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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.3" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">TXMWT6MBXhLzgkSfnC3RQ6q</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2016000500396</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20160057</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2016005011101</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Pentoxifylline Attenuates Cardiac Remodeling Induced by Tobacco Smoke Exposure</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Minicucci</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Polegato</surname>
            <given-names>Bertha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Roscani</surname>
            <given-names>Meliza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Angelica</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lustosa</surname>
            <given-names>Beatriz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zornoff</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Paula</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu, Universidade Estadual Paulista, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Paula Schmidt Azevedo Gaiolla</bold>, Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Unesp - Distrito de Rubi&#227;o Jr s/n. Postal Code 18618-000, Botucatu, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>paulasa@fmb.unesp.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Minicucci M, Paiva S, Zornoff L, Azevedo P; Acquisition of data: Minicucci M, Oliveira F, Santos P, Polegato B, Roscani M, Fernandes AA, Lustosa B; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Minicucci M, Oliveira F, Santos P, Polegato B, Paiva S, Zornoff L, Azevedo P; Statistical analysis: Minicucci M, Oliveira F, Santos P, Paiva S, Zornoff L, Azevedo P; Obtaining financing: Azevedo P; Writing of the manuscript: Minicucci M, Azevedo P; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Fernandes AA, Paiva S, Zornoff L, Azevedo P.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>19</day>
        <month>4</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>106</volume>
      <issue>05</issue>
      <fpage>396</fpage>
      <lpage>403</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>01</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Tobacco smoke exposure is an important risk factor for cardiac remodeling. Under this condition, inflammation, oxidative stress, energy metabolism abnormalities, apoptosis, and hypertrophy are present. Pentoxifylline has anti&#8209;inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-thrombotic and anti-proliferative properties.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>The present study tested the hypothesis that pentoxifylline would attenuate cardiac remodeling induced by smoking.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Wistar rats were distributed in four groups: Control (C), Pentoxifylline (PX), Tobacco Smoke (TS), and PX-TS. After two months, echocardiography, invasive blood pressure measurement, biochemical, and histological studies were performed. The groups were compared by two-way ANOVA with a significance level of 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>TS increased left atrium diameter and area, which was attenuated by PX. In the isolated heart study, TS lowered the positive derivate (+dp/dt), and this was attenuated by PX. The antioxidants enzyme superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase were decreased in the TS group; PX recovered these activities. TS increased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and decreased 3-hydroxyacyl Coenzyme A dehydrogenases (OH-DHA) and citrate synthase (CS). PX attenuated LDH, 3-OH-DHA and CS alterations in TS-PX group. TS increased IL-10, ICAM-1, and caspase-3. PX did not influence these variables.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>TS induced cardiac remodeling, associated with increased inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and changed energy metabolism. PX attenuated cardiac remodeling by reducing oxidative stress and improving cardiac bioenergetics, but did not act upon cardiac cytokines and apoptosis.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Tobacco Smoke Pollution</kwd>
        <kwd>Ventricular Remodeling</kwd>
        <kwd>Pentoxifylline</kwd>
        <kwd>Oxidative Stress</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiomyopathies</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdution</title>
      <p>Tobacco smoke (TS) is one of the most important risk factors for cardiovascular disease and directly damages the myocardial tissue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> The toxic effects of TS on the heart have been referred as smoke cardiomyopathy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The potential mechanisms involved in smoke cardiomyopathy and other TS-induced damages include inflammation, oxidative stress, energy metabolism abnormalities, apoptosis, gap junctions remodeling, hypertrophy and angiogenesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Inflammation exerts a key role in this process.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> One possibility is that inflammation activates enzymes, such as NADPH oxidases, that generate reactive oxygen species (ROS).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Inflammation contributes to abnormalities in energy metabolism, which further leads to ROS generation and low levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> During the remodeling process, inflammation, oxidative stress and energy metabolism have been recognized as biochemical abnormalities that induce cellular changes, such as apoptosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> The consequences of the remodeling process are changes in heart size, mass and geometry, which lead to cardiac dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In general, smokers have elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> TNF-&#945;, IFN-&#947; and ICAM-1 have been considered key cytokines involved in cardiac remodeling, leading to endothelial dysfunction, the intracellular death cascade and ROS production.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Inflammation constitutes a common feature in the pathogenesis of cardiac remodeling, but anti-inflammatory therapies for heart failure have shown controversial data.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The RENEWAL and ATTACH trials analyzed the effect of the anti-TNF-&#945; drugs, etanercept and infliximab, on heart failure. Neither drug exerted positive effects. In small trials, pentoxifylline (PX), another anti-TNF-&#945; agent, provided beneficial effects.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
      <p>PX is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor with immunomodulatory properties, including the down-regulation of TNF-&#945; synthesis and the inhibition of apoptosis, cell proliferation and thrombosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> PX seems to delay cardiac deterioration by unclear mechanisms, but a combination of immunomodulatory and vasodilatory effects is possible.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Smoking prevention and cessation is the most important strategy for reducing TS induced damage, but given the high number of smokers and the high risk of cardiovascular death in this population, the study of potentially beneficial drugs for minimizing heart damage is truly relevant. PX has been considered a valuable drug, especially under conditions in which inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis are involved<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the role of PX on the cardiac remodeling induced by TS exposure.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <p>The experimental protocol was approved by the Ethics Commission on Animal Experimentation (CEEA) of our Institution. The study complies with the Ethic Principles on Animal Experimentation adopted by the Brazilian Board of Animal Experimentation.</p>
      <p>Male Wistar rats weighing 200 g to 230 g were divided in four experimental groups: control group (C), composed of animals not exposed to tobacco smoke; tobacco smoke group (TS), composed of animals exposed to tobacco smoke; pentoxifylline group (PX), composed of animals not exposed to tobacco smoke and fed with 100 mg/kg of pentoxifylline added to chow;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> TS-PX group composed of animals exposed to tobacco smoke and fed with chow with the addition of 100 mg/kg of pentoxifylline. All of the animals were observed for two months.</p>
