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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">BdwRTmt3LQrswVnVCyDWPSN</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2016000500434</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20160074</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Viewpoint</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Genetics of Dyslipidemia</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani</surname>
            <given-names>Diego</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Stein</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">4</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">5</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Health in Code</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">La Coru&#241;a</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="ES">Spain</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Health in Code, La Coru&#241;a, Spain</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de La Coru&#241;a</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Grupo de Investigaci&#243;n Cardiovascular</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">La Coru&#241;a</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="ES">Spain</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo de Investigaci&#243;n Cardiovascular de La Universidad de La Coru&#241;a, La Coru&#241;a, Spain</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade da Coru&#241;a</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Grupo de Pesquisa em Cardiologia do Exerc&#237;cio</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo de Pesquisa em Cardiologia do Exerc&#237;cio do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Vitta Centro de Bem Estar F&#237;sico</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Vitta Centro de Bem Estar F&#237;sico, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Ricardo Stein</bold>, HCPA - UFRGS. Jo&#227;o Caetano, 20/402, Petr&#243;polis. Postal Code 90470260, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil. E-mail: <email>rstein@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D and Stein R. Acquisition of data: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D and Stein R. Analysis and interpretation of the data: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D and Stein R. Statistical analysis: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D and Stein R. Writing of the manuscript: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D and Stein R. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D and Stein R. Supervision / as the major investigador: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D and Stein R.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Authors' Potential Conflicts of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Diego-Garc&#237;a-Giustiane works at a company that can directly or indirectly benefit from the study results. Ricardo Stein received a grant from the manufacturer of a product in the area of cardiovascular genetics.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>5</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>106</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>434</fpage>
      <lpage>438</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>08</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>20</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Dyslipidemias / genetics</kwd>
        <kwd>Hyperlipoproteinemia Type II</kwd>
        <kwd>Dyslipidemias / diagnosis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Lipoproteins constitute a set of proteins and lipids, organized to facilitate the transport of lipids through blood plasma. Elevated or decreased levels of these lipoproteins may be related to genetic alterations in 40% to 60% of cases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> This fact explains why it is common to find lipid abnormalities in several members of the same family. The elevated levels of these composite organic biomolecules are responsible for approximately 50% of the attributable risk for the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> a process in which other phenotypes with a hereditary component also participate, such as diabetes, obesity and metabolic syndrome.</p>
    <p>Population studies of genetic association identified more than one hundred genes that could have a direct impact on lipid levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> These genes affect plasma levels of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-c) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c), as well as of triglycerides, being capable of establishing complex phenotypes. However, among these genes identified in the association studies, there is a previously known and well-characterized group of genes responsible for the development of monogenic dyslipidemias. In such cases, the variant in a single gene clearly explains the phenotype.</p>
    <p>It is noteworthy that even when isolated, these mutations determine diseases considered rare and the impact produced by variants of these genes tend to be high, resulting in extreme values of lipid levels. Considering that cardiovascular atherosclerotic disease is a process that starts in childhood and progresses throughout life,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> the early identification of risk factors is very important. In this sense, the diagnosis of phenotypes determined by monogenic diseases of lipid metabolism deserves special attention, considering that, when they produce extreme phenotypes, they can be associated with the development of early atherosclerosis of rapid progression.</p>
