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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">tN64TZCqkF84MxxDKkfnLfC</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2016004000063</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2016005015102</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20160079</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Carlos Chagas Discoveries as a Drop Back to Scientific Construction of Chronic Chagas Heart Disease</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bestetti</surname>
            <given-names>Reinaldo B.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Restini</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina Baraldi A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Couto</surname>
            <given-names>Luc&#233;lio B.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Ribeir&#227;o Preto, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Reinaldo B. Bestetti</bold>, Universidade de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Av. Cost&#225;bile Romano, 2201. Postal Code 14096-000 - Ribeir&#226;nia, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>rbestetti44@gmail.com</email>; <email>rbestetti@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA. Acquisition of data: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA, Couto LB. Analysis and interpretation of the data: Bestetti RB. Writing of the manuscript: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA, Couto LB. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA, Couto LB. Supervision / as the major investigador: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>24</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>107</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>63</fpage>
      <lpage>70</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>01</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>The scientific construction of chronic Chagas heart disease (CCHD) started in 1910 when Carlos Chagas highlighted the presence of cardiac arrhythmia during physical examination of patients with chronic Chagas disease, and described a case of heart failure associated with myocardial inflammation and nests of parasites at autopsy. He described sudden cardiac death associated with arrhythmias in 1911, and its association with complete AV block detected by Jacquet's polygraph as Chagas reported in 1912. Chagas showed the presence of myocardial fibrosis underlying the clinical picture of CCHD in 1916, he presented a full characterization of the clinical aspects of CCHD in 1922. In 1928, Chagas detected fibrosis of the conductive system, and pointed out the presence of marked cardiomegaly at the chest X-Ray associated with minimal symptomatology. The use of serological reaction to diagnose CCHD was put into clinical practice in 1936, after Chagas' death, which along with the 12-lead ECG, revealed the epidemiological importance of CCHD in 1945. In 1953, the long period between initial infection and appearance of CCHD was established, whereas the annual incidence of CCHD from patients with the indeterminate form of the disease was established in 1956. The use of heart catheterization in 1965, exercise stress testing in 1973, Holter monitoring in 1975, Electrophysiologic testing in 1973, echocardiography in 1975, endomyocardial biopsy in 1981, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging in 1995, added to the fundamental clinical aspects of CCHD as described by Carlos Chagas.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Chagas Disease / history</kwd>
        <kwd>Chagas Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
        <kwd>Arrhythmias, Cardiac</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Carlos Chagas</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Chagas disease affects about 6 million people in 21 countries of Latin American, where about 70 million people are at risk of acquiring the disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> The disease has been spread throughout the world because of immigration, with a global annual cost of about US 1 billion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Chagas disease is caused by the protozoan <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi,</italic> and is transmitted to humans through the feces of a hemipteran insect. Many years after infection, about 20% of patients develop chronic Chagas heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> This manuscript presents the history of the scientific construction of this heart disease from its discovery until modern days, emphasizing the main facts that contributed to the expansion of its knowledge over time. We do not allude to its pathophysiology, which is still debatable,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> or treatment aspects because they are not yet fully understood. Only studies published in full were added to the reference list.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Chagas' period of study of the disease (1909-1934)</title>
      <p>Carlos Chagas discovered the disease that bears his name in 1909. Details of this fascinating scientific achievement is described elsewhere.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> As early as 1910, Chagas emphasized the importance of the abnormalities in the cardiac rhythm found in some patients with chronic disease. Having into account data obtained in an autopsy case along with clinical findings, he suggested the existence of heart involvement in patients with chronic Chagas disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
			</p>
      <p> Chagas emphasized the notorious presence of premature ventricular contractions (PVC) during physical examination, and stressed the presence of AV block, detected by Jacquet's polygraph (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>) since electrocardiogram was not available at that time in Brazil, as a cause of abnormalities in cardiac rhythm. He presented the case of a patient with heart failure who was found to have nests of parasites accompanied by interstitial mononuclear cell infiltration in the myocardium at autopsy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
			</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Original simultaneous jugular venous tracing (A), brachial artery tracing (B), and apexcardiogram (C) obtained with a Jacquet&#8217;s polygraph between 1910 and 1914 by Chagas team. Note a transitory second-degree AV block (arrows). The resting ECG was unavailable at that time in Brazil. a: A wave of the jugular pulse; c: C wave of the jugular pulse. Courtesy of Fundo Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Se&#231;&#227;o Hospital Evandro Chagas, Acervo Casa de Oswaldo Cruz.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-01-0063-60079-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>In 1911, Chagas stated that such frequent episodes of arrhythmia on physical examination in individuals under 50 years were not observed outside endemic regions. In addition, he described the case of a patient with frequent PVC on physical examination who died suddenly; at autopsy, nests of parasites surrounded by severe mononuclear cell infiltration were found. Therefore, he suggested that PVC on physical examination could herald sudden death in the cardiac form of the chronic disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In 1912, Chagas highlighted that disturbances in the cardiac conductibility could also be associated with sudden death. Furthermore, Chagas drew attention to a new fact: heart failure was the predominant clinical manifestation of the cardiac form, despite the presence of abnormalities in cardiac rhythm on physical examination. In addition, he pointed out the existence of profound bradycardia in some patients to the point of naming it "slow pulse disease".<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> It is outstanding that such a clinical picture - arrhythmias and conduction disturbances in young people - was completely different from the heart diseases known at that time.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In 1916, Chagas provided new findings on the histological aspects of patients with chronic Chagas heart disease. In addition to having mononuclear cell infiltration, he stated that all patients with this condition had important myocardial interstitial sclerosis (i.e fibrosis). Furthermore, Chagas ascribed the clinical picture of chronic Chagas heart disease- heart failure and arrhythmias- to these underlying myocardial lesions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In 1922, Chagas described the clinical characteristics of 62 patients with chronic Chagas heart disease studied from 1910 to 1921. Fifty patients (80%) had concomitant goiter, which might account, at least in part, for the fact that Chagas ascribed the same etiology to both conditions. A recent historical reappraisal suggests a relationship between both conditions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Palpitations and dyspnea were the most frequent complaints, and dysrhythmias, cardiac enlargement, and splitting of the second heart sound were frequently detected upon physical examination.</p>
