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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.4" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">hCS6dxrwmXzsHPxHw83CMbM</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2016004100163</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2016005016101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20160081</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Cardiac Magnetic Resonance and Computed Tomography in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: an Update</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Diogo Costa Leandro de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Assun&#231;&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Boldrini</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Alair Agusto Sarmet Moreira Damas dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nacif</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Souto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i, Niter&#243;i, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Diogo Costa Leandro de Oliveira,</bold> Rua Gast&#227;o Gon&#231;alves, n 47, apto 701. Postal Code 24240030, Niteroi, RJ &#8211; Brazil E-mail: <email>diogocloliveira@hotmail.com</email>; <email>diogocloliveira@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Santos AASMD, Nacif MS. Acquisition of data:Oliveira DCL, Assun&#231;&#227;o VB, Nacif MS. Analysis and interpretation of the data: Oliveira DCL, Assun&#231;&#227;o VB, Nacif MS. Writing of the manuscript: Oliveira DCL, Assun&#231;&#227;o VB, Nacif MS. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Santos AASMD, Nacif MS.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>10</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>107</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>163</fpage>
      <lpage>172</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common genetic cardiovascular disease and represents the main cause of sudden death in young patients. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) and cardiac computed tomography (CCT) are noninvasive imaging methods with high sensitivity and specificity, useful for the establishment of diagnosis and prognosis of HCM, and for the screening of patients with subclinical phenotypes. The improvement of image analysis by CMR and CCT offers the potential to promote interventions aiming at stopping the natural course of the disease. This study aims to describe the role of RCM and CCT in the diagnosis and prognosis of HCM, and how these methods can be used in the management of these patients.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica</kwd>
        <kwd>Espectroscopia de Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica / uso diagn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Tomografia Computadorizada por Raios X / m&#233;todos</kwd>
        <kwd>Tomografia Computadorizada por Raios X / tend&#234;ncias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is an autosomal dominant disorder that affects 1 in every 500 people.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> It is characterized by ventricular hypertrophy with preserved systolic function, in the absence of other conditions that may cause such changes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> The development of HCM is determined by mutations in genes that codify sarcomeric proteins,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> which cause myocyte disarray and fibrosis that are characteristic of the disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Clinical manifestations of HCM range from asymptomatic patients to sudden death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> HCM is the main cause of sudden death in adolescents, young adults and athletes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Clinically, the main risk factors for sudden death are nonsustained ventricular tachycardia, syncope, familial history of sudden death or aborted sudden death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Other risk factors include left ventricular wall thickness greater than or equal to 30 mm and left ventricular outflow tract obstruction found in echocardiography.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Although the diagnosis of HCM may be established by two-dimensional echocardiography, cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) has been the method of choice in the last years, due to its accuracy for determination of morphology, tissue and functional characterization, and detection of myocardial fibrosis by delayed myocardial enhancement (DME).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Patients with HCM, in use of implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs), cannot be followed-up by CMR, since the presence of ICD implant may be a contraindication for the exam. In this context, cardiac computed tomography (CCT) may be a useful alternative in the assessment and management of these patients.</p>
      <p>This study aimed to provide an updated literature review of current concepts in the use of CMR and CCT for HCM, emphasizing the diagnostic impact of both methods.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Interaction With Echocardiography</title>
        <p>Echocardiography is the most available method to assess morphological and functional changes of HCM. The diagnostic criteria for HCM are left ventricular (LV) wall thickness greater than or equal to 15 mm at the end of diastole, and a septal to lateral wall thickness ratio greater than or equal to 1.3 in a non-dilated left ventricle, and in the absence of other conditions that may explain such abnormality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Although widely available, the method has some limitations in the evaluation of HCM, such as: patients with poor acoustic window, poor visualization of some regions - basal anterolateral wall of left ventricle, cardiac apex and right ventricle (RV).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Both CRM and CCT are three-dimensional, multiplanar methods, with excellent spatial resolution, that have been recognized as important tools for the assessment of HCM patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac Magnetic Resonance</title>
        <p>CMR is an excellent method for the evaluation of HCM, since it precisely determines both the localization and extension of hypertrophy and evaluates ventricular function. The method also allows the detection of mechanisms of obstruction of the LV outflow tract, as well as the establishment of the pressure gradient between the LV outflow tract and the aorta. Other advantages include detection of areas of myocardial fibrosis by DME, diagnosis of apical HCM, and the follow-up of patients undergoing septal ablation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
        <p>CMR is more sensitive than echocardiography in the detection of HCM markers, such as myocardial crypts.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> It can contribute to the preoperative planning of myectomy and quantification of necrotic tissue by alcohol septal ablation. Due to these characteristics, CMR has been considered a method to be routinely used for the establishment of diagnosis and prognosis of HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Genetic variants (genotype)</title>
          <p>HCM is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder that determines mutations in genes that codify sarcomeric proteins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> The most frequent mutations involve beta-myosin heavy chain gene (MYH7), myosin-binding protein C (MYBPC3) and troponin T (TNNT2).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Mutation in MYH7 is associated with earlier manifestations of HCM as compared with MYBPC3<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> gene mutation, whereas TNNT2 gene mutation is more associated with the risk of sudden death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Until recently, the presence of reverse septal curvature was the only change in CMR imaging that indicated mutations in genes that codify sarcomeric proteins. However, studies conducted in 2012 identified deep basal inferoseptal crypts as stronger positive predictors of HCM genotype, since they can be found in 81% of patients who are genotype-positive for HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Besides, the combination of both changes increases the positive predictive value (98%) for mutation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Recent studies have demonstrated that other changes are indicative of the presence of a sarcomere gene mutation, including anterior mitral valve leaflet elongation, abnormal trabeculae and smaller LV systolic cavity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> The identification of these abnormalities allows the detection of individuals who are carriers of mutations, and hence more susceptible to the development of HCM. This information enables the development and implementation of strategies that can change the natural history of HCM,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> as well as the development of new imaging sequences that better characterize such changes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Morphological variants (phenotype)</title>
          <p>The precise characterization of the HCM phenotype is valuable for the establishment of invasive therapies, including septal myectomy and alcohol septal ablation. The HCM phenotype allows the definition of localization and magnitude of hypertrophy,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> and characterization of mitral and submitral apparatus and papillary muscles.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Many morphological variants of HCM have been described using CRM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f1">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Types of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. (A) Normal heart. (B) Sigmoid septum. (C) Reverse septal curvature. (D) Mid-ventricular obstruction without apical aneurysm. (E) Apical. (F) Symmetric. (G) Asymmetric hypertrophy in the lateral wall. (H) Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in right ventricle.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Normal variant</bold> - related to relatives of indiviuals genetically positive for HCM, or those who should be followed up for the risk of developing any other variant throughout life. We should consider the presence of crypts 24, abnormal trabeculation, and anterior mitral valve leaflet elongation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
							</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Asymmetric variant with sigmoid septum</bold> - this is the main presentation of CMH,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> characterized by a myocardium hypertrophy next to the LV outflow tract and the sigmoid septum ("S" shape). This variant may cause subaortic obstruction and mitral regurgitation.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Asymmetric variant with reverse septal curvature</bold> - characterized by a septum hypertrophy as a reversed "S", more distant from the LV outflow tract. This presentation does not cause obstruction to the LV outflow. The identification of this variant by CMR is characterized by a septal/free wall thickness ratio greater than 1.3 in the short-axis plane.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