      <p>During the first week, the smoke was released at a rate of 10 cigarettes, twice a day in the afternoon, with resting intervals of 10 min. The number of cigarettes was increased to a rate of 40 cigarettes/day (20 cigarettes/30 min in the morning and in the afternoon) until the completion of the study.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
			</p>
      <p>After this period, morphological and functional analyses were performed, and biological samples were collected for biochemical analyses.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Invasive systolic blood pressure</title>
        <p>The invasive blood pressure measurements were taken by cannulating the femoral artery. The rats were anesthetized with ketamine (50 mg/kg) and xylazine (1 mg/kg) intraperitoneally. Musculature from the inguinal region was dissected to allow for visualization of the left femoral artery.</p>
        <p>The femoral artery was dissected and isolated, and the distal portion was tied. An indwelling with polyvinyl chloride catheter (diameter 0.5 mm) filled with heparin solution (500 IU/mL) was placed in the femoral artery, and the catheter was connected to a polygraph (Windograf, GOULD, Ohio, USA). The average of 10 consecutive measurements of diastolic (DBP) and systolic blood pressures (SBP), obtained through graphic records of the polygraph, was recorded. The mean blood pressure was calculated using the formula (SBP+2xDBP)/3. After the pressure measurement, the catheter was removed, and the proximal portion of the femoral artery was occluded.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Echocardiographic study</title>
        <p>Prior to euthanasia, all of the animals were weighed and evaluated with a transthoracic echocardiograph exam, as previously described.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> The exams were performed using an echocardiograph (SONO CT HDI-5000, Philips Healthcare, Netherlands, Europe), equipped with a 7.5 MHz phased array transducer. All of the measurements were obtained by the same observer, according to the method recommended by the European Association of Echocardiography.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>In vitro left ventricular function</title>
        <p>The isovolumetric isolated heart study was performed as previously described.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Briefly, the entire heart was quickly removed from the chest and transferred to the perfusion apparatus (model 830 Hugo Sachs Eletronick - Grunstasse, Germany). The Krebs-Henseleit solution had the following composition (mmol/L): 115 NaCl, 5.4 KCl, 1.25 CaCl, 1.2 MgSO4, 1.15 NaH2SO4, 1.2 Na2SO4, 25 NaHCO3 and 11 glucose. In the isovolumetrically beating ventricle (200 beats/min), a balloon was inserted inside the left ventricle. The balloon volume was increased in 0.02 mL increments over the end-diastolic pressure range 0-30 mm Hg. The pressure and volume within the balloon were recorded following each increment, and the pressures corresponded to the left ventricular end-diastolic pressure and volume.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Samples</title>
        <p>The animals were euthanized with a large dose of pentobarbital, and their hearts and blood were dissected. A portion of the heart was stored at -80oC. Transverse sections of the left ventricle were fixed in 4% buffered formalin and embedded in paraffin. The rest of the heart was frozen in liquid nitrogen and storage at -80&#186; C freezer.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Energy metabolism and oxidative stress</title>
        <p>Left ventricle samples (200 mg) were used to measure the total protein lipid hydroperoxide (LH) and enzymes from oxidative stress: glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx, E.C.1.11.1.9), superoxide dismutase (SOD, E.C.1.15.1.1), catalase (CAT, E.C.1.11.1.6) and the enzymes from energy metabolism: 3-hydroxyacyl coenzyme-A dehydrogenase (OHADH, E.C.1.1.1.35.), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH, E.C.1.1.1.27) and citrate synthase (CS; E.C.4.1.3.7.), as previously described.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Western blot for the evaluation of Caspase 3 and BCL-2 expression</title>
        <p>The protein extraction was performed with RIPA buffer, diluted in Laemmle buffer, separated by electrophoresis using Mini Protean system 3 Electrophoresis Cell (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA). The proteins were transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane system in the Mini Trans-Blot (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA). The membrane was incubated with the primary antibody, which was a caspase-3 antibody (Cell SignalingTechnology<sup>&#174;</sup>) and BCL-2 (B cell lymphoma -2) overnight. The membrane was washed and incubated with the secondary antibody anti-IgG HRP (Cell SignalingTechnology<sup>&#174;</sup>), for 2 h under stirring. Immunodetection was performed using the chemiluminescence according to the manufacturer's instructions (SuperSignal West Pico Chemiluminescent Substrate, Thermo Scientific, USA). The nitrocellulose membranes were exposed to X-ray films (X-Omat AR film) (Eastman Kodak Co., USA) in predetermined time periods for each protein studied. The antibody used for normalization was GAPDH (6C5) rabbit IgG (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Europe) at a 1:5000 dilution. Quantitative analyses of the blots were performed by Scion Image software (Scion Corporation, Frederick, Maryland, USA), which is free software available at <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.scioncorp.com/">http://www.scioncorp.com/</ext-link>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistics</title>
        <p>The data are represented as the means and the standard deviation. Variables with non-normal distributions were normalized before comparisons. A two-way ANOVA test complemented by the Holm-Sidak test was used to compare the groups. The two factors considered were TS exposure and PX. If an interaction between the factors was present (p &lt; 0.05), the groups were analyzed independently (C X TS; C X PX; TS X TS-PX and PX X TS-PX). If there was no interaction, marginal comparisons were performed inside the factors TS (with or without TS exposure) or PX (with or without PX). The statistical test shows 3 "P" values: one P value for the interaction between TS and PX [ P (TS x PX)]; another P value for the influence of TS [P (TS)]; and the third one for the influence of PX[P (PX]. The data analyses were performed with SigmaStat for Windows v2.03 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL). The significance level was considered to be 5%.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>The mean blood pressure (C = 84 &#177; 3; PX = 86 &#177; 4; TS = 93 &#177; 3; TS-PX = 90 &#177; 3 mmHg) (p = 0.5), heart frequency and body weight were similar among the groups.</p>
      <p>In relation to the effects of smoking, the exposure to TS increased left atrium diameter and area and impaired systolic function, by lowering the positive derivate (+dp/dt) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Echocardiographic and isolated heart study data</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup width="12%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">C (8)</th>
              <th align="center">PX (11)</th>
              <th align="center">TS (10)</th>
              <th align="center">TS-PX (11)</th>
              <th align="center">p (TS x PX)</th>
              <th align="center">P (TS)</th>
              <th align="center">p (PX)</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LVDD/BW (mm/kg)</td>
              <td align="center">19.0 &#177; 1.68</td>
              <td align="center">19.4 &#177; 1.13</td>
              <td align="center">19.96 &#177; 1.86</td>
              <td align="center">19.98 &#177; 1.57</td>
              <td align="center">0.18</td>
              <td align="center">0.70</td>
              <td align="center">0.67</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LVSV/BW (mm/kg)</td>
              <td align="center">7.84 &#177; 0.77</td>
              <td align="center">8.60 &#177; 1.09</td>