    <p>In fact, genetic studies using Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS), carried out in patients with early acute myocardial infarction (AMI) (that occurring before 50 years of age in men and 60 in women) have determined that the presence of rare genetic variants in the LDLR gene resulted in a 4-fold higher risk of this event in their carriers. On the other hand, the rare variants in the APOA5 gene, associated with high triglyceride levels, resulted in a 3-fold higher risk. Moreover, approximately 2% of the cases were carriers of a clearly pathogenic mutation in LDLR, suggesting that these patients had a diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> In a broader sense, it is estimated that approximately 5% of AMIs in patients aged &lt; 60 years may be due to familial hypercholesterolemia, a figure that can increase up to 20% when acute coronary events affect individuals younger than 45 years.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
		</p>
    <p>It is noteworthy that even in the case of monogenic diseases, mutations identified in many of the genes frequently responsible for these diseases show significant variability in phenotypic expression and the associated risk, either in carriers from the same family or among carriers of the same mutation that belong to different populations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Occasionally, this fact may hinder or delay diagnosis in patients to whom only clinical criteria are applied, since in those circumstances, lipid levels may overlap those observed in the general population.</p>
    <p>The great variability in clinical expression in patients with a certain variant is due to the effect of other factors, which would act as modifiers for the expression of the accountable mutation, a fact that has been demonstrated in several occasions. Incidentally, this is the case of variants in genes such as ApoB, PCSK9, LRP1 and Lp(a), as well as in carriers with mutations in LDLR diagnosed with familial hypercholesterolemia, just to name a few examples.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> The participation of genetic variants as phenotypic expression modifiers is explained by the fact that the genes involved can be independently associated, being capable of promoting an increase or decrease in the lipoprotein levels that they affect. In other words, the interactions of their effects attenuate or increase lipid levels, as well as the associated risk in carriers. Similarly, certain variants may influence not only the phenotypic expression, but also the response to drug treatment, determining that the intervention be or not effective in its goal of reducing the associated risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
		</p>
    <sec>
      <title>Genes Associated with Alterations in LDL-C Levels</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Familial Hypercholesterolemia</title>
        <p>This familial disease is one of the most prevalent monogenic disorders, being identified in approximately 1 in 500 individuals in the general population. Interestingly, in some European subpopulations, it has been estimated that the frequency is even higher, around 1 in 250 individuals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> In the past, the characterization of familial hypercholesterolemia was carried out using only clinical and laboratory criteria. However, knowledge of this strategy limitations, regarding its low sensitivity for the diagnosis,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> motivated changes in two of the three main diagnostic criteria of this disease entity.</p>
        <p>According to the criteria established by the Dutch Lipid Clinic Criteria (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>) and the Simon Broome Diagnostic Criteria, the identification of pathogenic mutations, when added to additional clinical criteria, has been used to consider the diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia as a definitive one.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Dutch Lipid Clinic Criteria for the diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia (score)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" colspan="3">Criteria</th>
                <th align="center">Score</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Family history</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">First-degree relative with early coronary disease (men &lt; 55 years and women &lt; 60 years)</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">First-degree relative with LDL-c levels &gt; 210 mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">First-degree relative with tendon xanthomas and/or corneal arc &lt; 45 years</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">Family member &lt; 18 years with LDL-c &#8805; 150 mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Personal history</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">Patients with early coronary disease (men &lt; 55 years and women &lt; 60 years)</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">Patient with early cerebrovascular or peripheral artery disease (men &lt; 55 years and women &lt; 60 years)</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Physical examination</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">Tendon xanthomas</td>
                <td align="center">6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">Corneal arc in individuals &lt; 45 years</td>
                <td align="center">4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Laboratory analysis</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">LDL-c &#8805; 330 mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">LDL-c 250-329 mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">LDL-c 190-249 mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">LDL-c 155-189 mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Genetic analysis</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">Functional mutation in one of these genes: LDLR, APOB or PCSK9</td>