      <p>The cause of arrhythmias detected on physical examination by Jacquet's polygraph was PVC in 32 patients (51%), and atrioventricular AV block (second or third degree) in 20 (32%). In a time where serological reaction was not routinely available, such abnormalities in physical examination led Chagas to suggest their presence as a useful tool for the diagnosis of chronic Chagas heart disease. Heart failure was detected in 26 patients (42%). There were 16 deaths (16%); 50% of which were sudden. Of the sudden death cases, four were associated with advanced AV block. Thus, by 1922, Chagas had fully characterized the clinical and the morphological aspects of chronic Chagas heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In 1928, with the availability of chest X-ray, Chagas could show a marked enlargement of the cardiac silhouette in a patient with only mild pedal edema, reinforcing the hallmark characteristic of heart failure in areas where the disease was endemic. Furthermore, Chagas provided histological pictures of patients with this condition for the first time, clearly showing the importance of inflammation and fibrosis in the myocardial and conductive tissue in the pathogenesis of chronic Chagas heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In 1930, Evandro Chagas (Carlos Chagas' son) suggested the presence of right bundle branch block, which would be frequently diagnosed in patients with chronic Chagas heart disease in the following years, and that this intraventricular conduction disturbance could be associated with unfavorable prognosis in patients with the cardiac form of American Trypanosomiasis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Also in 1930, by using a serological reaction to confirm the diagnosis, Villela<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> reported several patients with chronic Chagas heart disease in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, which was far from Lassance, the place where Chagas described the disease, thus suggesting that the disease could have a great epidemiological impact.</p>
      <p>In 1931, Evandro Chagas documented the relentless progress of chronic Chagas heart disease with the use of the 3-lead ECG and chest X-ray, as Chagas had repeatedly stated based on clinical grounds. In 1934, taking into account the clinical course of the disease together with the histological abnormalities mentioned earlier, Chagas raised the possibility of an autoimmune mechanism in the pathogenesis of chronic Chagas heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Thus, by 1934, Chagas had described the clinical picture with its peculiarities, including the presence of cardiac rhythm abnormalities to raise diagnostic suspicion, electrocardiographic abnormalities using Jacquet's polygraph, radiological features, detailed anatomopathological aspects, and possible pathogenetic mechanism of chronic Chagas heart disease. Apart from that, he had also described the etiology, vector, and reservoir of Chagas disease. The relentless progressive characteristic of the disease and its ominous prognosis were also apparent. Undoubtedly, it was the best that a scientist could do at that time.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Forgetting a potential tragedy</title>
      <p>In view of Carlos Chagas' work depreciation in Brazil and in Argentina, mainly at the School of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, National Academy of Medicine,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> and Medical and Surgery Society of Rio de Janeiro,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Chagas disease fell into oblivion of the medical profession following Chagas' death in 1934. It was no longer taught in medical schools.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> As a result, it was rarely diagnosed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The chronic phase of the disease started to be routinely diagnosed through serological reactions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> By 1935, Chagas disease had already been recognized in at least four states of Brazil. In addition, the disease had also been detected in seven countries in Latin America, specially in Argentina.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The disease regains credit in Brazil (1940-1945)</title>
      <p>An important point in the construction of the clinical knowledge of chronic Chagas heart disease was the widespread use of the fixation complement test to make the serological diagnosis of the chronic disease. It was first reported by Guerreiro and Machado in 1913, but was considered impractical for widespread use for technical reasons.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> In 1936, Kelser<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> modified the original fixation-complement reaction using antigens from artificial cultures of <italic>T.cruzi</italic>, which made it more stable. This made such reaction be used routinely in the diagnosis of chronic Chagas disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Therefore, based on the clinical picture made up by Carlos Chagas years before, particularly in the presence of severe arrhythmias in young people originated from endemic areas, physicians started suspecting of chronic Chagas heart disease in several parts of Brazil, using either the xenodiagnosis or the serological reaction to confirm the diagnosis of this condition.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The Bambui period (1945-1956)</title>
      <p>The Bambui center (Minas Gerais state) greatly contributed to the determination of prevalence, incidence, and clinical course of Chagas disease in a large, unselected population of patients with this condition, by performing a systematic electrocardiographic survey in such patients, thus showing the enormous epidemiological importance of chronic Chagas heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In 1945, Dias et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> reported the clinical findings of 90 new cases of chronic Chagas heart disease in Bambui. They emphasized the association of permanent splitting of the second heart sound in the pulmonary auscultation focus on physical examination - a sign already described by Chagas - with the presence of right bundle branch block in the resting ECG; lack of pulmonary vessel congestion in the presence of marked cardiomegaly in the chest X-Ray; high prevalence of 1<sup>st</sup> degree AV block, highlighting its appearance early in the course of the disease and the importance of right bundle branch block observed in the 12-lead ECG for the diagnosis of this condition. Furthermore, they observed a marked left axis deviation of the QRS complex, later on diagnosed as left anterior hemiblock, associated with right bundle branch block. Dias et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> also drew attention to the variability of T wave inversion, disappearance of R wave in V4-V6 leads in association with left ventricular apical aneurysm, and the variability of QRS complexes and T waves from one tracing to another in cases of complete AV block.</p>
      <p>The intermittence of complete AV block was described by Magalh&#227;es and Freire<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> in 1945. A case of chronic heart failure with complete AV block complicated by pulmonary infarction was also reported for the first time in this year.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> In 1947, Pellegrino<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> reproduced the clinical picture of chronic heart failure associated with the presence of right bundle branch block in the resting ECG of dogs chronically infected with T.cruzi. This fact lent support to the clinical picture described by Chagas and to those who were being reported by other authors at that time.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> In the same year, Rodovalho et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> emphasized the concomitance of left and right-sided heart failure in patients with chronic Chagas heart disease.</p>
      <p>In 1948, Chiaverini<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> reported his experience with 429 inpatients in S&#227;o Paulo state with chronic heart disease, showing that chronic Chagas heart disease was the most frequent cause of heart disease in that hospital cohort, and that right bundle branch block was found more frequently in patients with this condition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Also in 1948, Barros<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> observed that patients with chronic Chagas heart disease in the New York Heart Association Class (NYHA) II remained so for one to three years on average, and then progressed to NYHA Class IV, dying in 4 to 8 months on average. That was the first detailed clinical course of patients with chronic heart failure secondary to chronic Chagas heart disease. Barros also drew attention to the importance of hepatomegaly in the diagnosis of right-sided heart failure, which could precede the other physical signs observed in this condition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In 1953, Laranja<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> pointed out that patients with chronic Chagas disease could remain in the indeterminate form of the disease for a long period, usually 10-15 years, thus providing evidence for the first time that a long time would elapse between the initial infection and the appearance of chronic Chagas heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> The coronation of the work at Bambui occurred in 1956. Laranja et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> presented clinical, epidemiologic, and pathologic data from a cohort of 1340 cases of chronic Chagas disease in which the 12-lead ECG was performed. They showed that 51% of patients presented abnormalities consistent with chronic Chagas heart disease in the resting ECG, thus establishing the prevalence of this condition in a large ambulatory population. Moreover, they showed that about half of chronic patients had the indeterminate form of the disease. Furthermore, Laranja et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> showed that out of the 40 patients with the indeterminate form of chronic Chagas disease with known end of the initial infection, 12 patients (30%) developed ECG alterations at 10-year follow-up. Therefore, they set the annual incidence of chronic Chagas heart disease at 3%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The sixties</title>