              <td align="center">9.03 &#177; 1.59</td>
              <td align="center">8.89 &#177; 1.28</td>
              <td align="center">0.07</td>
              <td align="center">0.27</td>
              <td align="center">0.43</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LVRWT</td>
              <td align="center">0.34 &#177; 0.05</td>
              <td align="center">0.37 &#177; 0.06</td>
              <td align="center">0.34 &#177; 0.05</td>
              <td align="center">0.35 &#177; 0.04</td>
              <td align="center">0.46</td>
              <td align="center">0.38</td>
              <td align="center">0.16</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LAD/BW (mm/kg)</td>
              <td align="center">10.0 &#177; 0.48</td>
              <td align="center">11.3 &#177; 1.12</td>
              <td align="center">11.7 &#177; 1.27<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">11.6 &#177; 0.96<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">0.14</td>
              <td align="center">0.02</td>
              <td align="center">0.18</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LAA/BW (cm<sup>2</sup>/ kg)</td>
              <td align="center">0.53 &#177; 0.79</td>
              <td align="center">0.56 &#177; 0.13</td>
              <td align="center">0.69 &#177; 0.06<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">0.58 &#177; 0.08</td>
              <td align="center">0.03</td>
              <td align="center">0.00</td>
              <td align="center">0.20</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LAA/RAA</td>
              <td align="center">1.14 &#177; 0.15</td>
              <td align="center">1.20 &#177; 0.16</td>
              <td align="center">1.31 &#177; 0.17<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">1.25 &#177; 0.13<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">0.20</td>
              <td align="center">0.04</td>
              <td align="center">0.07</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LVMI (g/kg)</td>
              <td align="center">1.46 &#177; 0.20</td>
              <td align="center">1.52 &#177; 0.24</td>
              <td align="center">1.54 &#177; 0.19</td>
              <td align="center">1.49 &#177; 0.25</td>
              <td align="center">0.53</td>
              <td align="center">0.96</td>
              <td align="center">0.53</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">EF</td>
              <td align="center">92.8 &#177; 1.71</td>
              <td align="center">90.9 &#177; 3.30</td>
              <td align="center">90.3 &#177; 3,78</td>
              <td align="center">90.5 &#177; 4.56</td>
              <td align="center">0.37</td>
              <td align="center">0.48</td>
              <td align="center">0.20</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">FS%</td>
              <td align="center">58.7 &#177; 3.30</td>
              <td align="center">55.6 &#177; 5.22</td>
              <td align="center">54.7 &#177; 6.15</td>
              <td align="center">55.3 &#177; 6.84</td>
              <td align="center">0.33</td>
              <td align="center">0.51</td>
              <td align="center">0.97</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">SP <sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">&#8225;</xref></sup>(mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">164 &#177; 14.5</td>
              <td align="center">153 &#177; 3.30</td>
              <td align="center">141 &#177; 7.18</td>
              <td align="center">156 &#177; 9.90</td>
              <td align="center">0.26</td>
              <td align="center">0.39</td>
              <td align="center">0.85</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">+dp/dt <sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">&#8225;</xref></sup> (mmHg/s)</td>
              <td align="center">3851 &#177; 367</td>
              <td align="center">3500 &#177; 185</td>
              <td align="center">2725 &#177; 228<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">3950 &#177; 320</td>
              <td align="center">0.02</td>
              <td align="center">0.30</td>
              <td align="center">0.20</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">-dp/dt <sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">&#8225;</xref></sup> (mmHg/s)</td>
              <td align="center">2082 &#177; 311</td>
              <td align="center">2417 &#177; 323</td>
              <td align="center">1925 &#177; 109</td>
              <td align="center">2200 &#177; 129</td>
              <td align="center">0.91</td>
              <td align="center">0.48</td>
              <td align="center">0.26</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN01">
            <p>C: control group; PX: pentoxifylline group; TS: tobacco smoke group; TS-PX: tobacco smoke and pentoxifylline group. Pi: p value for interaction between TS and PX. In the absence of interactions, Pts and Ppx should be considered. Pts- p value for animals exposed to TS (TS+ TS-PX) compared with groups not exposed to TS (C + PX). Ppx: p value for the animals that received PX (PX+ TS-PX) compared with the groups that did not receive PX (C + TS).</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN02">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>groups exposed to TS are different from the groups not exposed to TS.</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN03">
            <label>&#8224;</label>
            <p>group TS is different from TS-PX and C. LVDD: left ventricle diastolic diameter; LVSV: left ventricle systolic diameter; LVRWT: left ventricle relative wall thickness; LAD: left atrium diameter; LAA: left atrium area; RAA: right atrium area; LVMI: left ventricle mass index; FS: fractional shortening; EF: ejection fraction; BW: body weight. The data are expressed as the mean &#177; standard deviation. Significance level 5%.</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN04">
            <label>&#8225;</label>
            <p>Isolated heart study data from five animals in each group. SP maximum cardiac systolic pressure; +dp/dt: maximum positive derivate; -dp/dt: maximum negative derivate.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>The inflammatory data evidenced that the groups exposed to TS presented higher levels of IL-10 and ICAM (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t2">
        <label>Table 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Inflammation data</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup width="12%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">
							</th>
              <th align="center">C (6)</th>
              <th align="center">PX (6)</th>
              <th align="center">TS (6)</th>
              <th align="center">TS-PX (6)</th>
              <th align="center">P TS x PX</th>
              <th align="center">P (TS)</th>
              <th align="center">P (PX)</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">TNF-&#945; (pg/mL)</td>
              <td align="center">3.00 &#177; 1.91</td>
              <td align="center">1.71 &#177; 0.70</td>
              <td align="center">3.71 &#177; 2.50<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">5.50 &#177; 3.90<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">0.21</td>
              <td align="center">0.07</td>
              <td align="center">0.90</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">IL-10 (pg/mL)</td>
              <td align="center">15.1 &#177; 7.91</td>
              <td align="center">9.20 &#177; 7.30</td>
              <td align="center">21.9 &#177; 16.6<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">28.1 &#177; 14.7<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">0.26</td>
              <td align="center">0.02</td>
              <td align="center">0.90</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">ICAM (pg/mL)</td>
              <td align="center">4.1 &#177; 0.40</td>
              <td align="center">3.70 &#177; 0.20</td>
              <td align="center">4.30 &#177; 0.30<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">4.30 &#177; 0.60<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref></sup></td>
              <td align="center">0.29</td>
              <td align="center">0.03</td>
              <td align="center">0.20</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN05">