                <td align="center">8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Definite diagnosis: &#8805; 8 points</td>
                <td align="center">Probable diagnosis: 6-7 points</td>
                <td align="center">Possible diagnosis: 3-5 points</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN01">
              <p>LDL-c: low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Incidentally, the identification of pathogenic mutations in probands constitutes the first step to start the genetic screening in this individual's family. This approach is of utmost importance in pediatric and adolescent family members, in which the clinical criteria may not be well defined, although the disease may have already started to exert its effects at the vascular level. Regarding the diagnosis and management of this disease, such perspective has been supported by guidelines established by important medical societies, such as the Canadian,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> the British (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence -NICE),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> the Australian / New Zealander<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> and the Spanish society,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> among others.</p>
        <p>The genes for which there is demonstrated evidence of association with familial hypercholesterolemia are LDLR, ApoB, PCSK9 and LDLRAP1. The main lipoprotein alteration associated with the phenotype is the increase in the LDL-lipoprotein levels. However, some variations in the ApoB and PCSK9 genes may determine the decrease of this lipoprotein. It is noteworthy that the phenotype determined by the three genes, LDLR, ApoB and PCSK9, shows a pattern of autosomal dominant transmission, while the phenotype determined by mutations in the gene LDLRAP1 has an exclusive autosomal recessive transmission.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Phytosterolemia</title>
        <p>This is one of the main differential diagnoses in patients with suspected familial hypercholesterolemia. This disease is caused by the abnormal absorption of cholesterol and accumulation of sterols, especially those of plant origin (hence its name). The clinical features of this disease include the presence of xanthomas and premature coronary atherosclerosis, as well as hemolytic anemia and/or liver disease. The genes associated with this disease are ABCG5 and ABCG8. Regarding other genes that alter the metabolism of this lipoprotein, it includes a group associated with a decrease in its levels (familial hypobetalipoproteinemia), with a possible protective effect for cardiovascular disease in carriers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> The genes associated with these phenotypes are ANGPTL3, MTTP and MYLIP.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Genes Associated with Triglyceride Metabolism Alterations</title>
        <p>The role of hypertriglyceridemia caused by genetic factors as a risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease has been well established. In a recent study, which included a large cohort of patients with early AMI (before age 50), in which sequencing was carried out through NGS, carriers of APOA5 gene variants had an increased risk up to 3.3-fold higher when compared to non-carriers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> A similar association had been previously established in another large cohort (the Copenhagen Cohort), in which the LPL gene was also investigated. In this observational study, it was determined that for every increase of 1 mmol/L (39 mg/dL) in triglyceride-rich cholesterol (remaining), which is mediated by genetic cause, an increase in risk for coronary artery disease (CAD) was 2.8 higher than in controls.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> The main genes associated with increased levels of triglycerides (as main phenotype) are APOA5, APOC2, APOE, GPD1, GPIHBP1, HNF1A, LMF1, LPL and SLC25A40. It is noteworthy that a group of rare variants in the APOC3 gene was associated with a reduction in triglyceride levels, promoting reduction of up to 40% in the risk of CAD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Genes related with HDL-c levels</title>
        <p>Epidemiological studies of the 1990s established an inverse association between HDL-c levels and CAD risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> At present, what is known is that this association seems to be more related to the quality of the HDL-c particles, due to structural abnormalities secondary to mutations, than the absolute amount of this lipoprotein<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> - a fact that may explain the recent questions about the meaning of HDL-c levels on the development of CAD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The typical example of the structure/function association is that represented by a mutation affecting apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1 ratio), a major constituent of HDL lipoprotein, which is associated with an effect opposite to that expected. For instance, the mutation (Arg173Cys) determines the production of ApoA1 dimers, determining that HDL-c levels be extremely low. However, these particles are very efficient in reverse cholesterol transport, which makes the carriers have a very low incidence of ischemic heart disease, although an extremely low quantitatively measured HDL-c.</p>
        <p>Nevertheless, low levels of HDL-c of monogenic etiology determine a group of diseases that have a high prevalence of early atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. The genes associated with low HDL-c of monogenic etiology are APOA1, ABCA1, LCAT, SAR1B and ABCG1.</p>