							</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Variant with mid-ventricular obstruction with or without a left ventricular apical diverticulum</bold> - characterized by a mid-ventricular hypertrophy that causes a local narrowing and, in severe cases, apical dilatation. In approximately 10% of patients, there may be apical aneurysm formation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Apical aneurism is better diagnosed by CRM than echocardiography which, in turn, can fail to detect this change in 10% of cases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
							</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Apical variant</bold> - characterized by obliteration of LV cavity at the apex together with an apical wall thickness greater than 15 mm or a ratio between apical and basal LV wall thicknesses greater than or equal to 1.3-1.5 cm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>. This presentation is considered to have a better prognosis than the other variants, although it has been more associated with ischemia and apical myocardial infarction<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
              <p>
                <fig id="f2">
                  <label>Figure 2</label>
                  <caption>
                    <title>Apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Parietal hypertrophy, predominantly apical, with the &#8216;ace of spades&#8217; sign, described in ventriculography studies. Absence of myocardial fibrosis in the delayed enhancement technique. (A) Cine-magnetic resonance. (B) Ace- of-spades sign by ventriculography and (C) Delayed myocardial enhancement.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
              </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Symmetric (concentric) variant</bold> - characterized by symmetric hypertrophy of LV wall with reduction of LV cavity. This variant may also be present in other disorders, including amyloidosis, sarcoidosis and Fabry's disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
              <p>
                <fig id="f3">
                  <label>Figure 3</label>
                  <caption>
                    <title>Symmetric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Diffuse parietal hypertrophy of left ventricle. (A) Diastole, cine-magnetic resonance and (B) Systole, cine&#8209;magnetic resonance</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
              </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Focal variant</bold> - characterized by hypertrophy located in the myocardium. CMR help distinguishing focal HCM from other cardiac masses, by identifying evidence of myocardial contractility in the former case.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
							</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>HCM in RV</bold> - occurs in 18% of HCM patients, generally involving the mid-and apical portion of the RV. This may cause right ventricular outflow obstruction in severe situations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>. Increased maximum thickness of the right ventricular wall (&gt; 8 mm) has been shown by CMR in approximately 20% of HCM patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Areas with increased wall thickness are commonly observed in the insertion of the right ventricular wall into anterior and posterior septum, although the entire RV may be involved.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Assessment of ventricular mass</title>
          <p>LV hypertrophy is currently one of the clinical requirements for HCM diagnosis, and is associated with poorer prognosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> However, comparative studies of genotypes and phenotypes involved in HCM have reported that varied LV wall thickness may be found in patients with HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A reliable, accurate, quantitative analysis of LV wall thickness is fundamental, since a measurement greater than 30 mm increases the risk of sudden death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Therefore, this may be a crucial information for the implant of ICD to prevent sudden death in some patients. Measurements of LV wall thickness should be performed in the short-axis plane, at the end of diastole.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> LV mass, quantified by CMR (indexed for body surface area), greater than 2 standard deviations above the normal range is considered a sensitive predictor of favorable clinical outcomes in HCM. The normal range for LV mass index is 62.5 &#177; 9.0 g/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> for men and 54.6 &#177; 12.0 g/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> for women.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> However, the measurement of LV mass lacks specificity as an indicator of clinical outcomes, probably because in many HCM patients, hypertrophy is limited to a small number of segments of the left ventricle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
					</p>
          <p>CMR is more accurate than echocardiography in diagnosing ventricular hypertrophy, its magnitude and distribution.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> For this reason, the method is decisive for stratifying the risk of HCM. In addition, CMR provides a better evaluation of hypertrophy distribution, especially when it is localized in the anterolateral region, and in posterior and apical septum of LV,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> and a more reliable quantification of the myocardial mass in case of asymmetric hypertrophy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Assessment of systolic and diastolic mass and function by Simpson&#8217;s technique and time-volume. (A) Quantification of left ventricular mass, function and volume. (B) Volume-vs.-time curves and left ventricular mass with variation lower than 5%. (C) Quantification of cine-magnetic resonance during systole and diastole.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Quantification of myocardial fibrosis</title>
          <p>Myocardial fibrosis can be detected by delayed enhancement CMR. This method is based on the property of gadolinium to distribute in the extracellular space between normal and fibrotic tissue, leaving the latter tissue in a slower rate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
					</p>
          <p>There is no standard of reference for DME in HCM, although its presence in the interventricular septum, particularly in the mid- and basal anteroseptal segment, is suggestive of HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> DME can also occur in LV free wall and hypertrophied segments of the ventricles. These data indicate that analysis of the segments by delayed enhancement CMR is an important parameter for differential diagnosis of HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					</p>
          <p>DME is found in 65% of patients and the distribution of fibrosis typically follows a multifocal, heterogeneous and mid-wall pattern.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> DME is not commonly found in non-hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, except in advanced stages of the disease, and can be associated with increased myocardial stiffness and reverse remodeling of the left ventricle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Studies have demonstrated an inverse relationship between DME and LV function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
					</p>
          <p>The presence of DME predicts a worse prognosis for HCM patients due to higher risk of sudden death, systolic dysfunction and nonsustained ventricular tachycardia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Areas of DME may represent the substrate for malignant ventricular tachyarrhythmias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>). Delayed enhancement CMR is a supporting tool in the decision-making process for primary prevention ICDs in patients in whom high-risk for sudden death remains uncertain after assessment of conventional risk factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f5">
              <label>Figure 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Asymmetric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Asymmetric parietal hypertrophy with septal predominance. Presence of important myocardial fibrosis in the mid anteroseptal segment (white) in the delayed enhancement technique. (A) Cine-magnetic resonance and (B) Delayed myocardial enhancement.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>DME technique consists in the intravenous administration of approximately 0.2mmo/kg of gadolinium-based contrast at 1-2 mL/s. Acquisition of images may be started 10 minutes after contrast infusion, at multiple inversion times (TI Scout), which allows the use of a proper TI to null the myocardial signal (typically between 200 and 300 s). DME images (1 cm-sections) are acquired in the short-axis plane, from the base to the apex of the heart, using a T1-weighted inversion recovery gradient-echo sequence. Images in two- and four-chamber plane were also acquired, for better visualization of apical disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f6">
              <label>Figure 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>End-stage hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Diffuse parietal hypertrophy, and hypertrophy in both ventricules, associated with dilation and important dysfunction. Presence of well-defined myocardial fibrosis (white) in delayed enhancement technique. (A) Cine-magnetic resonance and (B) Delayed myocardial enhancement.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Recent studies<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> have pointed out that the presence of either extensive late enhancement or late enhancement in the interventricular septum and right ventricular anterior and posterior insertions may be a biomarker of sudden death. Patients in this situation should be classified as high risk. We recommend that quantification of myocardial fibrosis should be performed with visual assessment.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Analysis of diastolic dysfunction</title>
          <p>Diastolic dysfunction in HCM results from abnormal dissociation of actin and myosin filaments during diastole, mainly in its early active phase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> It can be measured by time-volume curve obtained from cine-magnetic resonance imaging<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 7</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f7">