            <p>C: control group; PX: pentoxifylline group; TS: tobacco smoke group; TS-PX: tobacco smoke and pentoxifylline group. Pi: p value for interaction between TS and PX. In the case of Pi&lt;0.05. different letters indicate statistical significance. In the absence of interactions. Pts and Ppx should be considered. Pts- p value for animals exposed to TS (TS+ TS-PX) compared with groups not exposed to TS (C + PX). Ppx: p value for animals that received PX (PX+ TS-PX) compared with groups that did not receive PX (C + TS).</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN06">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>groups exposed to TS are different from groups not exposed to TS. TNF-&#945;- tumor necrosis factor; IL-10- interleukin 10; ICAM: Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Considering oxidative stress, the antioxidants enzyme SOD (C = 20.0 &#177; 1.93; PX = 16.4 &#177; 1.65; TS = 11.0 &#177; 0.89; TS-PX = 21.8 &#177; 2.96) (p &lt; 0.001) and GSHPx (C = 36.4 &#177; 4.80; PX = 33.2 &#177; 6.45; TS = 17.0 &#177; 3.92; TS-PX = 35.8 &#177; 5.29) (p &lt; 0.001) were decreased in the TS group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Also, the groups exposed to TS (TS and TS-PX) presented higher levels of LH compared with the groups not exposed to TS (C = 132 &#177; 14.7; PX = 103 &#177; 14.5 X TS = 176 &#177; 11.5; TS-PX = 126 &#177; 11.9) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Oxidative Stress. C: control group; PX: pentoxifylline group; TS: tobacco smoke group; TS-PX: tobacco smoke and pentoxifylline group; SOD: superoxide dismutase. CAT: catalase; GSH-PX: glutathione peroxidases; LH: lipid hydroperoxide. There was interaction between TS and PX for SOD (p &lt; 0.001) and GSH-PX (p &lt; 0.001). There was no interaction between TS and PX for LH. LH was higher in the groups exposed to TS (p &lt; 0.001) and lower in the groups that received PX (p &lt; 0.001). * group TS is different from TS-PX and C. &#8225; groups exposed to TS are different from groups not exposed to TS. &#8224;groups that received PX are different from groups that did not receive PX. The data are expressed as the mean &#177; 2 SE. Significance level 5%.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-05-0396-60057-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Regarding energy metabolism, TS increased LDH (C = 70.7 &#177; 11.6; PX = 73.5 &#177; 10.6; 133 &#177; 21.9; TS-PX = 106 &#177; 9.88) (p = 0.003) and decreased 3-hydroxyacyl Coenzyme A dehydrogenases (OHDHA) (C = 31.4 &#177; 1.48; PX = 34.8 &#177; 2.70; TS = 15.9 &#177; 2.12; TS-PX = 55 &#177; 9.88) and CS (C = 31.9 &#177; 5.00; PX = 35.0 &#177; 4.75; TS = 24.2 &#177; 3.57; TS-PX = 36.1 &#177; 1.71) (p = 0.02) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Energy metabolism. C: control group; PX: pentoxifylline group; TS: tobacco smoke group; TS-PX: tobacco smoke and pentoxifylline group. There was interaction between TS and PX for LDH (p = 0.02). OHDHA (p &lt; 0.001) and CS (p = 0.01). LDH: lactate dehydrogenases; OHDHA: 3-hydroxyacyl coenzyme A dehydrogenases; CS: citrate synthase. * Group exposed to TS is different from TS-PX and C. The data are expressed as the mean &#177; 2SE. Significance level 5%.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-05-0396-60057-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Finally, TS also increased caspase 3, with none interference in BCL-2. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Apoptosis. C: control group; PX: pentoxifylline group; TS: tobacco smoke group; TS-PX: tobacco smoke and pentoxifylline group; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde- 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. BCL-2 (B-cell lymphoma-2). &#8225; groups exposed to TS (a) are different from animals not exposed to TS (p = 0.01). The data are expressed as the mean &#177; 2SE. Significance level 5%.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-05-0396-60057-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>About the effects of PX, this drug attenuated the left atrium area and improved systolic function, by increasing +dp/dt, in the TS group (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">table 1</xref>). PX recovered the activities of antioxidant enzymes and improved energy metabolism in groups exposed to TS. Regardless of TS exposition, PX reduced oxidative stress damage, by decreasing of LH (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figures 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">2</xref>).</p>
      <p>PX did not influence inflammation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>) and apoptosis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>The aim of this study was to investigate the role of PX on cardiac remodeling induced by TS exposure. TS induced cardiac remodeling, associated with inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis and changed energy metabolism. PX attenuated cardiac remodeling by reducing oxidative stress and improving cardiac bioenergetics.</p>
      <p>Considering the consequences of the remodeling process, previous studies have shown that animals exposed to TS presented different remodeling patterns, including hypertrophy, dilation, hypokinesis and dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> The present data showed that TS changed the cardiac morphology, as evidenced by the higher left atrium area and myocytes hypertrophy. In addition, TS lowered the +dp/dt, a parameter of cardiac systolic function under controlled conditions. Therefore, PX attenuated the morphological variables and improved cardiac function, suggesting that this drug has a positive effect on cardiac remodeling induced by TS exposure.</p>
      <p>Taking into account the mechanisms of the remodeling process, there is a broad variety of biochemical, cellular, interstitial and molecular abnormalities that contribute to morphological changes and cardiac dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Therefore, the rationale for studying the role of PX to attenuate the cardiac remodeling induced by TS is based on the fact that this drug has antiinflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-proliferative and vasodilatory properties.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> In ischemic heart disease, PX ameliorated inflammatory and apoptotic markers and improved the systolic ejection fraction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> In addition, preoperative oral PX improved ejection fraction and reduced inflammatory cytokines after coronary artery bypass.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> However, the effects of PX on smoke cardiomyopathy are still unknown.</p>
      <p>In view of the biochemical parameters, our data showed that TS increased adhesion molecule and Th2 cytokines, such as ICAM and IL-10.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Increased ICAM-1 and IL-10 expression indicate that immunologically mediated injury is present in this model.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> In the meantime, PX did not influence these inflammatory parameters. In the current literature, there are some data showing that PX reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as intercellular adhesion molecule-1, and increased anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> There are other studies in which PX did not influence the TNF-&#945; pathway.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> However, it has been suggested that PX exerts biological and immunomodulatory effects independently of the cytokine levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In terms of cellular abnormalities, the present study showed that TS increased caspase-3 activity. PX has been described as an anti-apoptotic and anti-proliferative agent. For instance, PX administration inhibits myocardial apoptosis after adriamycin-induced dilated cardiomyopathy, by blocking the caspase-3 dependent apoptotic pathway.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> However, in our study, it did not influence these parameters.</p>