        <p>APOA1 is the gene responsible for the phenotype of familial hypoalphalipoproteinemia, an entity with autosomal dominant etiology. The ABCA1 gene, in turn, is associated with Tangier disease, which is autosomal recessive. Similarly, the LCAT genes, which are associated with fish-eye disease, and the SAR1B gene, which is related to chylomicron-retention disease, also occur with decreased levels of HDL-c.</p>
        <p>On the other hand, there is a group of genes associated with increased levels of HDL-c. Nevertheless, there is no evidence of a protective effect against atherosclerosis. One explanation for this finding might be related to the fact that these genetic variants alter the distribution of subclasses of HDL-c particles, increasing the less protective ones.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> This information may be relevant to determine whether the increase of this lipoprotein may be considered when calculating the cardiovascular risk associated with the lipoprotein ratios. The genes associated with increased HDL-C of genetic etiology are CETP, LIPC, PLTP and SCARB1.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Secondary Causes of Dyslipidemia</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Lipodystrophies</title>
          <p>Lipodystrophies constitute a heterogeneous group of rare diseases of which common characteristic is the selective loss of adipose tissue. However, they predispose to the development of metabolic complications similar to those seen in obese individuals. Among these, are alterations in the lipid metabolism (increased triglycerides and reduced HDL-c) as well as insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus, entities associated with increased risk of premature atherosclerosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> The main genes associated with these diseases are LPL, AGPAT2, BSCL2, CAV1, CIDEC, LMNA, PLIN1, PPARG, PTRF and ZMPSTE24.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Other Genes of Interest</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Statin-induced myopathy</title>
          <p>Muscle pain secondary to treatment with statins is the adverse effect most often associated with the use of these drugs. It is estimated that it affects 1 to 10% of treated patients,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> being an underdiagnosed complication.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> The severity and risk for the development of major complications, such as rhabdomyolysis, are related with the combined use of statins, dose and factors such as age and gender, as well as the concomitant use of other drugs affecting the bioavailability of these compounds.</p>
          <p>The genetic determinants of associated risk consist of genes encoding enzymes related to the metabolism of these drugs, as well as carriers and genes associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. All these factors add up to those effects caused by statins themselves, as a cause of muscle damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> The genes with the highest level of association evidence with this complication are AMPD1, COQ2, CPT2, CYP2D6, PPARA, PYGM, SLC22A8 and SLCO1B1.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Primary dyslipidemias or those without apparent cause can be classified genotypically or phenotypically through biochemical analysis. In genotypic classification, dyslipidemias are divided into monogenic (caused by mutations in a single gene) and polygenic (caused by associations of multiple mutations, which would not be of great impact when alone).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The knowledge of the molecular basis of dyslipidemias allows their correct diagnosis. In this scenario, the institution of an optimal drug therapy may be better founded. Moreover, genetic diagnosis in an index case can trigger a family investigation process, which allows early detection, therapeutic guidance and consequent reduction of cardiovascular risk in such individuals.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of Pos Doctoral abroad (Spain) submitted by Ricardo Stein, from Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da UFRGS.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ref-list>
      <title>References</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <mixed-citation>1 Weiss LA, Pan L, Abney M, Ober C. The sex-specific genetic architecture of quantitative traits in humans. Nat Genet. 2006;38(2):218-22.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Weiss</surname>
              <given-names>LA</given-names>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Ponto de Vista</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Gen&#233;tica das Dislipidemias</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani</surname>
            <given-names>Diego</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Stein</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">4</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">5</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Health in Code, La Coru&#241;a, Espanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo de Investigaci&#243;n Cardiovascular de La Universidad de La Coru&#241;a, La Coru&#241;a, Espanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo de Pesquisa em Cardiologia do Exerc&#237;cio do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Vitta Centro de Bem Estar F&#237;sico, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Ricardo Stein</bold>, HCPA - UFRGS. Jo&#227;o Caetano, 20/402, Petr&#243;polis. CEP 90470-260, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil. E-mail: <email>rstein@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D e Stein R. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D e Stein R. An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D e Stein R. An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D e Stein R. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D e Stein R. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante:Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani D e Stein R.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Diego Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani &#233; empregado de uma empresa que possa se beneficiar direta ou indiretamente com os resultados do estudo. Ricardo Stein recebeu aux&#237;lio de fabricante de produto na &#225;rea da gen&#233;tica cardiovascular (verba de pesquisa).</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Dislipidemias / gen&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Hiperlipoproteinemia Tipo II</kwd>