              <label>Figure 7</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Assessment of (derivative) volume curves to quantify diastolic dysfunction (A) Preserved relationship between rapid filling phase and atrial contraction curves. Rapid filling time was 580 ms and atrial contraction occurred in 900 ms. (B) Type I diastolic dysfunction with atrial contraction amplitude greater than rapid filling. In this case, rapid filling time was 375 ms and atrial contraction occurred in 615 ms.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf07.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Diastolic function can also be evaluated by in-plane phase-contrast CMR imaging, with direct measurement of diastolic relaxation of cardiac muscle. This, in turn, may be obtained by the assessment of LV strain and recovery rates during diastole,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> yielding the values of fast relaxation (E') and slow relaxation (A'). In hypertrophied segments, the early diastolic filling velocity is reduced, and there is a decrease in the rate of LV relaxation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Mitral valve flow velocity and pulmonary artery flow velocity can also be estimated by through-plane phase contrast, allowing the calculation of pressure gradient and flow velocity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Analysis of transmitral flow enables the estimation of early ventricular filling velocity (E-wave) and peak flow velocity at atrial contraction (A-wave). Mild diastolic dysfunction is characterized by a reduction of E/A ratio. As the dysfunction progresses, there is a pseudonormalization and subsequent increase in the E/A ratio, which represents the restrictive physiology of diastolic dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Use of myocardial tagging (MT)</title>
          <p>Myocardial tagging (MT) is an excellent non-invasive tool for quantifying regional diastolic and systolic myocardial function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Quantification of global myocardial dysfunction is not sensitive to detect small reductions in regional ventricular performance, which may occur even in normal LV ejection.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> In this context, MT has emerged as a technique that allows the definition of subclinical myocardial dysfunction (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 8</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f8">
              <label>Figure 8</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Myocardial tagging for quantification of systolic and diastolic function in left ventricle. (A) Subendocardial, mesocardial and epicardial trace. (B) Global radial strain. (C) Segmental circumferential strain.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf08.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>MT evaluates myocardial deformation during the cardiac cycle. The most used method is a coordinate system,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> which takes into account three axes of myocardial contraction: radial, circumferential, and longitudinal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
					</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Radial strain</bold> - describes myocardial stiffness, oriented toward the central long axis of the left ventricle.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Circumferential strain</bold> - describes circumferential shortening of myocardium, in the short-axis plane, tangential to the epicardial wall.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Longitudinal strain</bold> - represents LV shortening from the base to the apex, in the long-axis plane.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Myocardial rotation</bold> - represents the analysis of mid-myocardial deformation, in degrees, in the short-axis plane during systole or diastole. In a normal cardiac cycle, myocardial rotation is generated by a clockwise rotation of the base and a counterclockwise rotation of the apex during systole. During diastole, the opposite rotation to the normal position promotes the release of potential energy stored, and a suction force in the left ventricle during isovolumic relaxation. A change in the rotation pattern may be used to detect subtle systolic and diastolic dysfunctions in many cardiac diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Myocardial twist (in degrees) can be calculated as the diference between apical and basal rotation during all cardiac cycle. We can calculate torsion (in degrees per cm) as a type of twist normalization by ventricular longitudinal length. Also, the peak of systolic or diastolic rotation, twist and torsion, can be also calculated, but they are only used in scientific studies.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Assessment of the LV outflow track</title>
          <p>Obstruction of LV outflow tract (induced or at rest) is found in approximately 70% of patients with HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> During systole, LV outflow is hampered by basal septal hypertrophy and displacement of the papillary muscles and mitral leaflets.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Obstruction of LV outflow with a maximum gradient at rest greater than 30 mmHg is a strong predictor of sudden death. In this case, interventions to reduce such gradient, including septal miectomy and alcohol septal ablation by catheterization, may be justified.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Two-D transthoracic echocardiography is currently the method of choice for anatomic assessment and flow measurement in case of LV outflow obstruction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> However, CMR enables a more accurate evaluation of the mitral valve structure, including changes in the papillary muscle anatomy.</p>
          <p>Although the quantification of the LV outflow obstruction gradient may be performed by CMR, it still represents a challenge, since it requires an accurate image plane alignment to prevent the loss of high-velocity areas. Besides, the presence of turbulent outflow causes signal loss and phase error.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> New sequences in ultrashort echo time CMR imaging have been currently used and may make the evaluation of LV outflow obstruction easier and more reliable.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Assessment of myocardial ischemia</title>
          <p>Myocardial ischemia caused by microvascular disease is an etiopathogenic hypothesis for the development of HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> For this reason, the tests for myocardial ischemia represent a valuable tool for event risk stratification.</p>
          <p>Myocardial perfusion techniques using gadolinium administration via an infusion pump during pharmacologic stress and at rest are excellent methods for the diagnosis of subendocardial ischemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> The early detection of ischemia before cardiac remodeling may represent a promising therapeutic target that can change the natural history of HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Contraindications and limitations</title>
          <p>CMR imaging in HCM patients depends on the technical quality of image acquisition and requires interpretation of the images by experienced physicians.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> The method has some relative and absolute contraindications, which have been reassessed every year. This includes the performance of CMR in patients with pacemaker, ICD, brain clips, cochlear implants, and metallic fragments in the eyes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Today, the test can be performed in some pacemakers and patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Limitations of CRM include nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (which causes systemic tissue fibrosis and is associated with the use of gadolinium in patients with stage 4 and 5 chronic renal failure) and patients with hepatorenal syndrome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> In addition, it is worth mentioning that, despite the increase in accessibility to the CRM, the test is available in a small number of centers.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac Computed Tomography</title>
        <p>CCT provides a clear delineation of the myocardium and accurate measurement of cardiac wall thickness, ventricular volumes, and LV mass ejection fraction, which are well correlated with the CMR findings. Additionally, CCT allows the assessment of coronary arteries and cardiac valves. The European Guidelines on HCM recommends that CCT should be considered in patients with poor acoustic window for echocardiography or contraindications for CMR (class IIa).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <p>CCT has a wide range of clinical applications due to anatomic and functional properties. However, they are indicated only in case of diagnostic doubt, poor acoustic window to perform echocardiography or contraindications to perform CMR. Therefore, CCT is rarely used as the first method of choice for patients with HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
					<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> describes the main clinical applications of CCT in HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
				</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Clinical applicability of computed tomography in the assessment of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>
								</th>
                <th>
                  <bold>Parameters</bold>
                </th>
                <th>
                  <bold>Clinical applicability</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="5">Ventricles</td>
                <td align="center">Diameters / volumes</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="4">Indicated in case of diagnostic doubt</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Wall thickness</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Global systolic function</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Regional systolic function</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Diastolic function</td>
                <td align="center">Not indicated</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">Atriums</td>
                <td align="center">Volumes</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">Indicated in case of diagnostic doubt</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Function</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">Valves</td>
                <td align="center">Systolic anterior motion</td>
                <td align="center">It may be indicated</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Mitral regurgitation</td>
                <td align="center">Not indicated. It may be used only for static evaluations, such as valve planimetry and morphological characterization.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pharmacological stress</td>
                <td align="center">Ischemia / perfusion defects</td>
                <td align="center">It may be indicated especially in combination with anatomical features of coronary arteries</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">Coronary</td>