      <p>This study showed that PX attenuated oxidative stress and improved energy metabolism. ROS mediated damage was observed in the TS groups, evidenced by low activity of SOD and GPX followed by high levels of LH. PX lowered the LH in the animals exposed to or not exposed to TS. PX increased the SOD and GPX activity in the animals exposed to TS. Oxidative stress is currently thought to have a central role in cardiac toxicity, while antioxidant defenses have a crucial role in protecting the tissue from damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> It has been reported that PX can significantly attenuate cardiac oxidative stress. Rats fed with western diet presented with mild hypertension and the use of PX further enhanced antioxidant activities and lowered blood pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> In addition, the previously described therapeutic effects of pentoxifylline on diabetic heart tissue via NOS, is another important oxidative stress pathway.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Regarding energy metabolism, TS increased LDH, which can be implicated in cardiac damage or in high glucose metabolism. The activities of CS and OHDHA were lowered in the TS group, suggesting impairment of fatty acid oxidation and mitochondrial respiration and density. The abnormal pattern of cardiac bioenergetics showed by these data was also previously observed in models of heart remodeling followed by cardiac dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> Support for the hypothesis that TS impairs cardiac bioenergetics comes from studies where TS induced a significant decrease in respiration and in the phosphorylation rate of mitochondria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> The consequence of this alteration is ROS formation and low energy generation for myocyte relaxation and contraction.</p>
      <p>The roles of PX as an antioxidant and a modulator of metabolic energetics have been described in models different from cardiac remodeling. In the context of liver steatosis, the beneficial effects observed in patients receiving PX might be mediated through a decrease in oxidative stress and in the oxidation of lipid products.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> In a model of paw edema, PX ameliorated the total antioxidant capacity. In the rat brain under toxic stress, PX increased the activity of SOD and GSH-PX, attenuating lipid peroxidation. Considering the mitochondrial function, it is possible that PX improves mitochondrial respiration in the skeletal muscle of atherosclerotic patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> PX might increase the intracellular levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP) and cyclic GMP (cGMP).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
			</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Study Limitation</title>
        <p>The present study has some limitations that should be addressed, due to the lack of evaluation of the entire pathways of apoptosis and inflammation. In addition, different doses of PX were not tested. Finally, it is experimental data that allow us to make hypothesis but not therapeutic recommendation</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>In conclusion, the present study revealed that TS induced cardiac remodeling, associated with increased inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis and changed energy metabolism. PX attenuated cardiac remodeling by reducing oxidative stress and improving cardiac bioenergetics, but did not act upon cardiac cytokines or apoptosis.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by FAPESP.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zornoff</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Paula</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu, Universidade Estadual Paulista, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Paula Schmidt Azevedo Gaiolla</bold> Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Unesp - Distrito de Rubi&#227;o Jr s/n. CEP 18618-000, Botucatu, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>paulasa@fmb.unesp.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Minicucci M, Paiva S, Zornoff L, Azevedo P; Acquisition of data: Minicucci M, Oliveira F, Santos P, Polegato B, Roscani M, Fernandes AA, Lustosa B; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Minicucci M, Oliveira F, Santos P, Polegato B, Paiva S, Zornoff L, Azevedo P; Statistical analysis: Minicucci M, Oliveira F, Santos P, Paiva S, Zornoff L, Azevedo P; Obtaining financing: Azevedo P; Writing of the manuscript: Minicucci M, Azevedo P; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Fernandes AA, Paiva S, Zornoff L, Azevedo P.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>Exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarros &#233; um fator significativo de risco para a remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Nesta condi&#231;&#227;o, est&#227;o presentes inflama&#231;&#227;o, estresse oxidativo, anormalidades do metabolismo energ&#233;tico, apoptose e hipertrofia. A pentoxifilina tem propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias, anti-apopt&#243;ticas, anti-tromb&#243;ticas e anti-proliferativas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>O presente estudo testou a hip&#243;tese de que a pentoxifilina atenuaria a remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida pelo fumo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Ratos Wistar foram distribu&#237;dos em quatro grupos: Controle (C), Pentoxifilina (PX), Fuma&#231;a de Cigarro (FC), e PX-FC. Depois de dois meses, foram feitos ecocardiografia, medi&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o arterial invasiva e estudos bioqu&#237;micos e histol&#243;gicos. Os grupos foram comparados por ANOVA de duas vias com n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>FC aumentou o di&#226;metro e a &#225;rea do &#225;trio esquerdo, o que foi atenuado pela PX. No estudo de cora&#231;&#227;o isolado, FC diminuiu a derivada positiva (+dp/dt), o que foi atenuado por PX. Os antioxidantes enzima super&#243;xido-dismutase e glutationa peroxidase foram reduzidos no grupo FC; PX recuperou essas atividades. FC aumentou o lactato desidrogenase (LDH) e reduziu as desidrogenases 3-hidroxiacil Coenzima A (OH-DHA) e citrato sintase (CS). PX atenuou altera&#231;&#245;es de LDH, 3-OH-DHA e CS no grupo PX-FC. FC aumentou IL-10, ICAM-1 e caspase-3. PX n&#227;o teve influ&#234;ncia nestas vari&#225;veis.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>FC induziu remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, associada a um aumento de inflama&#231;&#227;o, estresse oxidativo, apoptose e metabolismo energ&#233;tico alterado. PX atenuou remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, reduzindo estresse oxidativo e melhorando bioenerg&#233;tica card&#237;aca, mas n&#227;o agiu nas citocinas card&#237;acas nem na apoptose.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Polui&#231;&#227;o por Fuma&#231;a de Tabaco</kwd>
        <kwd>Remodela&#231;&#227;o Ventricular</kwd>
        <kwd>Pentoxifilina</kwd>
        <kwd>Estresse Oxidativo</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A fuma&#231;a de cigarro (FC) &#233; um dos fatores de risco mais significativos para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e prejudica diretamente o tecido do mioc&#225;rdio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Os efeitos t&#243;xicos de FC no cora&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o chamados de cardiomiopatia por fuma&#231;a de cigarro.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O potencial mecanismo envolvido em cardiomiopatia por fuma&#231;a de cigarro e outros danos induzidos por FC incluem inflama&#231;&#227;o, estresse oxidativo, anormalidades no metabolismo energ&#233;tico, apoptose, remodela&#231;&#227;o de jun&#231;&#245;es comunicantes, hipertrofia e angiog&#234;nese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> A inflama&#231;&#227;o tem um papel-chave neste processo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> Uma das possibilidades &#233; que a inflama&#231;&#227;o ative enzimas, como NADPH oxidase, que gera esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (EROs).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> A inflama&#231;&#227;o contribui para anormalidade no metabolismo energ&#233;tico, que leva &#224; regenera&#231;&#227;o de EROs e baixos n&#237;veis de trifosfato de adenosina (ATP).