        <kwd>Dislipidemias / diagn&#243;stico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>As lipoprote&#237;nas consistem em um conjunto composto por prote&#237;nas e lip&#237;deos, organizados de modo a facilitar o transporte dos lip&#237;deos pelo plasma sangu&#237;neo. N&#237;veis elevados ou diminu&#237;dos dessas lipoprote&#237;nas podem estar relacionados a altera&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas entre 40 e 60% dos casos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Tal fato explica por que &#233; frequente encontrar anormalidades lip&#237;dicas em v&#225;rios membros de uma mesma fam&#237;lia. Os n&#237;veis aumentados dessas biomol&#233;culas org&#226;nicas compostas s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por aproximadamente 50% do risco atribu&#237;vel ao desenvolvimento de enfermidades ateroscler&#243;ticas cardiovasculares,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> processo do qual tamb&#233;m participam outros fen&#243;tipos com componente heredit&#225;rio, como diabetes, obesidade e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica.</p>
      <p>Estudos populacionais de associa&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica identificaram mais de cem genes que poderiam ter um impacto direto nos n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Esses genes afetam os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos do colesterol total, da lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade-colesterol (LDL-c) e da lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade-colesterol (HDL-c), assim como dos triglicer&#237;deos, sendo capazes de constituir fen&#243;tipos complexos. No entanto, entre aqueles genes identificados nos estudos de associa&#231;&#227;o, encontra-se um grupo previamente conhecido e bem caracterizado de genes respons&#225;veis pelo desenvolvimento das dislipidemias monog&#234;nicas. Nesses casos, a variante em um gene &#250;nico explica claramente o fen&#243;tipo.</p>
      <p>&#201; importante frisar que, mesmo de forma isolada, tais muta&#231;&#245;es determinam enfermidades consideradas raras e o impacto produzido pelas variantes desses genes tende a ser elevado, determinando valores extremos nos n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos. Considerando que a doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica cardiovascular &#233; um processo que inicia na inf&#226;ncia e evolui ao longo da vida,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> a identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce de fatores de risco &#233; muito importante. Nesse sentido, o diagn&#243;stico de fen&#243;tipos determinados por doen&#231;as monog&#234;nicas do metabolismo lip&#237;dico merece aten&#231;&#227;o especial, uma vez que, ao produzir fen&#243;tipos extremos, elas podem se associar ao desenvolvimento de aterosclerose precoce e de r&#225;pida progress&#227;o. De fato, estudos gen&#233;ticos, mediante t&#233;cnica de Sequenciamento de Nova Gera&#231;&#227;o (NGS, sigla do ingl&#234;s <italic>Next-Generation Sequencing</italic>) realizada em pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) precoce (aqueles que ocorrem antes dos 50 anos nos homens e dos 60 anos nas mulheres), determinaram que a presen&#231;a de variantes gen&#233;ticas raras no gene LDLR quadruplicava o risco desse evento em seus portadores. Por sua vez, variantes raras no gene APOA5, associado a n&#237;veis elevados de triglicer&#237;deos, triplicavam o risco. Inclusive, cerca de 2% dos casos eram de portadores de uma muta&#231;&#227;o claramente patog&#234;nica em LDLR, sugerindo que esses pacientes teriam diagn&#243;stico de hipercolesterolemia familiar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Em um sentido mais amplo, estima-se que cerca de 5% dos IAM em pacientes com menos de 60 anos podem ocorrer devido &#224; hipercolesterolemia familiar, cifra que pode se elevar at&#233; 20% quando o evento coron&#225;rio agudo incide em indiv&#237;duos com menos de 45 anos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Digno de nota &#233; que, mesmo tratando-se de patologias monog&#234;nicas, as muta&#231;&#245;es identificadas em muitos dos genes frequentemente respons&#225;veis por essas enfermidades evidenciam importante variabilidade na express&#227;o fenot&#237;pica e no risco associado, seja nos portadores de uma mesma fam&#237;lia ou entre portadores de uma mesma muta&#231;&#227;o pertencentes a diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Em certas ocasi&#245;es, esse fato pode dificultar ou retardar o diagn&#243;stico em pacientes nos quais se utilizam somente crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos, j&#225; que, nessas circunst&#226;ncias, os n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos podem se sobrepor aos observados na popula&#231;&#227;o geral.</p>