                <td align="center">Luminal reduction</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">Deve ser utilizada</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">CAD</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pressures / Velocities</td>
                <td align="center">Gradients</td>
                <td align="center">Not indicated</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fibrosis</td>
                <td align="center">Delayed myocardial enhancement</td>
                <td align="center">It may be used in case cardiac magnetic resonance is contraindicated</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN01">
              <p>Adapted from Nagueh et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>. CAD: coronary artery disease.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <sec>
          <title>Delayed myocardial enhacement</title>
          <p>Since the demonstration that CCT allows the visualization of fibrotic areas in patients with acute myocardial infarction similarly with CMR,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> a similar DME technique has been developed to identify fibrosis in HCM patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> Studies have shown a good correlation between DME by CCT and DME by MCR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>
					</p>
          <p>DME technique should be performed in multidetector computed tomography scans, capable to connect cardiac acquisition to electrocardiography. This is the case of some of the 16-channel multidetector scanner and most of the 64-channel devices. Iodinated contrast (150 mL) is intravenously administered by automatic injector at 3 mL/s. Seven minutes later, the images are acquired in retrospective ECG-synchronized helical mode, during a 10-second breath-holding, and rebuilt during the same diastolic cycle.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Contraindications and limitations</title>
          <p>In comparison with CMR, CCT has inferior temporal resolution and soft tissue characterization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Radiation exposure from a 64-channel computed tomography scanner (mean of 6.7 &#177; 2.07 mSv)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> is a drawback of the method as compared with CMR. Nevertheless, the development of new techniques and CCT scanners involving lower radiation doses may provide safer conditions for myocardial fibrosis investigation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Perspectives</title>
        <sec>
          <title>T1 mapping by CMR</title>
          <p>Conventional techniques to assess DME that evaluates the presence of focal myocardial fibrosis may underestimate the distribution and extension of fibrosis. The technique of T1 mapping is more sensitive to detect fibrotic areas, since it amplifies regional variations in gadolinium distribution, making it easier to detect diffuse interstitial myocardial fibrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Recent studies have demonstrated that HCM genotype- and phenotype- positive patients, and genotype-positive / phenotype-negative patients have increased levels of biomarkers of collagen deposition. This indicates that increased levels of profibrotic markers are also found in patients without ventricular hypertrophy, suggesting that hypertrophy is preceded by fibrosis process.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> In this case, T1 mapping may be used at the initial phase of HCM for the early detection of diffuse myocardial fibrosis in these patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Today, the modified Look-Locker inversion recovery (MOLLI) has been the most studied sequence for the assessment of T1 mapping. MOLLI uses electrocardiogram-gated image acquisition at end-diastole and merges 11 images in a 17-heartbeat breathhold. Many protocols have been published and may be used in the assessment of interstitial myocardial fibrosis by CMR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Recently, Nacif et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> have developed a method to quantify interstitial fibrosis by CCT that may be useful in HCM.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Spectroscopy</title>
          <p>Spectroscopy by 31 P-CMR may be used to assess the energy status in the myocardial tissue. Patients with HCM have decreased myocardial energy status that directly correlates with extension of hypertrophy and severity of diastolic function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> Limitations of spectroscopy include prolonged scanning time, low spatial resolution and requirement of dedicated surface coils.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Aortic stiffness</title>
          <p>The assessment of aortic stiffness may be an important parameter for risk stratification in HCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> Studies have demonstrated that HCM patients have increased aortic stiffness, especially those with myocardial fibrosis detected by DME technique.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>HCM is the most common genetic cardiovascular disease with potential for high mortality, since it is the most common cause of sudden death in young patients. The development and improvement of imaging analysis by CMR and CCT has enabled the early establishment of diagnosis and prognosis of HCM. In the future, interventions aimed at stopping the natural history of the disease can be made. Both CMR and CCT are validated as methods with high sensitivity and specificity, with few contraindications and minimal risks of adverse effects, and should be used in the management of patients with HCM.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Diogo Costa Leandro de Oliveira, from Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF) Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica e Tomografia Computadorizada Card&#237;aca na Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica: Atualidades</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Diogo Costa Leandro de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Assun&#231;&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Boldrini</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Alair Agusto Sarmet Moreira Damas dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nacif</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Souto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i, Niter&#243;i, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Diogo Costa Leandro de Oliveira,</bold> Rua Gast&#227;o Gon&#231;alves, n 47, apto 701. CEP 24240030, Niteroi, RJ &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>diogocloliveira@hotmail.com</email>; <email>diogocloliveira@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Santos AASMD, Nacif MS. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Oliveira DCL, Assun&#231;&#227;o VB, Nacif MS. An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Oliveira DCL, Assun&#231;&#227;o VB, Nacif MS. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Oliveira DCL, Assun&#231;&#227;o VB, Nacif MS. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Santos AASMD, Nacif MS.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) &#233; a doen&#231;a gen&#233;tica cardiovascular mais comum e representa a principal causa de morte s&#250;bita em pacientes jovens. A Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Card&#237;aca (RMC) e a Tomografia Computadorizada Card&#237;aca (TCC) s&#227;o m&#233;todos de imagem n&#227;o invasivos de alta sensibilidade e especificidade, &#250;teis no diagn&#243;stico e no estabelecimento do progn&#243;stico de CMH, e no rastreamento de indiv&#237;duos com fen&#243;tipos subcl&#237;nicos. O aperfei&#231;oamento da an&#225;lise da RMC e TCC tem grande potencial para promover interven&#231;&#245;es com o objetivo de impedir o curso natural da doen&#231;a. O presente estudo tem por objetivo descrever o papel da RMC e TCC no diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico da CMH, e como essas ferramentas podem auxiliar no manejo cl&#237;nico de pacientes portadores dessa doen&#231;a.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica</kwd>
        <kwd>Espectroscopia de Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica / uso diagn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Tomografia Computadorizada por Raios X / m&#233;todos</kwd>
        <kwd>Tomografia Computadorizada por Raios X / tend&#234;ncias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) &#233; uma doen&#231;a gen&#233;tica autoss&#244;mica dominante que acomete 1 em cada 500 pessoas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> &#201; caracterizada pela hipertrofia ventricular com fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica preservada e disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, na aus&#234;ncia de condi&#231;&#245;es que possam produzir tais altera&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> O desenvolvimento da CMH &#233; determinado pela exist&#234;ncia de muta&#231;&#245;es em genes que codificam prote&#237;nas do sarc&#244;mero.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Essas prote&#237;nas alteradas promovem um desarranjo dos mi&#243;citos e o desenvolvimento de fibrose caracter&#237;stica desta doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
				</p>
        <p>As manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas variam desde pacientes assintom&#225;ticos at&#233; morte s&#250;bita.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> A CMH &#233; a principal causa de morte s&#250;bita em adolescentes, adultos jovens e atletas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Os principais fatores de risco para morte s&#250;bita s&#227;o, clinicamente, taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada, s&#237;ncope, hist&#243;ria familiar de morte s&#250;bita ou de morte s&#250;bita abortada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Ecocardiograficamente, a espessura da parede do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) maior ou igual 30 mm e a obstru&#231;&#227;o do fluxo de sa&#237;da do VE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> tamb&#233;m s&#227;o fatores de risco.</p>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico pode ser realizado por ecocardiografia bidimensional. Nos &#250;ltimos anos, entretanto, tem-se optado pela resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) no estabelecimento do diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico de portadores de CMH, pois &#233; mais precisa na determina&#231;&#227;o da morfologia, caracteriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual e funcional e na detec&#231;&#227;o de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica pela t&#233;cnica do realce tardio mioc&#225;rdico (RTM).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Os pacientes portadores de CMH com cardiodesfibriladores implant&#225;veis (CDI) n&#227;o podem ser acompanhados por RMC, uma vez que a presen&#231;a do dispositivo pode ser contraindica&#231;&#227;o para realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame. Neste contexto, a tomografia computadorizada card&#237;aca (TCC) surge como aux&#237;lio na condu&#231;&#227;o e avalia&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes.</p>