      <p>In 1964, based on experimental work, Rosenbaum<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> stated that the peculiar electrocardiographic abnormalities observed in patients with chronic Chagas heart disease (right bundle branch block with left axis deviation) were consequence of widespread underlying chronic myocardial lesions. Rosenbaum<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> named the left axis deviation as left anterior hemiblock. In 1965, his experience was reported in Brazil in the follow up of 86 patients with chronic Chagas heart disease. Twenty-seven patients (31%) died over a period of 10 years. Brazil observed 18 episodes of sudden death, thus yielding a yearly incidence of sudden death of about 3%. As observed by Chagas years before, complete AV block was the most important cause of sudden death. Thus, Brazil's findings contributed to the knowledge of the clinical course of sudden death due to chronic Chagas heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
			</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Heart catheterization</title>
        <p>A patient with classic clinical, radiological, and electrocardiographic characteristics of this condition, as already reported in detail by the Bambui team, underwent heart catheterization in 1965.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> Mean atrial right pressure was 6 mmHg, right pulmonary systolic pressure 43 mmHg, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure 17 mmHg. This confirmed that chronic Chagas heart disease resembled the so called primary myocardial disease. Puigb&#243; et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> studied 12 patients with this condition, but at the early stage of the disease (no heart failure, light or no cardiomegaly on the chest X-ray, but with abnormal resting ECG). Except for slight elevation of left ventricular end-diastolic pressure in 3 patients (25%), hemodynamic data were normal. Nonetheless, at left ventricular angiography, slight left ventricular dilatation was observed in 4 patients (33%), and left ventricular apical abnormalities in 10 (83%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> This work was very important because it confirmed that a severe disease could occur in patients considered to be in the early stage of chronic Chagas heart disease, as Chagas had highlighted decades before.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The seventies</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Refining the noninvasive diagnosis of chronic Chagas heart disease</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Echocardiography</title>
          <p>With the use of M-mode echocardiogram, it was possible to visualize abnormal heart anatomy and physiology noninvasively. Hernandez-Pieretti et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> reported findings obtained from five patients with chronic Chagas heart disease, namely: mitral movement compatible with low blood flow, thinning of the interventricular septum, paradoxical interventricular septal movement, hypokinesia/dyskinesia of the left ventricular posterior wall, dilatation of the left atrium, of the right ventricle, and of the left ventricle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
          <p>One year later, asymptomatic patients showed segmental wall motion abnormalities either in the ventricular septum or in the left ventricular posterior wall, patients with moderate heart failure had abnormalities in interventricular septum contraction (hypokinesia, akinesia or paradoxical septal contraction), left ventricular hypokinesia, and right and/or left ventricular dilatation. In addition to the type of abnormalities mentioned earlier, patients with severe heart failure also had left ventricular systolic dysfunction and increased end-diastolic left ventricular pressure. Therefore, the way to measure the left ventricular systolic function noninvasively was created, which would be paramount in the following years.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Exercise stress testing</title>
          <p>Chagas had fiercely emphasized that many patients with chronic Chagas heart disease experienced sudden cardiac death while working as rural farmers. However, in 1973, Macedo et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> failed to reveal abnormalities in the exercise stress testing in patients in the indeterminate form of chronic Chagas disease, thus suggesting that Chagas disease patients with no heart involvement could perform rural work with no additional risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Exercise stress testing, however, showed that work capacity was lower than expected in patients with chronic Chagas heart disease. In those with PVC in resting ECG, exercise stress testing aggravated the severity of such arrhythmias in many patients. Therefore, it became clear that exercise could either elicit or aggravate previous PVC with minimal physical limitation in patients with chronic Chagas disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Holter monitoring</title>
          <p>The electrocardiographic monitoring constituted a valuable tool for studying patients with chronic Chagas heart disease, not only in view of the high frequency of sudden cardiac death ascribed to ventricular dysrhythmias and AV conduction disturbances observed in this population, but also because of the intermittence of such abnormalities in patients with this condition. In fact, Hernandez-Pieretti et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> observed VPC in 5 of 17 patients (29%), sustained ventricular tachycardia in 3 (18%), 2<sup>nd</sup>. degree AV block in 2 (12%), complete AV block, and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia in 1 patient (6%).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Electrophysiological study</title>
          <p>The introduction of electrophysiological study (EPS) into clinical practice in the late sixties was of enormous practical value for patients with chronic Chagas heart disease in view of the high frequency of bradyarrhythmias and fascicular blocks found in this disease. Benchimol et al. used EPS to diagnose a case of permanent atrial standstill and the presence of sinus node dysfunction in patients with chronic Chagas heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> Another important clinical component of sinus node dysfunction was the syndrome bradycardia-tachycardia, which was diagnosed with the EPS for the first time by Pimenta et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> in a patient with chronic Chagas heart disease. In a subsequent paper, Pimenta et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> showed that 28% of patients with chronic Chagas heart disease undergoing EPS were found to have abnormal AV nodal function. This highlighted the importance of the potential participation of both sinus node dysfunction and AV nodal dysfunction in the genesis of arrhythmias in patients with this condition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The eighties</title>
      <p>Acquatella et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> first described 64 patients with chronic Chagas heart disease at 2-D echocardiography. They observed a left ventricular apical aneurysm in 46% of patients, including those with the indeterminate form. Therefore, Acquatella et al. opened a window to the <italic>in vivo</italic> study of the anatomopathological aspects of this disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The appearance of endomyocardial biopsy in the clinical scenario could potentially lead physicians to make morphological observations <italic>in vivo,</italic> and to pathological changes similar to those already described by Chagas in autopsy material. Mady et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> observed edema, slight inflammatory infiltrate, and myocardial fibrosis in patients with the indeterminate form of chronic Chagas disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> Subsequently, the same group expanded their findings by studying 42 patients with chronic Chagas disease, 16 with normal ECG and no cardiomegaly at chest X-Ray, 15 with abnormal ECG but normal chest X-Ray, and 11 with abnormalities in the ECG and in the chest X-Ray. They observed that the incidence of myocardial inflammation, myocardial hypertrophy, and myocardial fibrosis was higher in patients with abnormalities in the electrocardiogram as well as in the chest X-Ray. This study, therefore, confirmed the progressive nature of the disease <italic>in vivo</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>
			</p>
