi&#243;citos: o fator de crescimento de fibroblastos &#225;cido (FGF-1),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> neuroregulina-1 (NRG-1)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> e periostina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> O tratamento de ratos infartados com FGF-1 associado a um inibidor da prote&#237;na quinase ativadora mitog&#234;nica (MAPK) p38 resultou em aumento da mitose de cardiomi&#243;citos e melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca dos animais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> Estudos demonstraram a melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca em camundongos infartados tratados com inje&#231;&#245;es di&#225;rias de NRG-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref> resume os mecanismos de regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzidos por fatores de crescimento.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Principais fatores de crescimento indutores de mecanismos de regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Fator</th>
                  <th align="center">Mecanismos</th>
                  <th align="center">Refer&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">VEGF</td>
                  <td align="center">Angiog&#234;nese</td>
                  <td align="center">30-33</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">FGF</td>
                  <td align="center">Angiog&#234;nese</td>
                  <td align="center">31,34-36</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="2">HGF</td>
                  <td align="center">Antiapoptose</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">37,38,44</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Quimiotaxia sobre CSCs</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">SDF-1</td>
                  <td align="center">Mobiliza&#231;&#227;o e homing de c&#233;lulas-tronco hematopoi&#233;ticas</td>
                  <td align="center">45</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">IGF-1</td>
                  <td align="center">Viabilidade e diferencia&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas-tronco e progenitores</td>
                  <td align="center">52</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PDGF</td>
                  <td align="center">Antiapoptose</td>
                  <td align="center">39</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="2">G-CSF</td>
                  <td align="center">Antiapoptose</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">43</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mobiliza&#231;&#227;o e homing de c&#233;lulas-tronco hematopoi&#233;ticas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Intermedina</td>
                  <td align="center">Angiog&#234;nese</td>
                  <td align="center">53</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Angiopoietina</td>
                  <td align="center">Angiog&#234;nese, remodelamento e estabiliza&#231;&#227;o vascular</td>
                  <td align="center">54</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Periostina</td>
                  <td align="center">Prolifera&#231;&#227;o de cardiomi&#243;citos</td>
                  <td align="center">49</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Neuroregulina-1</td>
                  <td align="center">Prolifera&#231;&#227;o de cardiomi&#243;citos</td>
                  <td align="center">47</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Eritropoietina</td>
                  <td align="center">Antiapoptose</td>
                  <td align="center">55</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN02">
                <p>VEGF: Fator de Crescimento do Endot&#233;lio Vascular; FGF: fator de crescimento de fibroblasto; HGF: fator de crescimento de hepat&#243;cito; SDF-1: fator derivado de c&#233;lulas estromais-1; IGF-1: Fator de crescimento semelhante &#224; insulina tipo 1; PDGF: fator de crescimento derivado de plaquetas; G-CSF: fator estimulante de col&#244;nias de granul&#243;citos.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Desafios na formula&#231;&#227;o de fatores de crescimento</title>
          <p>Nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas, a intensa pesquisa sobre os mecanismos de regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca tem resultado em consider&#225;veis avan&#231;os na descoberta de alvos terap&#234;uticos relacionados a diversos fatores de crescimento. Essas prote&#237;nas t&#234;m sido avaliadas em estudos experimentais e ensaios cl&#237;nicos, os quais demonstraram a seguran&#231;a e a efic&#225;cia potencial desses fatores frente a doen&#231;as isqu&#234;micas do cora&#231;&#227;o, particularmente o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> Contudo, um importante desafio para o estabelecimento da terapia proteica em tais enfermidades &#233; o desenvolvimento de tecnologias de formula&#231;&#227;o capazes de garantir os mecanismos reparadores dessas biomol&#233;culas e torn&#225;-las clinicamente vi&#225;veis.</p>