        <p>Este trabalho tem por objetivo destacar os atuais conceitos acerca da utiliza&#231;&#227;o da RMC e da TCC na CMH, ressaltando os impactos diagn&#243;sticos de ambos os m&#233;todos, a partir de uma revis&#227;o da literatura.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>A Intera&#231;&#227;o com a Ecocardiografia</title>
          <p>Atualmente, a ecocardiografia &#233; o m&#233;todo mais dispon&#237;vel para acessar as altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas e funcionais da CMH. Os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para CMH s&#227;o a espessura da parede do VE maior ou igual 15 mm no final da di&#225;stole e uma rela&#231;&#227;o da espessura da parede septal pela lateral maior ou igual a 1,3 em um VE n&#227;o dilatado e na aus&#234;ncia de outras condi&#231;&#245;es que possam explicar tal anormalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Apesar de ser amplamente dispon&#237;vel, o m&#233;todo possui algumas limita&#231;&#245;es na avalia&#231;&#227;o de CMH, tais como: o limitante da janela ac&#250;stica dos pacientes, a dificuldade na visualiza&#231;&#227;o da parede anterolateral basal do VE, do &#225;pice card&#237;aco e do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD) e a subestima&#231;&#227;o da espessura da parede ventricular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> A RMC e a TCC por serem m&#233;todos tridimensionais, multiplanares e de excelente resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial, se imp&#245;em como ferramentas importantes para melhor avalia&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A RMC &#233; um excelente m&#233;todo na avalia&#231;&#227;o da CMH uma vez que determina de forma mais precisa a localiza&#231;&#227;o e a extens&#227;o da hipertrofia e avalia a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. O m&#233;todo ainda permite a detec&#231;&#227;o de mecanismos de obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE e o estabelecimento do gradiente press&#243;rico entre a via de sa&#237;da do VE e a aorta. Outras vantagens s&#227;o a detec&#231;&#227;o de &#225;reas de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica pela t&#233;cnica do RTM, o diagn&#243;stico da forma apical da CMH, e o seguimento de pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o septal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A RMC &#233; mais sens&#237;vel que o ecocardiograma na detec&#231;&#227;o de marcadores da doen&#231;a, como as criptas mioc&#225;rdicas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Pode auxiliar no planejamento pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de miectomia e pode quantificar o tecido necrosado pela abla&#231;&#227;o alco&#243;lica septal. Todas essas caracter&#237;sticas fazem com que a RMC, atualmente, seja considerada uma ferramenta a ser utilizada de rotina no estabelecimento do diagn&#243;stico e do progn&#243;stico da CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
					</p>
          <sec>
            <title>Variantes gen&#233;ticas (gen&#243;tipo)</title>
            <p>A CMH &#233; uma doen&#231;a gen&#233;tica autoss&#244;mica dominante que determina muta&#231;&#245;es em genes que codificam prote&#237;nas do sarc&#244;mero.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> As muta&#231;&#245;es mais frequentes envolvem o gene da cadeia pesada da betamiosina (MYH7), a prote&#237;na C ligada &#224; miosina (MYBPC3) e a troponina T (TNNT2).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> A muta&#231;&#227;o de MYH7 est&#225; associada ao desenvolvimento mais precoce da CMH do que a muta&#231;&#227;o do MYBPC3<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> e a muta&#231;&#227;o TNNT2 est&#225; mais associada ao risco de morte s&#250;bita.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
						</p>
            <p>At&#233; pouco tempo, a presen&#231;a do septo de contorno reverso era a &#250;nica altera&#231;&#227;o na RMC capaz de, isoladamente, indicar muta&#231;&#245;es em genes de prote&#237;nas sarcom&#233;ricas. Entretanto, estudos de 2012 identificaram a presen&#231;a de profundas criptas na regi&#227;o basal inferoseptal na RMC como preditores positivos mais fortes para o gen&#243;tipo de CMH, uma vez que s&#227;o encontradas em 81% dos pacientes com apenas o gen&#243;tipo positivo para CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Al&#233;m disso, quando combinadas as duas altera&#231;&#245;es, o valor preditivo positivo para a presen&#231;a de muta&#231;&#227;o torna-se ainda mais elevado (98%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
						</p>
            <p>Estudos mais recentes demonstraram que outras altera&#231;&#245;es indicativas da presen&#231;a de muta&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o: alongamento do folheto anterior da valva mitral, trabecula&#231;&#227;o anormal e um menor di&#226;metro da cavidade ventricular durante a s&#237;stole.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> A identifica&#231;&#227;o de tais altera&#231;&#245;es permite detectar indiv&#237;duos carreadores das muta&#231;&#245;es e, portanto, mais suscept&#237;veis ao desenvolvimento de CMH. Esse dado permite o desenvolvimento e a aplica&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias que possam mudar a hist&#243;ria natural da CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Al&#233;m disso, permite o desenvolvimento de novas sequ&#234;ncias de imagem que caracterizem melhor tais altera&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Variantes morfol&#243;gicas (fen&#243;tipo)</title>
            <p>A caracteriza&#231;&#227;o precisa dos fen&#243;tipos da CMH &#233; de grande utilidade no estabelecimento de terapias invasivas como miectomia e abla&#231;&#227;o alco&#243;lica septal. O fen&#243;tipo da CMH permite definir a localiza&#231;&#227;o e a magnitude da hipertrofia,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> assim como caracterizar o aparato mitral, submitral e os m&#250;sculos papilares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> M&#250;ltiplas variantes morfol&#243;gicas de CMH foram descritas por meio da RMC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f9">
                <label>Figura 1</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Representa&#231;&#227;o dos tipos de cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica. (A) Cora&#231;&#227;o normal. (B) Septo sigmoide. (C) Septo reverso. (D) Obstru&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dio-ventricular sem aneurisma apical. (E) Hipertr&#243;fica apical. (F) Sim&#233;trica. (G) Assim&#233;trica focal na parede lateral. (H) Cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica com comprometimento do ventr&#237;culo direito.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
            <list list-type="alpha-lower">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Variante "normal"</bold> - Relacionado a familiares ou indiv&#237;duos em estratifica&#231;&#227;o para CMH com gene positivo ou que devem ser acompanhados pois ir&#227;o desenvolver alguma outra variante ao longo da vida. Devemos atentar para presen&#231;a de criptas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>, trabecula&#231;&#227;o anormal e alongamento do folheto anterior da valva mitral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Variante assim&#233;trica com septo de contorno sigm&#243;ide</bold> - &#201; a principal forma de apresenta&#231;&#227;o da CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Caracteriza-se por uma hipertrofia do mioc&#225;rdio pr&#243;ximo &#224; via de sa&#237;da do VE e um septo sigm&#243;ide (formato de S). Essa variante pode determinar obstru&#231;&#227;o suba&#243;rtica e uma regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Variante assim&#233;trica com septo de contorno reverso</bold> - &#201; caracterizada por um septo hipertrofiado mais distante da via de sa&#237;da de VE, no formato de um "S" reverso. Esta variante n&#227;o causa obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE. A caracteriza&#231;&#227;o desta variante pela RMC d&#225;-se pela presen&#231;a de uma rela&#231;&#227;o da medida da parede livre pela parede septal maior que 1,3 no eixo curto card&#237;aco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
								</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Variante com obstru&#231;&#227;o medio-ventricular com ou sem divert&#237;culo apical de VE</bold> - &#201; caracterizada por uma hipertrofia na regi&#227;o m&#233;dia da cavidade ventricular determinando um estreitamento local que, em casos mais graves, pode originar uma dilata&#231;&#227;o apical. Em cerca de 10% dos pacientes pode haver forma&#231;&#227;o de aneurismas apicais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Os aneurismas apicais s&#227;o melhor diagnosticados por RMC, uma vez que o ecocardiograma pode falhar em cerca de 10% das vezes em se detectar tal atera&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
								</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Variante apical</bold> - &#201; caracterizada pela oblitera&#231;&#227;o do VE em &#225;pice card&#237;aco e por uma espessura de parede apical maior que 15 mm ou uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre as espessuras das paredes apical e basal de VE maior ou igual a 1,3-1,5 cm.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> &#201; considerada de melhor progn&#243;stico que as outras variantes morfol&#243;gicas, apesar de estar mais associada ao desenvolvimento de isquemias e infartos do mioc&#225;rdio apicais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
                <p>
                  <fig id="f10">
                    <label>Figura 2</label>
                    <caption>
                      <title>Cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica apical. Hipertrofia parietal predominante no &#225;pice com o sinal do &#8220;&#225;s de espadas&#8221;, descrito nos estudos de ventriculografia. Aus&#234;ncia de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica na t&#233;cnica do realce tardio. (A) Cine-resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica. (B) Sinal do &#8220;&#225;s de espadas&#8221; na ventriculografia e (C) Realce mioc&#225;rdico tardio.</title>
                    </caption>
                    <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
                </p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Variante sim&#233;trica (conc&#234;ntrica)</bold> - caracterizada por hipertrofia sim&#233;trica da parede de VE ocasionando redu&#231;&#227;o de sua cavidade. Este padr&#227;o de hipertrofia pode ser encontrado em outras doen&#231;as como amiloidose, sarcoidose e doen&#231;a de Fabry<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
                <p>
                  <fig id="f11">