      <p>With the use of radionuclide study, it was also possible to establish the left ventricular ejection fraction noninvasively and to show wall motion abnormalities of the left ventricle, particularly in the infero-apical region.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> In 1985, Espinosa et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> provided new insight into the clinical course of patients with chronic Chagas disease, adding new evidence regarding disease progression. Patients with normal resting ECG and SWMA had a survival similar to that found in individuals in control groups; by contrast, those patients with abnormal resting ECG and/or overt heart failure had a poor prognosis in comparison individuals in control groups.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In 1986, Combellas et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> studied patients with chronic Chagas heart disease without heart failure, and showed that patients with this condition were found to have diastolic abnormalities in the M-mode echocardiography. They suggested that such diastolic abnormalities might precede systolic compromise in patients with Chagas heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> In 1988, Marin-Neto et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> showed right ventricular systolic dysfunction in Chagas asymptomatic patients with no other evidence of left ventricular compromise, thus suggesting that the process of myocardial damage starts in the right ventricle in this disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The nineties</title>
      <p>With the introduction of statistical methods into clinical practice to determine independent predictors of mortality, outcomes of patients with chronic Chagas heart disease could be better evaluated. In 1991, Espinosa and associates applied the Cox proportional hazard models to predict survival in 66 patients who were evaluated invasively and noninvasively. They demonstrated that systolic blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, cardiomegaly in the chest X-Ray, and the left ventricular end-diastolic pressure determined by left heart catheterization were independent predictors of mortality for patients with this condition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> Nevertheless, when left ventricular ejection fraction was determined noninvasively by echocardiography, it was found to be the powerful independent predictor of all-cause mortality for patients with chronic Chagas heart disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In those patients with chronic heart failure secondary to chronic Chagas heart disease, left ventricular ejection fraction and VO2 max remained independent predictors of all-cause mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> Ventricular tachycardia induced by exercise stress testing was found to be a predictor of sudden cardiac death in patients with chronic Chagas heart disease, confirming in laboratory the association of malignant ventricular arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. Independent predictors of sudden cardiac death not associated with physical exercise were established in 1996.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Another important discovery from the nineties was that of the neurohormonal system activation in patients with chronic heart failure secondary to chronic Chagas heart disease. Thus, it was clear that both the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> as well as the Autonomic Nervous System<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> were overactivated, similarly to what occurred in patients with non-Chagas disease heart failure, thus opening the rationale for the treatment of patients with chronic Chagas heart disease with chronic heart failure.</p>
      <p>In 1995, Kalil et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> showed a good correlation between Resonance Magnetic Imaging and endomyocardial biopsy to detect underlying myocarditis in patients with chronic Chagas heart disease, thus heralding the potential role of such method in the study of patients with this condition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> Another important finding obtained in this decade was that prognosis of outpatients with chronic Chagas heart disease was poorer than that of other types of dilated cardiomyopathy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> In 1999, Rabinovitch et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> observed that the rate of recrudescence of malignant ventricular arrhythmia was 85% in patients with chronic Chagas heart disease, survivors of cardiac arrest, treated with implantable cardioverter-defibrillator. Therefore, they demonstrated the mechanism of sudden cardiac death in patients with this condition, in contrast to the role of AV block as a cause of sudden cardiac death at Chagas' time.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The 2000's</title>
      <p>Barros et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> showed abnormalities in the isovolumic contraction time in patients with normal ECG, normal chest X-Ray, and normal echocardiogram.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> The same authors also demonstrated right ventricular compromise in patients with otherwise normal echocardiogram.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> Rochitte et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> first quantified myocardial fibrosis by Magnetic Resonance Imaging in patients with chronic Chagas heart disease. They observed that myocardial fibrosis was present in 85% of patients with this condition, and that left ventricular ejection fraction was inversely correlated to myocardial fibrosis, thus detecting in vivo what Chagas had detected in postmortem examination. Importantly, they also observed that myocardial fibrosis was present in all patients with ventricular tachycardia, which might suggest a role for the fibrosis in the pathogenesis of malignant arrhythmias in patients with this condition, as observed in non-Chagas patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The timeline of the scientific construction of Chronic Chagas Heart Disease is depicted in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Timeline of scientific construction of the Chronic Chagas Heart Disease. HC: Heart Catheterization; ECHO: Echocardiography; EMB: Endomyocardial Biopsy; MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-01-0063-60079-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>This historical reappraisal shows that Carlos Chagas' discoveries served as a backdrop to the scientific construction of chronic Chagas heart disease, and the scientific evolution that occurred with time added to his work, but, in essence, confirmed his assumptions on this formerly continental tragedy, but now a globalized disease. It is unbelievable that such a discovery did not win a Nobel Prize.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Descobertas de Carlos Chagas como Pano de Fundo para a Constru&#231;&#227;o Cient&#237;fica da Cardiopatia Chag&#225;sica Cr&#244;nica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bestetti</surname>
            <given-names>Reinaldo B.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Restini</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina Baraldi A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Couto</surname>
            <given-names>Luc&#233;lio B.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Ribeir&#227;o Preto, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Reinaldo B. Bestetti</bold>, Universidade de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - Av. Cost&#225;bile Romano, 2201. CEP 14096-000 - Ribeir&#226;nia, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>rbestetti44@gmail.com</email>; <email>rbestetti@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA, Couto LB. An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Bestetti RB. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA, Couto LB. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA, Couto LB. Supervis&#227;o / como investigador principal: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A constru&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica da doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica (DCC) come&#231;ou em 1910, quando Carlos Chagas salientou a presen&#231;a de arritmia card&#237;aca em exames f&#237;sicos de pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica, e descreveu um caso de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca associada &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio e &#224; presen&#231;a de ninhos de parasitas durante a aut&#243;psia. Ele descreveu morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca associada a arritmias em 1911, e sua associa&#231;&#227;o ao bloqueio AV total detectado com o pol&#237;grafo de Jacquet, conforme reportou em 1912. Chagas mostrou a presen&#231;a de fibrose do mioc&#225;rdio como subjacente ao quadro cl&#237;nico da DCC em 1916, e apresentou uma caracteriza&#231;&#227;o completa dos aspectos cl&#237;nicos da DCC em 1922. Em 1928, Chagas detectou fibrose do sistema condutor, e apontou a presen&#231;a de cardiomegalia acentuada no raio X do t&#243;rax, associada a sintomatologia m&#237;nima. O uso da rea&#231;&#227;o sorol&#243;gica no diagn&#243;stico de DCC foi posta em pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica em 1936, ap&#243;s a morte de Chagas, e juntamente com o ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es, revelou a import&#226;ncia epidemiol&#243;gica da DCC em 1945. Em 1953, ficou comprovado o longo per&#237;odo de tempo entre a infec&#231;&#227;o inicial e o aparecimento de DCC, enquanto que a incid&#234;ncia anual de DCC na forma indeterminada da doen&#231;a foi estabelecida em 1956. Os aspectos cl&#237;nicos fundamentais de DCC descritos por Carlos Chagas foram complementados pelo uso de cateterismo card&#237;aco em 1965, teste ergom&#233;trico em 1973, Holter em 1973, teste eletrofisiol&#243;gico em 1975, ecocardiografia em 1975, bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica em 1981 e resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica em 1995.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a de Chagas / hist&#243;ria</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Chag&#225;sica</kwd>