      <p>A grande variabilidade na express&#227;o cl&#237;nica em portadores de uma determinada variante se deve ao efeito de outros fatores que atuariam como modificadores na express&#227;o da muta&#231;&#227;o respons&#225;vel, fato este que j&#225; foi demonstrado em diversas oportunidades. Por sinal, esse &#233; o caso de variantes em genes como ApoB, PCSK9, LRP1 e Lp(a), assim como em portadores de muta&#231;&#245;es em LDLR com diagn&#243;stico de hipercolesterolemia familiar, somente para citar alguns exemplos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> A participa&#231;&#227;o de variantes gen&#233;ticas como modificadoras na express&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo tem explica&#231;&#227;o no fato que os genes envolvidos podem se associar de forma independente, sendo capazes de promover incremento ou diminui&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis da lipoprote&#237;na que afetam. Em outras palavras, as intera&#231;&#245;es de seus efeitos atenuam ou aumentam os n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos, assim como o risco associado nos portadores. Da mesma forma, determinadas variantes podem influir n&#227;o somente na express&#227;o fenot&#237;pica, sen&#227;o tamb&#233;m na resposta ao tratamento farmacol&#243;gico, determinando que a interven&#231;&#227;o seja ou n&#227;o efetiva em seu objetivo de diminui&#231;&#227;o do risco associado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
			</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Genes Relacionados com Altera&#231;&#245;es nos N&#237;veis de LDL -C</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Hipercolesterolemia familiar</title>
          <p>Essa doen&#231;a familiar constitui uma das patologias monog&#234;nicas mais prevalentes, sendo identificada em aproximadamente 1:500 indiv&#237;duos na popula&#231;&#227;o geral. Interessante &#233; que, em algumas subpopula&#231;&#245;es europeias, estima-se que a frequ&#234;ncia seja ainda maior, ficando na ordem de 1:250 indiv&#237;duos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> No passado, a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da hipercolesterolemia familiar era realizada utilizando-se crit&#233;rios exclusivamente cl&#237;nicos e de laborat&#243;rio. No entanto, o conhecimento das limita&#231;&#245;es dessa estrat&#233;gia, no que tange &#224; baixa sensibilidade para o diagn&#243;stico,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> motivou modifica&#231;&#245;es em dois dos tr&#234;s principais crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos dessa entidade nosol&#243;gica. De acordo com os crit&#233;rios estabelecidos pela <italic>Dutch Lipid Clinic Criteria</italic> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>) e pelo <italic>Simon Broome Diagnostic Criteria</italic>, a identifica&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#245;es patog&#234;nicas, quando somadas a crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos adicionais, tem sido utilizada para considerar como definitivo o diagn&#243;stico de hipercolesterolemia familiar. Por sinal, identificar muta&#231;&#245;es patog&#234;nicas em probandos constitui o primeiro passo para se iniciar a triagem gen&#233;tica na fam&#237;lia desse indiv&#237;duo. Essa abordagem &#233; de fundamental import&#226;ncia nos familiares de idade pedi&#225;trica e em adolescentes nos quais os crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos podem n&#227;o estar bem definidos, embora a doen&#231;a j&#225; possa ter come&#231;ado a exercer seus efeitos &#224; n&#237;vel vascular. No que diz respeito ao diagn&#243;stico e ao manejo dessa enfermidade, tal perspectiva tem sido apoiada por diretrizes redigidas por importantes sociedades m&#233;dicas como a canadense,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> a brit&#226;nica (<italic>National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence</italic> &#8722; NICE),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> a australiana/neozelandesa<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> e a espanhola,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> entre outras.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Crit&#233;rios da Dutch Lipid Clinic Criteria para o diagn&#243;stico de hipercolesterolemia familiar (pontua&#231;&#227;o)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" colspan="3">Crit&#233;rios</th>
                  <th align="center">Pontos</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="4">
                    <bold>Hist&#243;ria familiar</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">Familiar de primeiro grau com patologia coron&#225;ria precoce (homens &lt; 55 anos e mulheres &lt; 60 anos)</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">Familiar de primeiro grau com n&#237;veis de LDL-c &gt; 210 mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">Familiar de primeiro grau com xantomas tendinosos e/ou com arco corneano &lt; 45 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">Familiar &lt; 18 anos com LDL-c &#8805; 150 mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="4">
                    <bold>Antecedentes pessoais</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">Paciente com patologia coron&#225;ria precoce (homens &lt; 55 anos e mulheres &lt; 60 anos)</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">Paciente com patologia cerebrovascular ou arterial perif&#233;rica precoce (homens &lt; 55 anos e mulheres &lt; 60 anos)</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="4">
                    <bold>Exame f&#237;sico</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">Xantomas tendinosos</td>
                  <td align="center">6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">Arco corneano em indiv&#237;duos &lt; 45 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="4">