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Durante o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o, inflama&#231;&#227;o, estresse oxidativo e metabolismo energ&#233;tico foram reconhecidos como anormalidades bioqu&#237;micas que induzem altera&#231;&#245;es celulares, como apoptose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> As consequ&#234;ncias do processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o altera&#231;&#245;es no tamanho, massa e geometria do cora&#231;&#227;o, o que leva &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em geral, fumantes t&#234;m n&#237;veis elevados de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> TNF-&#945;, IFN-&#947; and ICAM-1 s&#227;o consideradas citocinas-chave envolvidas na remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, levando a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, cascata de morte intracelular e produ&#231;&#227;o de EROs.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A inflama&#231;&#227;o constitui uma caracter&#237;stica comum na patog&#234;neses de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, mas terapias anti-inflamat&#243;rias para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca mostraram dados controversos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Os ensaios cl&#237;nicos RENEWAL e ATTACH analisaram o efeito de medicamentos anti-TNF-&#945;, etanercept e infliximab, em insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Nenhum desses medicamentos teve efeito positivo. Em ensaios pequenos, pentoxifilina (PX), outro agente anti-TNF-&#945;, proporcionou efeitos ben&#233;ficos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>PX &#233; um inibidor de fosfodiesterase com propriedades imunomoduladoras, incluindo a regula&#231;&#227;o negativa da s&#237;ntese de TNF-&#945; e a inibi&#231;&#227;o da apoptose, prolifera&#231;&#227;o celular e trombose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> PX parece retardar deteriora&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca por mecanismos obscuros, mas uma combina&#231;&#227;o de efeitos imunomoduladores e vasodilatadores &#233; poss&#237;vel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Preven&#231;&#227;o e cessa&#231;&#227;o do tabagismo s&#227;o a estrat&#233;gia mais importante para a redu&#231;&#227;o de danos induzidos por FC, mas considerando-se o alto n&#250;mero de fumantes e o alto risco de morte cardiovascular nessa popula&#231;&#227;o, o estudo de medicamentos potencialmente ben&#233;ficos para a minimiza&#231;&#227;o de danos card&#237;acos &#233; extremamente relevante. PX &#233; considerada um medicamento relevante, especialmente nas condi&#231;&#245;es em que inflama&#231;&#227;o, estresse oxidativo e apoptose est&#227;o envolvidos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar o papel de PX na remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida por exposi&#231;&#227;o a FC.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>O protocolo experimental foi aprovado pela Comiss&#227;o de &#201;tica no Uso de Animais (CEUA) de nossa Institui&#231;&#227;o. O estudo est&#225; em conformidade com os princ&#237;pios &#233;ticos de experimenta&#231;&#227;o animal preconizados pelo Conselho Brasileiro de Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal.</p>
        <p>Ratos Wistar machos, pesando entre 200 e 300 g, foram divididos em quatro grupos experimentais: grupo controle (C), composto por animais n&#227;o expostos a fuma&#231;a de cigarro; grupo fuma&#231;a de cigarro (FC), composto por animais expostos a fuma&#231;a de cigarro; grupo pentoxifilina (PX), composto por animais n&#227;o expostos a fuma&#231;a de cigarro, alimentados com 100 mg/kg de pentoxifilina adicionada &#224; ra&#231;&#227;o;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> e grupo (PX-FC) composto de animais expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro alimentados com 100mg/kg de pentoxifilina adicionada &#224; ra&#231;&#227;o. Todos os animais foram observados durante dois meses.</p>
        <p>Durante a primeira semana, a fuma&#231;a foi liberada numa propor&#231;&#227;o de 10 cigarros, duas vezes por dia no per&#237;odo da tarde, com intervalos de descanso de 10 minutos. O n&#250;mero de cigarros foi aumentado para uma propor&#231;&#227;o de 40 cigarros por dia (20 cigarros/30 min. de intervalo de manh&#227; e &#224; tarde) at&#233; a finaliza&#231;&#227;o do estudo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Depois deste per&#237;odo, foram feitas an&#225;lises morfol&#243;gicas e funcionais, e amostras biol&#243;gicas foram coletadas para an&#225;lises bioqu&#237;micas.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica invasiva</title>
          <p>As medi&#231;&#245;es de press&#227;o arterial invasiva foram tiradas por canula&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria femoral. Os ratos foram anestesiados com cetamina (50 mg/kg) e xilazina (1 mg/kg) por via intraperitoneal. A musculatura da regi&#227;o inguinal foi dissecada para permitir a visualiza&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria femoral esquerda.</p>
          <p>A art&#233;ria femoral foi dissecada e isolada, e a por&#231;&#227;o distal foi amarrada. Um cateter interno com cloreto de polivinilo (di&#226;metro 0.5 mm) cheio de heparina (500 IU/mL) foi colocado na art&#233;ria femoral, e o cateter foi conectado a um pol&#237;grafo (Windograf, GOULD, Ohio, EUA). A m&#233;dia de 10 medi&#231;&#245;es consecutivas da press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica (PAD) e sist&#243;lica (PAS), obtida por meio de registros gr&#225;ficos do pol&#237;grafo foi registrada. A press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia foi calculada usando a f&#243;rmula (PAS+2xPAD)/3. Depois da medi&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o, o cateter foi removido e a por&#231;&#227;o proximal da art&#233;ria femoral foi oclu&#237;da.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Estudo Ecocardiogr&#225;fico</title>
          <p>Antes da eutan&#225;sia, todos os animais foram pesados e avaliados por um exame de ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica, como previamente descrito.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Os exames foram feitos usando um ecocardi&#243;grafo (SONO CT HDI-5000, Philips Healthcare, Holanda, Europa), equipado com transdutor de raios f&#225;sicos de 7.5MHz. Todas as medi&#231;&#245;es foram obtidas pelo mesmo observador, em acordo com o m&#233;todo recomendado pela Associa&#231;&#227;o Europeia de Ecocardiografia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda in vitro</title>
          <p>O estudo isovolum&#233;trico do cora&#231;&#227;o isolado foi feito como previamente descrito.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> O cora&#231;&#227;o inteiro foi rapidamente removido do t&#243;rax e transferido para o aparelho de perfus&#227;o (modelo 830 Hugo Sachs Eletronick - Grunstasse, Alemanha). A solu&#231;&#227;o Krebs-Henseleit tinha a seguinte composi&#231;&#227;o (mmol/L): 115 NaCl, 5,4 KCl, 1,25 CaCl, 1,2 MgSO4, 1,15 NaH2SO4, 1,2 Na2SO4, 25 NaHCO3 e 11 glicose. No ventr&#237;culo com batimento isovolum&#233;trico (200 batidas/min), foi inserido um bal&#227;o no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. O volume do bal&#227;o foi aumentado em incrementos de 0,02 mL sobre a faixa de press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final de 0-30 mm Hg. A press&#227;o e o volume dentro do bal&#227;o foram registradas seguindo cada incremento, e as press&#245;es corresponderam ao volume e &#224; press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Amostras</title>
          <p>Os animais foram sacrificados com uma grande dose de pentobarbital, e seu cora&#231;&#227;o e sangue foram dissecados. Uma por&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o foi armazenada a -80&#186; C. Cortes transversais do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo foram colocadas em formalina tamponada a 4% e embebidas em parafina. O resto do cora&#231;&#227;o foi congelado em nitrog&#234;nio l&#237;quido e armazenado em freezer a -80&#186; C.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Metabolismo energ&#233;tico e estresse oxidativo</title>
          <p>Amostras do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (200 mg) foram usadas para medir o total do hidroper&#243;xido de prote&#237;nas de lip&#237;dio (LH) e enzimas de estresse oxidativo: glutationa peroxidase (GSHPx, E.C.1.11.1.9), dismuta&#231;&#227;o do super&#243;xido (SOD, E.C.1.15.1.1), catalase (CAT, E.C.1.11.1.6) e as enzimas do metabolismo energ&#233;tico desidrogenases 3-hidroxiacil Coenzima A (OHADH, E.C.1.1.1.35.), desidrogenase de lactato (LDH, E.C.1.1.1.27) e citrato sintase (CS; E.C.4.1.3.7.), como previamente descrito.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Wester<italic>n</italic> blot para avalia&#231;&#227;o de Caspase 3 e express&#227;o de BCL-2</title>