        <kwd>Arritmias Card&#237;acas</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Carlos Chagas</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A doen&#231;a de Chagas afeta cerca de 6 milh&#245;es de pessoas em 21 pa&#237;ses da Am&#233;rica Latina, onde 70 milh&#245;es de pessoas t&#234;m o risco de contrair a doen&#231;a,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> cuja dissemina&#231;&#227;o no mundo todo foi devida &#224; imigra&#231;&#227;o, com custo m&#233;dio de aproximadamente 1 bilh&#227;o de d&#243;lares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> A doen&#231;a de Chagas &#233; causada pelo protozo&#225;rio Trypanosoma cruzi, e transmitida a humanos por meio das fezes de um inseto hem&#237;ptero. Anos ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o, cerca de 20% dos pacientes desenvolvem a doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Este manuscrito apresenta a hist&#243;ria da constru&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica desta doen&#231;a card&#237;aca, de sua descoberta aos dias modernos, enfatizando os principais fatos que contribu&#237;ram para a expans&#227;o do seu conhecimento ao longo do tempo. N&#227;o fazemos alus&#227;o a sua fisiopatologia,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> ainda discut&#237;vel, ou a aspectos de tratamento, ainda pouco compreendidos. Apenas estudos publicados na &#237;ntegra foram adicionados &#224; lista de refer&#234;ncias.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Per&#237;odo do estudo de Chagas sobre a doen&#231;a (1909-1934)</title>
        <p>Carlos Chagas descobriu a doen&#231;a que leva seu nome em 1909. Os detalhes desta fascinante conquista cient&#237;fica est&#227;o descritos em outras fontes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> J&#225; em 1910, Chagas enfatizou a import&#226;ncia das anomalias no ritmo card&#237;aco, encontradas em alguns pacientes com doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica. Considerando os dados obtidos numa aut&#243;psia, aliados &#224;s suas descobertas cl&#237;nicas, ele sugeriu a exist&#234;ncia de envolvimento card&#237;aco em pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Chagas destacou a not&#243;ria presen&#231;a de extra-s&#237;stoles ventriculares (PVC) em exames f&#237;sicos, e destacou a presen&#231;a de bloqueio AV, detectado pelo pol&#237;grafo de Jacquet (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>), dado que o eletrocardiograma n&#227;o era dispon&#237;vel no Brasil naquela &#233;poca, como causa de anormalidades do ritmo card&#237;aco. Ele apresentou o caso de um paciente com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca que tinha ninhos de parasitas acompanhados por infiltra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas mononucleares intersticiais no mioc&#225;rdio durante a aut&#243;psia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Tra&#231;ado original da veia jugular (A), da art&#233;ria braquial (B), apexcardiograma (C) obtido com pol&#237;grafo de Jacquet entre 1910 e 1914 pela equipe de Chagas. Observe o bloqueio AV de segundo grau transit&#243;rio (setas). O ECG em repouso n&#227;o estava dispon&#237;vel naquela &#233;poca no Brasil. a: A onda de pulso jugular; c: C onda de pulso jugular. Cortesia do Fundo Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Se&#231;&#227;o Hospital Evandro Chagas, Acervo Casa de Oswaldo Cruz.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-01-0063-60079-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Em 1911, Chagas afirmou que epis&#243;dios t&#227;o frequentes de arritmia em exames f&#237;sicos em indiv&#237;duos com menos de 50 anos de idade n&#227;o foram observados fora de regi&#245;es end&#234;micas. Al&#233;m disso, ele descreveu o caso de um paciente com PVC frequente em exames f&#237;sicos, que teve morte s&#250;bita. Durante a aut&#243;psia, foram encontrados ninhos de parasitas rodeados de infiltra&#231;&#227;o grave de c&#233;lulas mononucleares, o que o levou a sugerir que PVC em exames f&#237;sicos poderia prenunciar morte s&#250;bita pela forma card&#237;aca da doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em 1912, Chagas ressaltou que dist&#250;rbios na condutibilidade card&#237;aca tamb&#233;m podem ser associados &#224; morte s&#250;bita. Al&#233;m disso, Chagas chamou a aten&#231;&#227;o para um novo dado: a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca mostrou-se como a manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica mais predominante da forma card&#237;aca da doen&#231;a, apesar da presen&#231;a de anormalidades no ritmo card&#237;aco em exames f&#237;sicos. Ademais, ele apontou a exist&#234;ncia de bradicardia profunda em alguns pacientes, a ponto de chamar a mol&#233;stia de "doen&#231;a do pulso lento".<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> &#201; importante notar que tal quadro cl&#237;nico - arritmias e dist&#250;rbios da condu&#231;&#227;o em jovens - n&#227;o tinha qualquer semelhan&#231;a com as doen&#231;as card&#237;acas conhecidas na &#233;poca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em 1916, Chagas apresentou novas descobertas sobre os aspectos histol&#243;gicos de pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica. Al&#233;m da infiltra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas mononucleares, ele afirmou que todos os pacientes nessa condi&#231;&#227;o apresentavam grave esclerose intersticial do mioc&#225;rdio (fibrose). Al&#233;m disso, Chagas atribuiu o quadro cl&#237;nico de cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica - insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e arritmias - a essas les&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas subjacentes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em 1922, Chagas descreveu as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de 62 pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica, estudadas de 1910 a 1921. Cinquenta pacientes (80%) tinham b&#243;cio concomitante, o que pode explicar o fato de Chagas ter atribu&#237;do a mesma etiologia a ambos os problemas. Uma recente reavalia&#231;&#227;o hist&#243;rica sugere uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre os dois problemas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Palpita&#231;&#245;es e dispneia eram as queixas mais frequentes, e disritmias, dilata&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, e desdobramento da segunda bulha eram frequentemente detectadas no exame f&#237;sico.</p>
        <p>A causa das arritmias detectadas no exame f&#237;sico pelo pol&#237;grafo de Jacquet foram: PVC em 32 pacientes (51%) e bloqueio atrioventricular (AV) (segundo ou terceiro grau) em 20 pacientes (32%). Numa &#233;poca em que a rea&#231;&#227;o sorol&#243;gica n&#227;o estava dispon&#237;vel rotineiramente, essas anomalias em exames f&#237;sicos levaram Chagas a sugerir que a presen&#231;a dessas anormalidades era uma ferramenta &#250;til para o diagn&#243;stico de cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica. Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca foi detectada em 26 paciente (42%). Houve 16 &#243;bitos (16%), 50% dos quais foram s&#250;bitos. Dos casos de &#243;bito, quatro estavam associados a bloqueio AV avan&#231;ado. Assim, em 1922, Chagas j&#225; havia caracterizado completamente os aspectos f&#237;sicos e morfol&#243;gicos da doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em 1928, com a disponibilidade de raio X de t&#243;rax, Chagas pode mostrar uma amplia&#231;&#227;o marcada da silhueta card&#237;aca num paciente com leve edema de membros inferiores, refor&#231;ando a caracter&#237;stica de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em &#225;rea em que a doen&#231;a era end&#234;mica. Al&#233;m disso, Chaga apresentou, pela primeira vez, fotografias histol&#243;gicas de pacientes com essa condi&#231;&#227;o, mostrando claramente a import&#226;ncia de inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose no mioc&#225;rdio e tecido condutivo na patog&#234;nese da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em 1930, Evandro Chagas (filho de Carlos Chagas) sugeriu a presen&#231;a de bloqueio de ramo direito, o que foi frequentemente diagnosticado em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica nos anos seguintes. Ele tamb&#233;m sugeriu que esse dist&#250;rbio de condu&#231;&#227;o intraventricular poderia estar associado a um progn&#243;stico desfavor&#225;vel em pacientes com a forma card&#237;aca da tripanossom&#237;ase americana.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Tamb&#233;m em 1930, usando uma rea&#231;&#227;o sorol&#243;gica para confirma&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico, Villela<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> relatou o caso de diversos pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica em Belo Horizonte, Brasil, longe de Lassance, local onde Chagas descreveu a doen&#231;a, sugerindo ent&#227;o que essa mol&#233;stia poderia ter grande impacto epidemiol&#243;gico.</p>