                    <bold>An&#225;lise laboratorial</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">LDL-c &#8805; 330 mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">LDL-c 250-329 mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">LDL-c 190-249 mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">LDL-c 155-189 mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="4">
                    <bold>An&#225;lise gen&#233;tica</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">Muta&#231;&#227;o funcional em algum desses genes: LDLR, APOB ou PCSK9</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="4">
                    <bold>Diagn&#243;stico de hipercolesterolemia familiar</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Certeza: &#8805; 8 pontos</td>
                  <td align="center">Prov&#225;vel: 6-7 pontos</td>
                  <td align="center">Poss&#237;vel: 3-5 pontos</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN02">
                <p>LDL-c: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade-colesterol.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Os genes para os quais existe evid&#234;ncia demonstrada de associa&#231;&#227;o com a hipercolesterolemia familiar s&#227;o LDLR, ApoB, PCSK9 e LDLRAP1. A principal altera&#231;&#227;o lipoproteica ligada ao fen&#243;tipo &#233; o incremento nos n&#237;veis da lipoprote&#237;na LDL. No entanto, algumas variantes nos genes ApoB e PCSK9 podem determinar a diminui&#231;&#227;o dessa lipoprote&#237;na. &#201; de se destacar que o fen&#243;tipo determinado pelos tr&#234;s genes LDLR, ApoB e PCSK9 apresenta um padr&#227;o de transmiss&#227;o autoss&#244;mico dominante, enquanto o fen&#243;tipo determinado por muta&#231;&#245;es no gene LDLRAP1 se transmite exclusivamente de forma autoss&#244;mica recessiva.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sitosterolemia</title>
          <p>Trata-se de um dos principais diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais em pacientes com suspeita de hipercolesterolemia familiar. &#201; uma doen&#231;a causada pela absor&#231;&#227;o anormal do colesterol e pelo ac&#250;mulo de ester&#243;is, sobretudo daqueles de origem vegetal (da&#237; seu nome). As caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas dessa patologia incluem presen&#231;a de xantomas e aterosclerose coron&#225;ria prematura, al&#233;m de anemia hemol&#237;tica e/ou hepatopatia. Os genes associados a essa enfermidade s&#227;o ABCG5 e o ABCG8. Em rela&#231;&#227;o a outros genes que alteram o metabolismo dessa lipoprote&#237;na, inclui-se um grupo associado &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o de seus n&#237;veis (hipobetalipoproteinemias familiares), com poss&#237;vel efeito protetor para a doen&#231;a cardiovascular em portadores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Os genes associados a esses fen&#243;tipos s&#227;o ANGPTL3, MTTP e MYLIP<italic>.</italic></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Genes Associados a Altera&#231;&#245;es no Metabolismo dos Triglicer&#237;deos</title>
          <p>O papel da hipertrigliceridemia de etiologia gen&#233;tica como fator de risco para enfermidade ateroscler&#243;tica cardiovascular j&#225; est&#225; bem estabelecido. Em estudo recente, que incluiu uma extensa coorte de pacientes com IAM precoce (antes dos 50 anos), nos quais se realizou sequencia&#231;&#227;o mediante NGS, os portadores de variantes no gene APOA5 apresentavam aumento no risco de at&#233; 3,3 vezes em rela&#231;&#227;o aos n&#227;o portadores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Associa&#231;&#227;o parecida j&#225; havia sido estabelecida previamente em outra grande coorte (<italic>Copenhagen Cohort</italic>), na qual o gene LPL tamb&#233;m foi investigado<italic>.</italic> Nesse estudo observacional, foi determinado que, para cada aumento de 1 mmol/L (39 mg/dL) nos n&#237;veis de colesterol rico em triglicer&#237;deos (remanescente), o qual &#233; mediado por causa gen&#233;tica, o incremento de risco para doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria (DAC) foi 2,8 maior do que nos controles.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Os principais genes associados ao aumento nos n&#237;veis de triglicer&#237;deos (como fen&#243;tipo principal) s&#227;o APOA5, APOC2, APOE, GPD1, GPIHBP1, HNF1A, LMF1, LPL e SLC25A40. &#201; digno de nota que um grupo de variantes raras no gene APOC3 se associou a uma redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de triglicer&#237;deos, promovendo diminui&#231;&#227;o de at&#233; 40% no risco de DAC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Genes Relacionados com os N&#237;veis de HDL-C</title>
          <p>Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos da d&#233;cada de 1990 estabeleceram rela&#231;&#227;o inversa entre os n&#237;veis de HDL-c e o risco de DAC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Na atualidade, o que se sabe &#233; que essa associa&#231;&#227;o parece estar mais relacionada com a qualidade das part&#237;culas de HDL-c, por anomalias estruturais secund&#225;rias a muta&#231;&#245;es, do que pela quantidade absoluta dessa lipoprote&#237;na<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> &#8722; fato este que pode explicar o recente questionamento sobre o significado dos n&#237;veis do HDL-c sobre o desenvolvimento da DAC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> O exemplo paradigm&#225;tico da rela&#231;&#227;o estrutura/fun&#231;&#227;o &#233; aquele representado por uma muta&#231;&#227;o que afeta a apolipoprote&#237;na A1 (ApoA1), um dos principais constituintes da lipoprote&#237;na HDL, a qual se associa a um efeito contr&#225;rio ao esperado. Por exemplo, a muta&#231;&#227;o (Arg173Cys) determina a produ&#231;&#227;o de d&#237;meros de ApoA1, determinando que os n&#237;veis de HDL-c sejam extremadamente baixos. Por&#233;m, essas part&#237;culas s&#227;o muito eficientes no transporte reverso do colesterol, o que faz com que os portadores tenham uma incid&#234;ncia muito baixa de cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica, apesar de um HDL-c medido de forma quantitativa extremadamente baixo.</p>