          <p>A extra&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na foi feita com tamp&#227;o RIPA, dilu&#237;da em tamp&#227;o Laemmle, e separada por eletroforese usando o Mini Protean system 3 Electrophoresis Cell (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, EUA). As prote&#237;nas foram transferidas para um sistema de membrana de nitrocelulose no Mini Trans-Blot (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, EUA). A membrana foi incubada com o anticorpo prim&#225;rio, o anticorpo caspase-3 (Cell SignalingTechnology<sup>&#174;</sup> e BCL-2 (linfoma de c&#233;lulas B-2) durante a noite. A membrana foi lavada e incubada com o anticorpo secund&#225;rio, anti-IgG HRP (Cell SignalingTechnology<sup>&#174;</sup>, por duas horas sob agita&#231;&#227;o. Foi feita a imunodetec&#231;&#227;o usando a quimioluminesc&#234;ncia em acordo com instru&#231;&#245;es do fabricante (SuperSignal West Pico Chemiluminescent Substrate, Thermo Scientific, EUA). As membranas de nitrocelulose foram expostas a filmes de raio x (X-Omat AR film) (Eastman Kodak Co., EUA) em per&#237;odos de tempo pr&#233;-determinados para cada prote&#237;na estudada. O anticorpo usado para normaliza&#231;&#227;o foi o GAPDH (6C5), IgG de coelho (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Europe) a uma dilui&#231;&#227;o de 1:5000. An&#225;lises quantitativas das manchas foram feitas pelo software Scion Image (Scion Corporation, Frederick, Maryland, EUA), que &#233; um software gratuito, dispon&#237;vel no site <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.scioncorp.com/">http://www.scioncorp.com/</ext-link>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Estat&#237;sticas</title>
          <p>Os dados est&#227;o representados como m&#233;dia e o desvio padr&#227;o. Vari&#225;veis com distribui&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o-normais foram normalizados antes das compara&#231;&#245;es. Um teste ANOVA de duas vias, complementado pelo teste Holm-Sidak, foi usado para comparar os grupos. Os dois fatores considerados foram exposi&#231;&#227;o FC e PX. No caso de uma intera&#231;&#227;o entre os fatores (p &lt; 0,05), os grupos foram analisados independentemente (C X FC; C X PX; FC X PX-FC e PX X PX-FC). Se n&#227;o houve intera&#231;&#227;o, compara&#231;&#245;es marginais foram feitas dentro dos fatores FC (com ou sem exposi&#231;&#227;o a FC) ou PX (com ou sem PX).</p>
          <p>O teste estat&#237;stico mostra 3 valores "P": um valor P para a intera&#231;&#227;o entre FC e PX [P (FC x PX)], outro valor P para a influ&#234;ncia de FC [P (FC)], e o terceiro para a influ&#234;ncia de PX[P (PX]. A an&#225;lise dos dados foi feita com SigmaStat para Windows v2.03 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL). O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia foi considerado 5%.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>A press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia (C = 84 &#177; 3; PX = 86 &#177; 4; FC = 93 &#177; 3; PX-FC = 90 &#177; 3 mmHg) (p = 0,5), frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e peso corporal eram similares entre os grupos.</p>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o aos efeitos do tabagismo, a exposi&#231;&#227;o a FC aumentou o di&#226;metro e a &#225;rea do &#225;trio esquerdo e prejudicou a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, diminuindo a derivada positiva (+dp/dt) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Dados de estudos ecocardiogr&#225;ficos e isolados do cora&#231;&#227;o</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="12%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">C (8)</th>
                <th align="center">PX (11)</th>
                <th align="center">FC (10)</th>
                <th align="center">PX-FC (11)</th>
                <th align="center">P (PX-FC)</th>
                <th align="center">P (FC)</th>
                <th align="center">P (PX)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DDVE/PC (mm/kg)</td>
                <td align="center">19,0 &#177; 1,68</td>
                <td align="center">19,4 &#177; 1,13</td>
                <td align="center">19,96 &#177; 1,86</td>
                <td align="center">19,98 &#177; 1,57</td>
                <td align="center">0,18</td>
                <td align="center">0,70</td>
                <td align="center">0,67</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DSVE /PC (mm/kg)</td>
                <td align="center">7,84 &#177; 0,77</td>
                <td align="center">8,60 &#177; 1,09</td>
                <td align="center">9,03 &#177; 1,59</td>
                <td align="center">8,89 &#177; 1,28</td>
                <td align="center">0,07</td>
                <td align="center">0,27</td>
                <td align="center">0,43</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ERPVE</td>
                <td align="center">0,34 &#177; 0,05</td>
                <td align="center">0,37 &#177; 0,06</td>
                <td align="center">0,34 &#177; 0,05</td>
                <td align="center">0,35 &#177; 0,04</td>
                <td align="center">0,46</td>
                <td align="center">0,38</td>
                <td align="center">0,16</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DAE /PC (mm/kg)</td>
                <td align="center">10,0 &#177; 0,48</td>
                <td align="center">11,3 &#177; 1,12</td>
                <td align="center">11,7 &#177; 1,27<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN08">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">11,6 &#177; 0,96<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN08">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">0,14</td>
                <td align="center">0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,18</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">AAE /PC (cm<sup>2</sup>/ kg)</td>
                <td align="center">0,53 &#177; 0,79</td>
                <td align="center">0,56 &#177; 0,13</td>
                <td align="center">0,69 &#177; 0,06<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN09">&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">0,58 &#177; 0,08</td>
                <td align="center">0,03</td>
                <td align="center">0,00</td>
                <td align="center">0,20</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">AAE / AAD</td>
                <td align="center">1,14 &#177; 0,15</td>
                <td align="center">1,20 &#177; 0,16</td>
                <td align="center">1,31 &#177; 0,17<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN08">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">1,25 &#177; 0,13<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN08">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">0,20</td>
                <td align="center">0,04</td>
                <td align="center">0,07</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IMVE (g/kg)</td>
                <td align="center">1,46 &#177; 0,20</td>
                <td align="center">1,52 &#177; 0,24</td>
                <td align="center">1,54 &#177; 0,19</td>
                <td align="center">1,49 &#177; 0,25</td>
                <td align="center">0,53</td>
                <td align="center">0,96</td>
                <td align="center">0,53</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FEJ</td>
                <td align="center">92,8 &#177; 1,71</td>
                <td align="center">90,9 &#177; 3,30</td>
                <td align="center">90,3 &#177; 3,78</td>
                <td align="center">90,5 &#177; 4,56</td>
                <td align="center">0,37</td>
                <td align="center">0,48</td>
                <td align="center">0,20</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FEN %</td>
                <td align="center">58,7 &#177; 3,30</td>
                <td align="center">55,6 &#177; 5,22</td>
                <td align="center">54,7 &#177; 6,15</td>
                <td align="center">55,3 &#177; 6,84</td>
                <td align="center">0,33</td>
                <td align="center">0,51</td>
                <td align="center">0,97</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PS &#8225;(mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">164 &#177; 14,5</td>