        <p>Em 1931, Evandro Chagas documentou progresso inexor&#225;vel da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica com o uso de ECG de 3 deriva&#231;&#245;es e raio x de t&#243;rax, conforme Chagas havia afirmado repetidamente com base em fatores cl&#237;nicos. Em 1934, considerando o curso cl&#237;nico da doen&#231;a juntamente com as anomalias histol&#243;gicas mencionadas anteriormente, Chagas levantou a possibilidade de um mecanismo autoimune na patog&#234;nese da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Assim, em 1934, Chagas havia descrito o quadro cl&#237;nico e suas peculiaridades, incluindo a presen&#231;a de anomalias no ritmo card&#237;aco para levantar a suspeita diagn&#243;stica de anomalias eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas usando o pol&#237;grafo de Jacquet, caracter&#237;sticas radiol&#243;gicas, aspectos anatomopatol&#243;gicos detalhados e o poss&#237;vel mecanismo patog&#234;nico da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica. Al&#233;m disso, ele tamb&#233;m descreveu a etiologia, o vetor e o reservat&#243;rio da doen&#231;a de Chagas. A caracter&#237;stica progressiva inexor&#225;vel da doen&#231;a e seu progn&#243;stico sinistro tamb&#233;m ficaram evidentes. Foi, sem d&#250;vida, o melhor estudo que um cientista teria a possibilidade de fazer naquela &#233;poca.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Esquecendo uma potencial trag&#233;dia</title>
        <p>Em vista da deprecia&#231;&#227;o do trabalho de Carlos Chagas no Brasil e na Argentina, principalmente na Faculdade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Academia Nacional de Medicina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> e Sociedade Medica e Cir&#250;rgica do Rio de Janeiro,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> a Doen&#231;a de Chagas caiu no esquecimento da medicina ap&#243;s a morte de Chagas em 1934. A patologia n&#227;o era mais ensinada em faculdades de medicina,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> e, como consequ&#234;ncia, era raramente diagnosticada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A fase cr&#244;nica da doen&#231;a come&#231;ou a ser rotineiramente diagnosticada por meio de rea&#231;&#245;es sorol&#243;gicas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Em 1935, a doen&#231;a de Chagas j&#225; havia sido reconhecida em pelo menos quatro estados no Brasil. Al&#233;m disso, tamb&#233;m havia sido detectada em sete pa&#237;ses da Am&#233;rica Latina, especialmente na Argentina.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Ressurgimento da doen&#231;a no Brasil (1940-1945)</title>
        <p>Um ponto importante na constru&#231;&#227;o do conhecimento cl&#237;nico sobre a cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica foi o uso disseminado do teste de fixa&#231;&#227;o de complemento para o diagn&#243;stico sorol&#243;gico da doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica. O uso foi reportado pela primeira vez por Guerreiro e Machado em 1913, mas foi considerado, por raz&#245;es t&#233;cnicas, n&#227;o pr&#225;tico para uso difundido.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Em 1936, Kelser<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> modificou a rea&#231;&#227;o de fixa&#231;&#227;o de complemento original usando ant&#237;genos de culturas artificiais de <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, o que a tornou mais est&#225;vel. Isso fez com que essa rea&#231;&#227;o fosse usada rotineiramente no diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Portanto, com base no quadro cl&#237;nico descrito por Carlos Chagas anos antes, especialmente na presen&#231;a de arritmia grave em jovens de regi&#245;es end&#234;micas, os m&#233;dicos come&#231;aram a suspeitar de cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica em diversas partes do Brasil, e usaram o xenodiagn&#243;stico ou a rea&#231;&#227;o serol&#243;gica para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>O per&#237;odo Bambu&#237; (1945-1956)</title>
        <p>O centro de Bambu&#237; (no estado de Minas Gerais) contribuiu muito para a determina&#231;&#227;o da preval&#234;ncia, incid&#234;ncia e curso cl&#237;nico da doen&#231;a de Chagas numa grande popula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o selecionada de pacientes com essa condi&#231;&#227;o, por meio de uma pesquisa eletrocardiogr&#225;fica sistem&#225;tica nesses pacientes, mostrando assim a enorme import&#226;ncia epidemiol&#243;gica da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em 1945, Dias et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> reportaram as descobertas cl&#237;nicas de 90 novos casos de cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica em Bambu&#237;. Eles enfatizaram a associa&#231;&#227;o do desdobramento permanente da segunda bulha no foco de ausculta pulmonar em exames f&#237;sicos, sinal j&#225; descrito por Chagas, com a presen&#231;a de bloqueio de ramo direito no ECG em repouso, falta de congest&#227;o de vasos pulmonares na presen&#231;a de cardiomegalia acentuada no raio x do t&#243;rax, alta preval&#234;ncia de bloqueio AV de primeiro grau acentuando seu aparecimento no in&#237;cio da doen&#231;a e import&#226;ncia do bloqueio de ramo direito observado no ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es para o diagn&#243;stico dessa doen&#231;a. Al&#233;m disso, observaram acentuado desvio do eixo esquerdo do complexo QRS, diagnosticado mais tarde como hemibloqueio anterior esquerdo associado a bloqueio de ramo direito. Dias et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> tamb&#233;m chamaram a aten&#231;&#227;o para a variabilidade da invers&#227;o da onda T, o desaparecimento da onda R nas deriva&#231;&#245;es V4-V6, associado a aneurisma apical do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e a variabilidade de complexos QRS e ondas T de um tra&#231;ado a outro em casos de bloqueio AV total.</p>
        <p>A intermit&#234;ncia do bloqueio AV total foi descrita por Magalh&#227;es e Freire<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> em 1945. Um caso de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica com bloqueio AV total complicado por infarto pulmonar tamb&#233;m foi relatado pela primeira vez naquele ano.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Em 1947, Pellegrino<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> reproduziu o quadro cl&#237;nico de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca associada &#224; presen&#231;a de bloqueio de ramo direito em ECGs em repouso, em c&#227;es cronicamente infectados com T. cruzi. Esse fato deu apoio ao quadro cl&#237;nico descrito por Chagas e &#224;queles reportados por outros autores na &#233;poca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> No mesmo ano, Rodovalho et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> enfatizaram a concomit&#226;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca esquerda e direita em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica.</p>
        <p>Em 1948, Chiaverini<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> relatou sua experi&#234;ncia com 429 pacientes com doen&#231;as card&#237;acas cr&#244;nicas no estado de S&#227;o Paulo, mostrando que cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica foi a causa mais frequente de doen&#231;as card&#237;acas naquela coorte hospitalar, e tamb&#233;m que o bloqueio de ramo direito foi mais frequentemente encontrado em pacientes com esta condi&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Tamb&#233;m em 1948, Barros<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> observou que pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica na classe funcional II da <italic>New York Heart Association Class</italic> (NYHA) mantiveram-se na mesma classe durante um a tr&#234;s anos, e depois progrediram para a classe funcional IV, chegando &#224; morte em uma m&#233;dia de 4 a 8 meses. Essa foi a primeira descri&#231;&#227;o detalhada do curso cl&#237;nico de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica secund&#225;ria &#224; cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica. Barros tamb&#233;m chamou a aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; import&#226;ncia de hepatomegalia no diagn&#243;stico de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita, que pode preceder os outros sinais f&#237;sicos observados nessa condi&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em 1953, Laranja<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> afirmou que pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica poderiam permanecer na forma indeterminada da doen&#231;a durante um longo per&#237;odo, geralmente 10 a 15 anos, proporcionando assim a primeira evid&#234;ncia de que haveria um longo tempo entre a infec&#231;&#227;o inicial e o aparecimento de cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> A coroa&#231;&#227;o do trabalho em Bambu&#237; ocorreu em 1956. Laranja et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> apresentaram dados cl&#237;nicos, epidemiol&#243;gicos e patol&#243;gicos de uma coorte de 1340 casos de cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica em que foi realizado o ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es. Eles observaram que o ECG em repouso mostrou que 51% dos pacientes tinham anomalias consistentes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica, estabelecendo ent&#227;o a preval&#234;ncia dessa condi&#231;&#227;o numa grande popula&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial. Eles tamb&#233;m mostraram que cerca de metade dos pacientes cr&#244;nicos tinha a forma indeterminada da doen&#231;a. Al&#233;m disso, Laranja et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> demonstraram que, de 40 pacientes com a forma indeterminada da doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica de que era conhecido o final do per&#237;odo de infec&#231;&#227;o, 12 pacientes (30%) desenvolveram altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG nos 10 anos seguintes. Assim, definiram a incid&#234;ncia anual de cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica em 3%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Anos 60</title>