                    <label>Figura 3</label>
                    <caption>
                      <title>Cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica sim&#233;trica. Hipertrofia parietal difusa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. (A) Di&#225;stole, cine-resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica e (B) S&#237;stole, cine-resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica RM.</title>
                    </caption>
                    <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
                </p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Variante focal</bold> - Caracterizada por uma hipertrofia localizada no mioc&#225;rdio. A RMC ajuda a diferenciar CMH focal de massas intracard&#237;acas, pois &#233; poss&#237;vel evidenciar padr&#227;o contr&#225;til na primeira situa&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
								</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>CMH em Ventr&#237;culo direito (VD)</bold> - corresponde a 18% dos pacientes com CMH, envolvendo, em geral, a por&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia e apical de VD e podendo ocasionar obstru&#231;&#227;o de via de sa&#237;da de VD em situa&#231;&#245;es graves.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> A RMC demonstrou aumento da espessura m&#225;xima da parede do VD (&gt; 8 mm) em cerca de 20% de pacientes com CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> &#193;reas com aumento da espessura s&#227;o mais comuns na inser&#231;&#227;o da parede do VD no septo anterior e posterior, mas o envolvimento de todo o VD pode ocorrer.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>An&#225;lise da massa ventricular</title>
            <p>A hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) consiste em um dos requisitos cl&#237;nicos atuais para o diagn&#243;stico de CMH, e est&#225; associada a um pior progn&#243;stico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Entretanto, estudos comparativos entre gen&#243;tipos determinantes de CMH e fen&#243;tipos desta doen&#231;a demonstraram que a CMH pode existir em qualquer espessura de VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
						</p>
            <p>An&#225;lises quantitativas confi&#225;veis e precisas da espessura da parede do VE s&#227;o importantes, pois uma medida maior que 30 mm aumenta o risco de morte s&#250;bita.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Por isso, esse pode ser um dado suficiente para a indica&#231;&#227;o de CDI para a preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de morte s&#250;bita em alguns pacientes. As medidas da espessura da parede de VE devem ser realizadas no eixo curto card&#237;aco e no fim da di&#225;stole.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
						</p>
            <p>A massa do VE quantificada pela RMC (indexada para superf&#237;cie corporal) maior que 2 desvios padr&#227;o acima dos intervalos normais &#233; considerado preditor sens&#237;vel de desfechos cl&#237;nicos desfavor&#225;veis em CMH. Os intervalos normais para o &#237;ndice de massa do VE s&#227;o para os homens de 62,5 &#177; 9,0 g/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> e de 54,6 &#177; 12,0 g/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> para mulheres.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Apesar disso, a medida da massa do VE como indicador de desfechos cl&#237;nicos carece de especificidade, e isso provavelmente acontece porque v&#225;rios pacientes com CMH apresentam hipertrofia que se limita a um n&#250;mero pequeno de segmentos do VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
						</p>
            <p>A RMC oferece melhor precis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica que o ecocardiograma na defini&#231;&#227;o da hipertrofia ventricular, da sua magnitude e da sua distribui&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> e, por esse motivo, &#233; determinante na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco da CMH. A RMC avalia melhor a distribui&#231;&#227;o da hipertrofia, principalmente quando localizada na regi&#227;o anterolateral, septo posterior e apical de VE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> e quantifica a massa mioc&#225;rdica de forma mais fidedigna nos casos em que a hipertrofia &#233; assim&#233;trica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f12">
                <label>Figura 4</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da massa e da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica pelas t&#233;cnicas de Simpson e tempo-volume. (A) Quantifica&#231;&#227;o de massa, funcional e volum&#233;trica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. (B) Curvas de volume pelo tempo e da massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo com uma variabilidade inferior a 5%. (C) Quantifica&#231;&#227;o na cine-resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica durante di&#225;stole e s&#237;stole.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Quantifica&#231;&#227;o da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica</title>
            <p>A fibrose mioc&#225;rdica pode ser detectada pela RMC pela t&#233;cnica do RTM. Essa t&#233;cnica baseia-se na propriedade do gadol&#237;nio em se distribuir de forma extracelular entre o tecido normal e o tecido fibr&#243;tico, ocorrendo uma sa&#237;da bem mais lenta desse &#250;ltimo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
						</p>
            <p>N&#227;o h&#225; um padr&#227;o de RTM especifico na CMH, por&#233;m sua presen&#231;a no septo interventricular, principalmente nos segmentos anteroseptal m&#233;dio e basal, &#233; sugestiva de CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Outros locais comuns s&#227;o a parede livre do VE e os segmentos hipertrofiados dos ventr&#237;culos. Esses dados permitem concluir que an&#225;lise dos segmentos com RTM &#233; um importante par&#226;metro para o diagn&#243;stico diferencial na CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
						</p>
            <p>O RTM est&#225; presente em 65% dos pacientes, e a distribui&#231;&#227;o da fibrose segue tipicamente um padr&#227;o multifocal, heterog&#234;neo e mesoc&#225;rdico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>. O RTM n&#227;o &#233; comum nos segmentos n&#227;o hipertr&#243;ficos, exceto nos casos avan&#231;ados da doen&#231;a. Este pode ser associado com aumento da rigidez mioc&#225;rdica e o remodelamento reverso do VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Estudos t&#234;m demonstrado uma rela&#231;&#227;o inversamente proporcional entre a presen&#231;a do RTM e a fun&#231;&#227;o de VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
						</p>
            <p>A presen&#231;a do RTM determina pior progn&#243;stico aos pacientes com CMH devido ao maior risco de morte s&#250;bita, disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> As &#225;reas com RTM representariam o substrato para gera&#231;&#227;o de taquiarritmias ventriculares malignas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 5</xref>). O RTM por RMC atua como ferramenta auxiliar na decis&#227;o de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria com CDI em pacientes em que o alto risco de morte s&#250;bita permanece incerto ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o dos fatores de risco convencionais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
						</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f13">
                <label>Figura 5</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica assim&#233;trica. Hipertrofia parietal assim&#233;trica com predom&#237;nio septal. Presen&#231;a de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica importante no segmento anteroseptal medial (branco) na t&#233;cnica do realce tardio. (A) Cine-resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica e (B) Realce mioc&#225;rdico tardio.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf05-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>A t&#233;cnica do RTM consiste na administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de aproximadamente 0,2 mmol/kg de contraste &#224; base de gadol&#237;nio a uma velocidade de 1-2 ml/s. A aquisi&#231;&#227;o da imagem pode ser iniciada 10 minutos ap&#243;s a infus&#227;o do contraste, com a sequ&#234;ncia obtida com m&#250;ltiplos tempos de invers&#227;o (TI Scout), a qual permite a sele&#231;&#227;o de um TI que anule o sinal do mioc&#225;rdio (tipicamente entre 200 e 300 ms). As imagens do RTM s&#227;o adquiridas no eixo curto da base ao &#225;pice com cortes de 1 cm usando a sequ&#234;ncia gradiente echo com invers&#227;o de recupera&#231;&#227;o pesada em T1 (<italic>T1-weighted inversion recovery gradient-echo sequence</italic>). Tamb&#233;m s&#227;o adquiridas imagens no plano de duas e quatro c&#226;maras, para ajudar a visualiza&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a apical<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 6</xref>).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f14">
                <label>Figura 6</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica em fase final. Hipertrofia parietal difusa e de ambos os ventr&#237;culos, associada &#224; dilata&#231;&#227;o e disfun&#231;&#227;o importante. Presen&#231;a de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica difusa bem definida (branco) na t&#233;cnica do realce tardio. (A) Cine-resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica e (B) Realce mioc&#225;rdico tardio.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf06-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>Estudos recentes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> colocam o realce tardio extenso ou localizado no septo interventricular e nas inser&#231;&#245;es anterior e posterior do ventr&#237;culo direito como um biomarcador de morte s&#250;bita, devendo o paciente ser classificado como de alto risco. Sugerimos que toda a quantifica&#231;&#227;o da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica seja realizada de forma quantitativa e com corre&#231;&#227;o visual.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>An&#225;lise da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica</title>
            <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica na CMH ocorre por dissocia&#231;&#227;o anormal dos filamentos de actina e miosina em toda a di&#225;stole, principalmente na sua fase ativa precoce.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Pode ser aferida por imagens de Cine-RM pelo tra&#231;ado das curvas de volume/tempo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 7</xref>).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f15">