          <p>De todos os modos, os baixos n&#237;veis de HDL-c de etiologia monog&#234;nica determinam um grupo de patologias que apresentam elevada preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as cardiovascular ateroscler&#243;tica precoce. Os genes associados ao HDL-c baixo de etiologia monog&#234;nica s&#227;o APOA1, ABCA1, LCAT, SAR1B e ABCG1.</p>
          <p>APOA1 &#233; o gene respons&#225;vel pelo fen&#243;tipo da hipoalfalipoproteinemia familiar, entidade de etiologia autoss&#244;mica dominante. J&#225; o gene ABCA1 se associa com a doen&#231;a de Tangier, a qual &#233; autoss&#244;mica recessiva. Da mesma forma, os genes LCAT, que se associam &#224; doen&#231;a do olho de peixe, e o gene SAR1B, que tem rela&#231;&#227;o com enfermidade por reten&#231;&#227;o de quilomicras, tamb&#233;m cursam com diminui&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de HDL-c.</p>
          <p>Por outro lado, existe um grupo de genes associados ao incremento nos n&#237;veis de HDL-c. Apesar disso, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia de efeito protetor para aterosclerose. Uma explica&#231;&#227;o para esse achado poderia estar ligada ao fato de que essas variantes gen&#233;ticas alteram a distribui&#231;&#227;o das subclasses das part&#237;culas de HDL-c, incrementando aquelas menos protetoras.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Essa informa&#231;&#227;o pode ser relevante para determinar se o aumento dessa lipoprote&#237;na pode ser considerado para o c&#225;lculo do risco cardiovascular associado &#224; rela&#231;&#227;o entre as lipoprote&#237;nas. Os genes associados ao incremento do HDL-c de etiologia gen&#233;tica s&#227;o CETP, LIPC, PLTP e SCARB1.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Dislipidemias de Causa Secund&#225;ria</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Lipodistrofias</title>
            <p>As lipodistrofias constituem um grupo heterog&#234;neo de enfermidades raras, cuja caracter&#237;stica comum &#233; a perda seletiva do tecido adiposo. No entanto, elas predisp&#245;em ao desenvolvimento de complica&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas semelhantes &#224;quelas observadas em indiv&#237;duos com obesidade. Entre elas, podem ser inclu&#237;das altera&#231;&#245;es no metabolismo lip&#237;dico (aumento de triglicer&#237;deos e redu&#231;&#227;o no HDL-c), como tamb&#233;m a resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e o diabetes melito, entidades associadas ao incremento no risco de aterosclerose prematura.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> Os principais genes associados a essas enfermidades s&#227;o LPL, AGPAT2, BSCL2, CAV1, CIDEC, LMNA, PLIN1, PPARG, PTRF e ZMPSTE24.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Outros Genes de Interesse</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Miopatia induzida por estatinas</title>
            <p>Dor muscular secund&#225;ria ao tratamento com as estatinas representam o efeito adverso mais frequentemente associado ao uso desses f&#225;rmacos. Estima-se que afeta de 1 a 10% dos pacientes tratados,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> sendo uma complica&#231;&#227;o subdiagnosticada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> A severidade e o risco para o desenvolvimento de complica&#231;&#245;es maiores como a rabdomi&#243;lise apresentam rela&#231;&#227;o com o uso combinado de estatinas, dose e fatores como sexo e idade, assim como com o uso concomitante de outros f&#225;rmacos que alteram a biodisponibilidade desses compostos. Os determinantes gen&#233;ticos de risco associado est&#227;o constitu&#237;dos por genes que codificam enzimas relacionadas com o metabolismo desses f&#225;rmacos, assim como com transportadores e com genes associados &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial. Todos esses fatores somam efeitos &#224;queles gerados pelas estatinas <italic>per se</italic>, como etiologia de dano muscular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Os genes com maior n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia de associa&#231;&#227;o com essa complica&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o AMPD1, COQ2, CPT2, CYP2D6, PPARA, PYGM e SLC22A8 e SLCO1B1.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>As dislipidemias prim&#225;rias ou sem causa aparente podem ser classificadas genotipicamente ou fenotipicamente por meio de an&#225;lises bioqu&#237;micas. Na classifica&#231;&#227;o genot&#237;pica, as dislipidemias se dividem em monog&#234;nicas (causadas por muta&#231;&#245;es em um s&#243; gene) e polig&#234;nicas (causadas por associa&#231;&#245;es de m&#250;ltiplas muta&#231;&#245;es que, isoladamente, n&#227;o seriam de grande repercuss&#227;o).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O conhecimento da base molecular das dislipidemias permite um diagn&#243;stico correto das mesmas. Nesse cen&#225;rio, a institui&#231;&#227;o de uma terap&#234;utica farmacol&#243;gica &#243;tima pode ser melhor fundamentada. Al&#233;m disso, o diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico em um caso &#237;ndice pode desencadear um processo de investiga&#231;&#227;o na fam&#237;lia, o que possibilita identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce, orienta&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica e consequente redu&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular nesses indiv&#237;duos.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de p&#243;s-doutorado no exterior (Espanha) de Ricardo Stein pelo Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da UFRGS.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