          <p>Aspectos relacionados &#224; dose, via de administra&#231;&#227;o, estabilidade proteica e biocompatibilidade devem ser considerados. A capacidade das formula&#231;&#245;es de incorporar m&#250;ltiplos fatores tamb&#233;m representa um aspecto cr&#237;tico, considerando o car&#225;ter multifatorial dos mecanismos envolvidos no reparo do mioc&#225;rdio ap&#243;s isquemia. Em conjunto, esses aspectos foram previamente revisados e devem guiar o desenvolvimento racional das formula&#231;&#245;es de fatores de crescimento direcionadas &#224; terapia proteica e/ou celular visando &#224; regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Sistemas de libera&#231;&#227;o controlada micro/nanoestruturados apresentam diversas vantagens sobre formula&#231;&#245;es convencionais que disponibilizam f&#225;rmacos ou biomol&#233;culas na sua forma livre, geralmente em um ve&#237;culo aquoso para administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa. Ao permitir um perfil farmacocin&#233;tico mais adequado aos efeitos do composto ativo, as micro/nanoformula&#231;&#245;es facilitam a ades&#227;o do paciente ao tratamento, fornecem prote&#231;&#227;o ao ativo contra degrada&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica, permitem o direcionamento (<italic>targeting</italic>) especifico a um &#243;rg&#227;o ou estrutura alvo e a libera&#231;&#227;o local e controlada da mol&#233;cula de interesse. Sistemas polim&#233;ricos (hidrog&#233;is, scaffolds, micro/nanopart&#237;culas)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> e lip&#237;dicos (lipossomas, nanopart&#237;culas lip&#237;dicas s&#243;lidas)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> t&#234;m sido utilizados como plataformas de libera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca de fatores de crescimento, os quais podem ser obtidos a partir de biomateriais naturais (col&#225;geno/gelatina, fibrina, &#225;cido hialur&#244;nico, alginato, quitosana, etc.) e sint&#233;ticos (poli&#233;steres, pol&#237;meros de amino&#225;cidos, derivados de poliacrilamida e outros).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Poli&#233;steres como o poli ([&#225;cido l&#225;tico-co-&#225;cido glic&#237;lico, PLGA) e a policaprolactona (PCL) s&#227;o pol&#237;meros aprovados para uso em sistemas de libera&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos devido ao seu baixo potencial imunog&#234;nico e adequado perfil de biodegrada&#231;&#227;o. Estudos pr&#233;vios demonstraram a biocompatibilidade de micropart&#237;culas de PLGA com o tecido card&#237;aco e a efic&#225;cia dessas part&#237;culas como sistemas de libera&#231;&#227;o do Fator de Crescimento do Endot&#233;lio Vascular (VEGF) no tratamento experimental do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> Recentemente, foi demonstrada a efic&#225;cia dessas micropart&#237;culas como sistemas de libera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca de FGF-1 e NRG-1, garantindo os efeitos regenerativos desses fatores em um modelo experimental de infarto em ratos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Perspectivas</title>
          <p>As perspectivas futuras para a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de fatores cardioregenerativos est&#227;o relacionadas ao advento de novas tecnologias de formula&#231;&#227;o associadas a materiais inteligentes, biocompat&#237;veis e n&#227;o-invasivos. Tais avan&#231;os devem funcionar como estruturas multifuncionais que combinem fun&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas e de diagn&#243;stico em um &#250;nico complexo micro/nanoestruturado. Al&#233;m disso, permitir&#227;o o <italic>targeting</italic> a um alvo espec&#237;fico guiado por ligante na superf&#237;cie da micro/nanoestrutura. O potencial translacional dessas tecnologias &#233; previs&#237;vel, considerando a diversidade de mecanismos potenciais de regenera&#231;&#227;o induzidos por fatores de crescimento, os quais dever&#227;o ser explorados com maior interesse cl&#237;nico tanto como terapia proteica quanto como adjuvante na terapia com c&#233;lulas-tronco para a regenera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado pelo CNPq (461865/2014-9).</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