                <label>Figura 7</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o das curvas de volume (derivativas) para quantifica&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. (A) Rela&#231;&#227;o entre a curva de enchimento r&#225;pido e contra&#231;&#227;o atrial preservada. O tempo para o enchimento r&#225;pido foi de 580 ms e a contra&#231;&#227;o atrial ocorreu em 900 ms. (B) Disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica tipo I com a amplitude da contra&#231;&#227;o atrial maior do que o enchimento r&#225;pido. Nesse caso, o tempo para o enchimento r&#225;pido foi de 375 ms e a contra&#231;&#227;o atrial ocorreu em 615 ms.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf07-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>A RMC tamb&#233;m pode avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica por meio da t&#233;cnica de contraste de fase (<italic>in-plane phase contrast</italic>), com medida direta do relaxamento diast&#243;lico do m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco. Esse, por sua vez, pode ser obtido pela avalia&#231;&#227;o da taxa de deforma&#231;&#227;o e recupera&#231;&#227;o do VE durante a di&#225;stole<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> gerando os valores de velocidade de relaxamento r&#225;pido (E') e velocidade de relaxamento lento (A'). Em segmentos hipertrofiados, a velocidade de enchimento na di&#225;stole precoce estar&#225; reduzida e ocorrer&#225; uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na taxa de relaxamento do VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
						</p>
            <p>As velocidades de fluxo atrav&#233;s da valva mitral e da art&#233;ria pulmonar tamb&#233;m podem ser estimadas pela t&#233;cnica de contraste de fase (<italic>through plane phase contrast</italic>), permitindo o c&#225;lculo dos gradientes de press&#227;o e velocidades de fluxo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> A an&#225;lise do fluxo transmitral permite mensurar a velocidade de enchimento r&#225;pido ventricular (onda E) e a velocidade m&#225;xima do fluxo dependente da contra&#231;&#227;o atrial (onda A). A disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica leve manifesta-se com a redu&#231;&#227;o da rela&#231;&#227;o E/A. Com a progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o, h&#225; pseudonormaliza&#231;&#227;o e subsequentemente aumento da rela&#231;&#227;o E/A, o que representa fisiologia restritiva dessa disfun&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Utiliza&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Tagging</italic> Mioc&#225;rdico (TM)</title>
            <p>O TM &#233; uma excelente ferramenta n&#227;o invasiva para quantificar a fun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica diast&#243;lica e sist&#243;lica regional.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> A quantifica&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica global n&#227;o &#233; sens&#237;vel em detectar pequenas redu&#231;&#245;es na performance ventricular regional, que pode ocorrer mesmo com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Dessa forma, o TM tem se destacado como uma t&#233;cnica que permite definir disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica subcl&#237;nica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 8</xref>).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f16">
                <label>Figura 8</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Tagging mioc&#225;rdico para quantifica&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. (A) Tra&#231;ado da malha subendoc&#225;rdica, mesoc&#225;rdica e epic&#225;rdica. (B) Global radial strain. (C) Segmental circumferential strain.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-02-0163-60081-gf08-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>O TM avalia a deforma&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio durante todo o ciclo card&#237;aco. A avalia&#231;&#227;o &#233; feita usando um sistema de coordenadas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> O mais utilizado, leva em considera&#231;&#227;o tr&#234;s eixos de deforma&#231;&#227;o: o circunferencial, o radial e o longitudinal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
						</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Strain (deforma&#231;&#227;o) radial -</bold> Descreve o espessamento do mioc&#225;rdico em uma dire&#231;&#227;o radial que aponta para o centro do VE.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Strain (deforma&#231;&#227;o) circunferencial -</bold> Descreve o encurtamento circunferencial mioc&#225;rdico, no plano do eixo curto card&#237;aco, em uma dire&#231;&#227;o tangencial ao epic&#225;rdio.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Strain (deforma&#231;&#227;o) longitudinal -</bold> representa o encurtamento do VE da base em dire&#231;&#227;o ao &#225;pice card&#237;aco no eixo longo do VE.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Rota&#231;&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica -</bold> representa a an&#225;lise da deforma&#231;&#227;o quantificada em graus da por&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia da parede mioc&#225;rdica em um corte de eixo curto durante a s&#237;stole ou di&#225;stole. Em um ciclo card&#237;aco normal, durante a s&#237;stole, um corte na base card&#237;aca possui rota&#231;&#227;o no sentido hor&#225;rio e o &#225;pice card&#237;aco no anti-hor&#225;rio quando vistos do &#225;pice card&#237;aco. J&#225; na di&#225;stole, o retorno ao posicionamento normal gera libera&#231;&#227;o de energia potencial acumulada promovendo uma for&#231;a de suc&#231;&#227;o no interior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo na fase de relaxamento isovolum&#233;trico. Uma altera&#231;&#227;o do padr&#227;o de rota&#231;&#227;o pode ser usada para detectar disfun&#231;&#245;es sit&#243;licas e diast&#243;licas sutis ou subcl&#237;nicas em diversas condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>. <bold>Twist</bold> (em graus) pode ser calculado como a diferen&#231;a entre os &#226;ngulos de rota&#231;&#227;o apical e basal durante todo o ciclo card&#237;aco. Como uma forma de normaliza&#231;&#227;o do Twist pelo comprimento do ventr&#237;culo, podemos calcular a <bold>Tor&#231;&#227;o</bold> (em graus por cm). Os picos de rota&#231;&#227;o, twist e tro&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ou diast&#243;lica podem ser calculados, mas ainda s&#227;o utilizados apenas em pesquisa cl&#237;nica.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE</title>
            <p>A obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE induzida ou em repouso est&#225; presente em aproximadamente 70% dos casos de CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> Durante a s&#237;stole, o fluxo de sa&#237;da do VE &#233; dificultado pela presen&#231;a de hipertrofia septal basal e por um deslocamento dos m&#250;sculos papilares e do folheto anterior da valva mitral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
						</p>
            <p>A obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE com o gradiente m&#225;ximo de repouso acima de 30 mmHg &#233; um forte preditor de morte s&#250;bita. Nesse caso, interven&#231;&#245;es para a redu&#231;&#227;o do gradiente, como a miectomia septal ou abla&#231;&#227;o alco&#243;lica por cateter, podem ser justificadas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
						</p>
            <p>A ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica 2D &#233; o atual m&#233;todo de avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica e mensura&#231;&#227;o de fluxo nos casos de obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Por&#233;m, a RMC de forma mais completa permite a avalia&#231;&#227;o precisa do aparelho valvar mitral, incluindo as varia&#231;&#245;es da anatomia dos m&#250;sculos papilares.</p>
            <p>A quantifica&#231;&#227;o do gradiente de obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE &#233; fact&#237;vel pela RMC, por&#233;m ainda &#233; um desafio, pois &#233; necess&#225;rio um alinhamento preciso do plano da imagem para evitar a perda da &#225;rea com maior velocidade. Al&#233;m disso, a presen&#231;a de fluxo turbulento causa perda de sinal e erros de fase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Novas sequ&#234;ncias na RMC com tempos de eco ultracurtos est&#227;o atualmente sendo realizadas e podem tornar a avalia&#231;&#227;o da obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE mais f&#225;cil e confi&#225;vel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica</title>
            <p>A isquemia mioc&#225;rdica gerada por doen&#231;a microvascular constitui uma hip&#243;tese etiopatog&#234;nica para o desenvolvimento de CMH<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> e por essa raz&#227;o, os testes de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica s&#227;o uma ferramenta de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de evento para a doen&#231;a.</p>
            <p>As t&#233;cnicas de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica por infus&#227;o de gadol&#237;nio por bomba injetora durante o estresse farmacol&#243;gico e em repouso s&#227;o excelentes e podem ser utilizadas para o diagn&#243;stico de isquemia subendoc&#225;rdica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> A detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de isquemia antes do in&#237;cio do remodelamento card&#237;aco pode representar o alvo terap&#234;utico com potencial favor&#225;vel a alterar a hist&#243;ria natural da CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Contraindica&#231;&#245;es e limita&#231;&#245;es</title>
            <p>A realiza&#231;&#227;o da RMC em pacientes com CMH depende da qualidade t&#233;cnica na obten&#231;&#227;o de imagens e necessita que tais imagens sejam interpretadas por m&#233;dicos experientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> A RMC possui algumas contraindica&#231;&#245;es, absolutas e relativas, que s&#227;o reavaliadas todos os anos. Entre elas est&#225; a realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame em pacientes portadores de marcapasso, de CDI, de clipes cerebrais, de implantes cocleares e fragmentos met&#225;licos nos olhos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Atualmente, alguns marcapassos e pacientes selecionados podem realizar estudos de RMC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
						</p>