        <p>Em 1964, com base em trabalhos experimentais, Rosenbaum<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> afirmou que as estranhas anomalias eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas observadas em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica (bloqueio do ramo direito com desvio do eixo esquerdo) eram consequ&#234;ncia de les&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas cr&#244;nicas subjacentes generalizadas. Rosenbaum<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> denominou o desvio do eixo esquerdo de hemibloqueio anterior esquerdo. Em 1965, Brasil relatou a experi&#234;ncia de Rosenbaum no follow-up de 86 pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica. Vinte e sete deles (31%) morreram ao longo de um per&#237;odo de 10 anos. Houve 18 epis&#243;dios de morte s&#250;bita, representando uma incid&#234;ncia anual de aproximadamente 3%. Conforme observado por Chagas anos antes, bloqueio AV total foi a principal causa da morte s&#250;bita. Dessa forma, as descobertas de Brasil contribu&#237;ram para o conhecimento do curso cl&#237;nico de morte s&#250;bita por cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Cateterismo card&#237;aco</title>
          <p>Um paciente com as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas, radiol&#243;gicas e eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas cl&#225;ssicas dessa condi&#231;&#227;o, conforme relatado detalhadamente pela equipe de Bambu&#237;, foi submetido ao cateterismo card&#237;aco em 1965.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> A m&#233;dia da press&#227;o atrial direita foi de 6 mmHg, press&#227;o pulmonar direita sist&#243;lica 43 mmHg e press&#227;o capilar pulmonar 17 mmHg. Isso confirmou que a cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica era semelhante ao que era, na &#233;poca, chamado doen&#231;a prim&#225;ria do mioc&#225;rdio. Puigb&#243; et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> estudaram 12 pacientes com essa condi&#231;&#227;o, mas na fase precoce da doen&#231;a (aus&#234;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, cardiomegalia leve ou ausente no raio x de t&#243;rax, mas anomalias no ECG em repouso). Com exce&#231;&#227;o de ligeira eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em 3 pacientes (25%), os dados hemodin&#226;micos estavam normais. Mesmo assim, na angiografia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, foi observada leve dilata&#231;&#227;o em 4 pacientes (33%); anomalias apicais ventriculares esquerdas ocorreram em 10 pacientes (83%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Esse trabalho foi muito importante, pois confirmou que uma doen&#231;a grave pode ocorrer em pacientes cuja avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica os coloca na fase inicial de cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica, conforme Chagas havia dito anos antes. </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Anos 70</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Refinando o diagn&#243;stico n&#227;o invasivo de cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Ecocardiografia</title>
            <p>Com o uso do ecocardiograma modo M, foi poss&#237;vel visualizar anormalidade anat&#244;mica e fisiol&#243;gica do cora&#231;&#227;o de forma n&#227;o invasiva. Hernandez-Pieretti et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> relataram as descobertas obtidas em cinco pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica. Eram essas: prolapso mitral compat&#237;vel com baixo fluxo sangu&#237;neo, redu&#231;&#227;o do septo interventricular, movimento paradoxal do septo interventricular, hipocinesia / discinesia da parede posterior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, com dilata&#231;&#227;o do &#225;trio esquerdo, ventr&#237;culo direito e ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
						</p>
            <p>Um ano depois, observou-se que pacientes assintom&#225;ticos apresentaram anomalias de movimento da parede segmentar no septo ventricular ou na parede posterior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca moderada apresentaram anomalias na contra&#231;&#227;o do septo intraventricular (hipocinesia, acinesia ou contra&#231;&#227;o paradoxal do septo), hipocinesia ventricular esquerda e dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda ou direita. Al&#233;m das anomalias anteriormente mencionadas, pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca grave tamb&#233;m apresentaram disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ventricular esquerda e aumento da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final ventricular esquerda. Assim foi estabelecido o m&#233;todo para medi&#231;&#227;o de fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ventricular esquerda de forma n&#227;o invasiva - o que seria de suma import&#226;ncia para os anos seguintes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Teste Ergom&#233;trico</title>
            <p>Chagas havia enfatizado que muitos pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica tinham morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca enquanto trabalhavam no campo. Contudo, em 1973, Macedo et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> n&#227;o conseguiram detectar anomalias durante testes ergom&#233;tricos em pacientes com a forma indeterminada da doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica, o que sugeriu que pacientes com a doen&#231;a de Chagas n&#227;o card&#237;aca poderiam desempenhar trabalhos rurais sem risco adicional.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> O teste ergom&#233;trico, entretanto, mostrou que a capacidade de trabalho era mais baixa do que o esperado em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica. Nos pacientes com PVC no ECG em repouso, o teste ergom&#233;trico agravou a gravidade desse tipo de arritmia em muitos pacientes. Isso deixou claro que o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico poderia manifestar ou agravar PVC pr&#233;-existente com limita&#231;&#245;es m&#237;nimas f&#237;sicas em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Holter</title>
            <p>O monitoramento eletrocardiogr&#225;fico &#233; uma ferramenta valiosa para estudos com pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica, n&#227;o apenas em raz&#227;o da incid&#234;ncia de morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca relacionada a disritmias ventriculares e dist&#250;rbios da condu&#231;&#227;o AV observados nessa popula&#231;&#227;o, mas tamb&#233;m por causa da intermit&#234;ncia dessas anomalias em pacientes com essa doen&#231;a. Hernandez-Pieretti et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> observaram PVC em 5 de 17 pacientes (29%), taquicardia ventricular sustentada em 3 (18%), bloqueio AV de 2&#176; grau em 2 (12%), bloqueio AV total e taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada em 1 paciente (6%).</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Estudo Eletrofisiol&#243;gico</title>
            <p>A introdu&#231;&#227;o do estudo eletrofisiol&#243;gico (EPS) na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica no final dos anos 60 apresentou um valor pr&#225;tico enorme para pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica devido &#224; alta frequ&#234;ncia de bradiarritmias e bloqueios fasciculares encontrados na doen&#231;a. Benchimol et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> usaram EPS (estudo eletrofisiol&#243;gico) para diagnosticar um caso de paralisa&#231;&#227;o atrial permanente e a presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o do n&#243;dulo sinusal em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> Outro importante componente cl&#237;nico da disfun&#231;&#227;o do n&#243;dulo sinusal foi a s&#237;ndrome de bradicardia-taquicardia, diagnosticada com EPS pela primeira vez por Pimenta et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> num paciente com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica. Em um trabalho subsequente, Pimenta et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> mostraram que 28% dos pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica submetidos a EPS apresentaram anomalias na fun&#231;&#227;o do nodo atrioventricular. Isso salientou a import&#226;ncia do EPS na identifica&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o do n&#243;dulo sinusal e disfun&#231;&#227;o nodal AV, que precedem arritmias em pacientes com essa condi&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
						</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Anos 80</title>