            <p>Inclui-se nas limita&#231;&#245;es ao m&#233;todo, a fibrose nefrog&#234;nica sist&#234;mica (FNS), doen&#231;a que causa fibrose tecidual sist&#234;mica e est&#225; associada ao uso do gadol&#237;nio em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica (IRC) em est&#225;gio 4 e 5 e em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome hepatorrenal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> Al&#233;m das limita&#231;&#245;es j&#225; citadas, cabe ressaltar que, apesar do aumento da acessibilidade ao m&#233;todo, ainda s&#227;o poucos os servi&#231;os que disponibilizam esse tipo de exame e de avalia&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tomografia Computadorizada Card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A TCC oferece clara delinea&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio e mensura&#231;&#227;o precisa da espessura da parede, dos volumes ventriculares, da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e da massa do VE, os quais se correlacionam bem com os achados da RMC. A TCC tamb&#233;m permite a avalia&#231;&#227;o das art&#233;rias coronarianas e das v&#225;lvulas card&#237;acas. O guia europeu de miocardiopatia hipertr&#243;fica determina que a TCC deve ser considerada em pacientes com CMH que possuem janela ac&#250;stica inadequada &#224; ecocardiografia e que tem contraindica&#231;&#227;o para RMC (classe IIa).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Por sua capacidade anat&#244;mica e funcional, a TCC tem in&#250;meras aplica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>). Por&#233;m, essas devem ser realizadas somente na exist&#234;ncia de d&#250;vida diagn&#243;stica por outros m&#233;todos, incapacidade de janela ac&#250;stica pelo ecocardiograma ou contraindica&#231;&#245;es para a realiza&#231;&#227;o da RMC. Desta forma, raras vezes a TCC ser&#225; realizada como primeiro m&#233;todo na abordagem de pacientes com CMH. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">tabela 1</xref> descreve as principais aplicabilidades da TCC na CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
					</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica da tomografia computadorizada na avalia&#231;&#227;o de cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="10%"/>
                <col width="45%"/>
                <col width="45%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>
									</th>
                  <th>
                    <bold>Par&#226;metros</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th>
                    <bold>Aplicabilidade</bold>
                  </th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="5" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">Ventr&#237;culos</td>
                  <td align="center">Di&#226;metros / volumes</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="4">Caso d&#250;vida diagn&#243;stica, pode ser realizada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Espessura da parede</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica global</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica regional</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">Fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica</td>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">N&#227;o deve ser utilizada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">&#193;trios</td>
                  <td align="center">Volumes</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">Caso d&#250;vida diagn&#243;stica pode ser realizada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">Fun&#231;&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">V&#225;lvulas</td>
                  <td align="center">Movimento sist&#243;lico anterior</td>
                  <td align="center">Pode ser utilizada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">Regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral</td>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">N&#227;o deve ser utilizada. A TCC pode ser utilizada apenas em avalia&#231;&#245;es est&#225;ticas como planimetria valvar e caracteriza&#231;&#227;o morfol&#243;gica.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <td>Estresse Farmacol&#243;gico</td>
                  <td align="center">Isquemia / defeito de perfus&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">Pode ser utilizada principalmente na avalia&#231;&#227;o conjunta com os dados anat&#244;micos das coron&#225;rias</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">Coron&#225;ria</td>
                  <td align="center">Redu&#231;&#227;o luminal</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">Deve ser utilizada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">DAC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <td>Press&#245;es / Velocidades</td>
                  <td align="center">Gradientes</td>
                  <td align="center">N&#227;o deve ser utilizada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-style:solid; border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <td>Fibrose</td>
                  <td align="center">Realce Tardio Mioc&#225;rdico</td>
                  <td align="center">Pode ser utilizada caso paciente n&#227;o tenha possibilidade de realizar RMC</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN02">
                <p>Adaptado de Nagueh et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>. DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <sec>
            <title>Realce mioc&#225;rdico tardio</title>
            <p>A partir da demonstra&#231;&#227;o de que a TCC permite visualizar &#225;reas de fibrose em pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio assim como a RMC,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> foi desenvolvida uma t&#233;cnica de RTM semelhante para identificar fibrose pela TCC em pacientes com CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> Os estudos mostraram boa correla&#231;&#227;o do RTM da TCC com o RMT da RMC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>
						</p>
            <p>A t&#233;cnica do RTM deve ser realizada em aparelhos multidetectores que possuam capacidade de acoplar a aquisi&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca ao eletrocardiograma (ECG) como em alguns aparelhos de 16 canais e a maioria dos aparelhos com mais de 64 canais. Administra-se 150 mL de contraste iodado intravenoso, por meio de um injetor autom&#225;tico a uma velocidade de 3 mL/s. Ap&#243;s 7 minutos, s&#227;o adquiridas as imagens, de maneira helicoidal, utilizando sincroniza&#231;&#227;o retrospectiva, auxiliado por uma pausa respirat&#243;ria de 10 segundos e reconstru&#237;das no mesmo momento diast&#243;lico.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Contraindica&#231;&#245;es e limita&#231;&#245;es</title>
            <p>A TCC tem resolu&#231;&#227;o temporal inferior e n&#227;o tem a capacidade de caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de tecidos moles da RMC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> A exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o pela TCC em aparelhos de 64 canais (m&#233;dia de 6,7 &#177; 2,07 mSv)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> &#233; uma desvantagem em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; RMC. Por&#233;m, o desenvolvimento de novas t&#233;cnicas e tom&#243;grafos com doses de radia&#231;&#227;o mais baixas poder&#227;o oferecer uma maior seguran&#231;a na investiga&#231;&#227;o da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Perspectivas</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Mapa T1 pela RMC</title>
            <p>As t&#233;cnicas convencionais de avalia&#231;&#227;o do RTM que envolvem a an&#225;lise da presen&#231;a de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica focal podem subestimar a distribui&#231;&#227;o e a extens&#227;o da fibrose. A t&#233;cnica de Mapa T1 &#233; mais sens&#237;vel em detectar &#225;reas de fibrose por amplificar varia&#231;&#245;es regionais na distribui&#231;&#227;o do gadol&#237;nio, tornando f&#225;cil a detec&#231;&#227;o de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica intersticial difusa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
						</p>
            <p>Estudos recentes demonstraram que pacientes com gen&#243;tipo e fen&#243;tipos positivos para CMH e pacientes com apenas o gen&#243;tipo positivo para CMH possu&#237;am n&#237;veis elevados de marcadores de dep&#243;sito de col&#225;geno. Isso demonstra que mesmo aqueles que n&#227;o possuem hipertrofia ventricular apresentam n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de marcadores profibr&#243;ticos elevados, sugerindo que o processo de fibrose anteceda ao de hipertrofia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Nesse caso, o Mapa T1, ao permitir a detec&#231;&#227;o mais precoce de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica difusa, poder&#225; ajudar no manejo cl&#237;nico desses pacientes ainda na fase inicial da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
						</p>
            <p>A sequ&#234;ncia atualmente mais estudada para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do mapa T1 chama-se MOLLI (Modified Look-Locker Inversion-recovery). Essa sequ&#234;ncia &#233; adquirida acoplada ao eletrocardiograma em pulsos prospectivos no final da di&#225;stole, e representa a mescla de 11 imagens que demoram aproximadamente 17 batimentos card&#237;acos e uma apneia para serem totalmente geradas. Muitos outros protocolos j&#225; est&#227;o sendo publicados e podem ser utilizados para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fibrose intersticial mioc&#225;rdica pela RMC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
						</p>
            <p>Recentemente, Nacif et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> desenvolveram um modelo de quantifica&#231;&#227;o de fibrose intersticial pela TCC que poder&#225; auxiliar na CMH.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Espectroscopia</title>
            <p>A espectroscopia pela RMC com f&#243;sforo-31 pode ser usada para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do estado energ&#233;tico do tecido mioc&#225;rdico. Pacientes com CMH tem uma diminui&#231;&#227;o do perfil energ&#233;tico mioc&#225;rdico que se correlaciona diretamente com a extens&#227;o da hipertrofia e a gravidade da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> Limita&#231;&#245;es da espectroscopia incluem o tempo prolongado do escaneamento, a resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial baixa e a exig&#234;ncia de bobinas de superf&#237;cie exclusivas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Rigidez a&#243;rtica</title>
            <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da rigidez a&#243;rtica pode representar um importante par&#226;metro para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco na CMH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> Estudos t&#234;m demonstrado que pacientes com CMH apresentam rigidez a&#243;rtica aumentada, que &#233; mais pronunciada nos pacientes com fibrose mioc&#225;rdica detectada pela t&#233;cnica do RTM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>A CMH &#233; a doen&#231;a gen&#233;tica cardiovascular mais comum e apresenta grande potencial de mortalidade, uma vez que &#233; a causa mais comum de morte s&#250;bita em pacientes jovens. O desenvolvimento e o aperfei&#231;oamento da an&#225;lise de imagens tanto pela RMC como pela TCC permitem estabelecer, com significativa precis&#227;o, o diagn&#243;stico e o progn&#243;stico cada vez mais precoce. Dessa forma, no futuro, interven&#231;&#245;es poder&#227;o ser realizadas para impedir o curso natural da doen&#231;a. A RMC e TCC est&#227;o validadas como ferramentas de alta sensibilidade e especificidade, com poucas contraindica&#231;&#245;es e m&#237;nimos riscos de efeitos adversos e devem ser utilizadas no manejo de pacientes com CMH.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Diogo Costa Leandro de Oliveira pelo Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF) Niter&#243;i, RJ Brasil.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