        <p>Acquatella et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> inicialmente descreveram 64 pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica por meio de ecocardiografia bidimensional. Eles observaram um aneurisma apical no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em 46% dos pacientes, incluindo aqueles com a forma indeterminada da doen&#231;a. Portanto, Acquatella et al. abriram o caminho para estudos in vivo dos aspectos anatomopatol&#243;gicos da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O surgimento da bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica no cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico permitiu que m&#233;dicos fizessem observa&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas in vivo e estudassem altera&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas similares &#224;quelas descritas por Chagas em materiais de aut&#243;psia. Mady et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> observaram edema, leve infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio e fibrose do mioc&#225;rdio em pacientes com a forma indeterminada da doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> Subsequentemente, o mesmo grupo expandiu suas descobertas ao estudar 42 pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica, 16 deles com ECG normal e sem cardiomegalia no raio x de t&#243;rax, 15 com ECG anormal e raio x de t&#243;rax normal, e 11 com anomalias no ECG e no raio x de t&#243;rax. Observaram que a incid&#234;ncia de inflama&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio, hipertrofia do mioc&#225;rdio e fibrose do mioc&#225;rdio era mais alta em pacientes com anormalidades no eletrocardiograma e no raio x de t&#243;rax. Esse estudo confirmou a natureza progressiva da doen&#231;a in vivo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de estudos com radionucl&#237;deos, tamb&#233;m foi poss&#237;vel estabelecer a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda de forma n&#227;o invasiva e mostrar anomalias de movimento da parede do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, particularmente na regi&#227;o infero-apical.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> Em 1985, Espinosa et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> obtiveram novas informa&#231;&#245;es sobre o curso da doen&#231;a em pacientes com a doen&#231;a Chagas cr&#244;nica, trazendo novas evid&#234;ncias sobre seu progresso. Pacientes com ECG em repouso normal e SWMA (anormalidades de movimento da parede segmentar) tinham sobrevida similar &#225; do grupo controle. Por outro lado, os pacientes com anomalias no ECG em repouso e/ou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca tiveram um progn&#243;stico ruim em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em 1986, Combellas et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> estudaram pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica sem insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, e mostraram que pacientes com essa condi&#231;&#227;o apresentavam anomalias diast&#243;licas na ecocardiografia modo M. Eles sugeriram que essas anomalias diast&#243;licas poderiam preceder o comprometimento sist&#243;lico em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> Em 1988, Marin-Neto et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> mostraram disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo direito em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos de Chagas com nenhuma outra evid&#234;ncia de comprometimento ventricular esquerdo, sugerindo, assim, que o processo de dano mioc&#225;rdico come&#231;a no ventr&#237;culo direito nessa doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Anos 90</title>
        <p>Com a introdu&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;todos estat&#237;sticos na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica para a determina&#231;&#227;o de preditores independentes de mortalidade, o quadro dos pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica pode ser mais bem avaliado. Em 1991, Espinosa e associados aplicaram os modelos de risco proporcional de Cox para previs&#227;o de sobreviv&#234;ncia em 66 pacientes avaliados invasiva e n&#227;o-invasivamente. Eles demonstraram que press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, cardiomegalia no raio x de t&#243;rax e press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo determinada por cateterismo do cora&#231;&#227;o esquerdo eram preditores independentes de mortalidade em pacientes com essa condi&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> Todavia, quando a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo foi determinada n&#227;o-invasivamente por ecocardiografia, viu-se que ela tamb&#233;m &#233; uma importante preditora independente de mortalidade por qualquer causa para pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Nos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica secund&#225;ria &#224; cardiopatia chag&#225;sica, a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e VO2max permaneceram como preditores independentes de mortalidade por qualquer causa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> Obervou-se que a taquicardia ventricular induzida por teste ergom&#233;trico agiu como preditora de morte card&#237;aca s&#250;bita em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica, confirmando-se em laborat&#243;rio a associa&#231;&#227;o entre arritmia ventricular maligna e morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca. Preditores independentes de morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca n&#227;o associados a exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico foram estabelecidos em 1996.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Outra importante descoberta nos anos 90 foi a ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema neuro-hormonal em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica secund&#225;ria a cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica. Assim, ficou claro que o sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> bem como o sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> eram hiperativados, similarmente ao que ocorreu em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca n&#227;o relacionada &#224; doen&#231;a de Chagas, expandindo assim as estrat&#233;gias para o tratamento de pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#243;nica.</p>
        <p>Em 1995, Kalil et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> mostraram uma boa correla&#231;&#227;o entre a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica e a bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica na detec&#231;&#227;o de miocardite subjacente em pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica, anunciando assim o papel potencial de tal m&#233;todo no estudo de pacientes com essa patologia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> Outra importante descoberta dessa d&#233;cada foi que o progn&#243;stico de pacientes ambulatoriais com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica era pior do que o de outros tipos de cardiomiopatia dilatada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> Em 1999, Rabinovitch et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> observaram que a taxa de recrudesc&#234;ncia de arritmia ventricular maligna foi de 85% em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica, sobreviventes de parada card&#237;aca, tratados com cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel. Dessa forma, demonstraram o mecanismo de morte card&#237;aca s&#250;bita em pacientes com essa condi&#231;&#227;o naquela &#233;poca, diferentemente do papel do bloqueio de AV na indu&#231;&#227;o de morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca na &#233;poca de Chagas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Anos 2000</title>
        <p>Barros et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> mostraram anomalias no tempo de contra&#231;&#227;o isovolum&#233;trica em pacientes com ECG normal, raio x de t&#243;rax normal e ecocardiograma normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> Os mesmos autores tamb&#233;m apontaram comprometimento ventricular direito em pacientes cujo ecocardiograma estava normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> Rochitte et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> quantificaram a fibrose mioc&#225;rdica por resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica. Eles observaram que a fibrose mioc&#225;rdica estava presente em 85 % dos pacientes com essa patologia, e que a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda estava inversamente correlacionada &#224; fibrose mioc&#225;rdica, assim detectando in vivo aquilo que Chagas havia detectado em exames post mortem. Tamb&#233;m observaram que fibrose mioc&#225;rdica estava presente em todos os pacientes com taquicardia ventricular, o que pode sugerir envolvimento da fibrose na patog&#234;nese de arritmias malignas em pacientes com essa patologia, conforme o que se observava em pacientes que n&#227;o tinham a doen&#231;a de Chagas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O cronograma da constru&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica est&#225; apresentada na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cronologia da constru&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica da Cardiopatia Chag&#225;sica Cr&#244;nica. HC: Cateterismo Card&#237;aco; ECHO: Ecocardiografia; EMB: Bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica; MRI: Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-107-01-0063-60079-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Esta reavalia&#231;&#227;o hist&#243;rica mostra que as descobertas de Carlos Chagas serviram como pano de fundo para a constru&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica e para a evolu&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica trazida pela continua&#231;&#227;o dada a seu trabalho, mas, em ess&#234;ncia, confirmou suas suposi&#231;&#245;es sobre essa trag&#233;dia continental, agora globalizada. &#201; inacredit&#225;vel que tal descoberta n&#227;o tenha ganho um Pr&#234;mio Nobel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