                <td align="center">153 &#177; 3,30</td>
                <td align="center">141 &#177; 7,18</td>
                <td align="center">156 &#177; 9,90</td>
                <td align="center">0,26</td>
                <td align="center">0,39</td>
                <td align="center">0,85</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">+dp/dt <sup>&#8225;</sup> (mmHg/s)</td>
                <td align="center">3851 &#177; 367</td>
                <td align="center">3500 &#177; 185</td>
                <td align="center">2725 &#177; 228<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN09">&#8224;</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">3950 &#177; 320</td>
                <td align="center">0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,30</td>
                <td align="center">0,20</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">-dp/dt <sup>&#8225;</sup> (mmHg/s)</td>
                <td align="center">2082 &#177; 311</td>
                <td align="center">2417 &#177; 323</td>
                <td align="center">1925 &#177; 109</td>
                <td align="center">2200 &#177; 129</td>
                <td align="center">0,91</td>
                <td align="center">0,48</td>
                <td align="center">0,26</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN07">
              <p>C: grupo de controle; PX: grupo pentoxifilina; FC: grupo fuma&#231;a de cigarro; PX-FC: grupo fuma&#231;a de cigarro e pentoxifilina. Valor de Pi-p para intera&#231;&#227;o entre FC e PX. Na aus&#234;ncia de intera&#231;&#245;es, Pts e Ppx devem ser considerados. Valor de Pts-p para animais expostos a FC (FC + PX-FC) comparados com grupos n&#227;o expostos a FC (C+PX). Valor de Ppx-p para animais que receberam PX (PX + PX-FC) comparado aos grupos que n&#227;o receberam PX (C+FC).</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN08">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Grupos expostos a FC s&#227;o diferentes de grupos n&#227;o expostos a FC.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN09">
              <label>&#8224;</label>
              <p>Grupo FC &#233; diferente dos grupos PX-FC e C.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN10">
              <p>DDVE: di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; DSVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; ERPVE: espessura relativa da parede do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; DAE: di&#226;metro do &#225;trio esquerdo; AAE: &#225;rea atrial esquerda; AAD: &#225;rea atrial direita; IMVE: &#237;ndice de massa ventricular esquerda; FEN: fra&#231;&#227;o de encurtamento; FEJ: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o. Os dados s&#227;o expressos como a m&#233;dia &#177; de desvio padr&#227;o. N&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia: 5%. PS: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica card&#237;aca m&#225;xima; +dp/dt: derivada positiva m&#225;xima; -dp/dt: derivada positiva m&#237;nima; PC: peso corporal. </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Os dados inflamat&#243;rios evidenciaram que os grupos expostos a FC apresentaram n&#237;veis mais altos de IL-10 e ICAM (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Dados inflamat&#243;rios</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="12%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
								</th>
                <th align="center">C (6)</th>
                <th align="center">PX (6)</th>
                <th align="center">FC (6)</th>
                <th align="center">PX-FC (6)</th>
                <th align="center">P FC x PX</th>
                <th align="center">P (FC)</th>
                <th align="center">P (PX)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">TNF-&#945; (pg/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">3,00 &#177; 1,91</td>
                <td align="center">1,71 &#177; 0,70</td>
                <td align="center">3,71 &#177; 2,50<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">5,50 &#177; 3,90<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">0,21</td>
                <td align="center">0,07</td>
                <td align="center">0,90</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IL-10 (pg/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">15,1 &#177; 7,91</td>
                <td align="center">9,20 &#177; 7,30</td>
                <td align="center">21,9 &#177; 16,6<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">28,1 &#177; 14,7<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">0,26</td>
                <td align="center">0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,90</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">ICAM (pg/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">4,1 &#177; 0,40</td>
                <td align="center">3,70 &#177; 0,20</td>
                <td align="center">4,30 &#177; 0,30<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">4,30 &#177; 0,60<sup><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="center">0,29</td>
                <td align="center">0,03</td>
                <td align="center">0,20</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN11">
              <p>C: grupo de controle; PX: grupo pentoxifilina; FC: grupo fuma&#231;a de cigarro; PX-FC: grupo fuma&#231;a de cigarro e pentoxifilina. Valor de Pi-p para intera&#231;&#227;o entre FC e PX. No caso de Pi&lt;0.05, diferentes letras indicam signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica. Na aus&#234;ncia de intera&#231;&#245;es, Pts e Ppx devem ser considerados. Valor de Pts-p para animais expostos a FC (FC+PX-FC) comparado a grupos n&#227;o expostos a FC (C+PX). Valor de Ppx-p para animais que receberam PX (PX+PX-FC) comparado a grupos que n&#227;o receberam PX (C+FC).</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN12">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Grupos expostos a FC s&#227;o diferentes dos grupos n&#227;o expostos a FC. TNF-&#945;: fator de necrose tumoral; IL-10: interlucina 10; ICAM: Mol&#233;cula de Ades&#227;o Intercelular 1</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Sobre o estresse oxidativo, as enzimas antioxidantes SOD (C = 20,0 &#177; 1,93; PX = 16,4 &#177; 1,65; FC = 11,0 &#177; 0,89; PX-FC = 21,8 &#177; 2,96) (p &lt; 0,001) e GSHPx (C = 36,4 &#177; 4,80; PX = 33,2 &#177; 6,45; FC = 17,0 &#177; 3,92; PX-FC = 35,8 &#177; 5,29) (p &lt; 0,001) mostraram diminui&#231;&#227;o no grupo FC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">figura 1</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, os grupos expostos a FC (FC e PX-FC) apresentaram n&#237;veis mais elevados de LH em compara&#231;&#227;o com os grupos que n&#227;o foram expostos a FC (C = 132 &#177; 14,7; PX = 103 &#177; 14,5 X FC = 176 &#177; 11,5; PX-FC = 126 &#177; 11,9) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Estresse Oxidativo. C: grupo de controle; PX: grupo pentoxifilina; FC: grupo fuma&#231;a de cigarro; PX FC: grupo fuma&#231;a de cigarro e pentoxifilina; SOD: dismuta&#231;&#227;o do super&#243;xido. CAT: catalase; GSH-PX: glutationa peroxidase; LH: hidroper&#243;xido lip&#237;dico. Houve intera&#231;&#227;o entre FC e PX para SOD (p &lt; 0,001) e GSH-PX (p &lt; 0,001). N&#227;o houve intera&#231;&#227;o entre FC e PX para LH que estava elevado em grupos expostos a FC (p &lt; 0,001) e mais baixo em grupos que receberam PX (p &lt; 0,001). * Grupo FC &#233; diferente de PX-FC e C. &#8225; Grupos expostos a FC s&#227;o diferentes de grupos n&#227;o expostos a FC. &#8224; Grupos que receberam PX s&#227;o diferentes de grupos que n&#227;o receberam PX. Os dados s&#227;o expressos como a m&#233;dia &#177; 2 SE. N&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia: 5%.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-05-0396-60057-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao metabolismo energ&#233;tico, FC aumentou LDH (C = 70,7 &#177; 11,6; PX = 73,5 &#177; 10,6; FC = 133 &#177; 21,9; PX-FC = 106 &#177; 9,88) (p = 0,003) e diminuiu as desidrogenases 3-hidroxiacil Coenzima A (OHDHA) (C = 31,4 &#177; 1,48; PX = 34,8 &#177; 2,70; FC = 15,9 &#177; 2,12; PX-FC = 55 &#177; 9,88) e CS (C = 31,9 &#177; 5,00; PX = 35,0 &#177; 4,75; FC = 24,2 &#177; 3,57; PX-FC = 36,1 &#177; 1,71) (p = 0,02) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Metabolismo Energ&#233;tico. C: grupo de controle; PX: grupo pentoxifilina; FC: grupo fuma&#231;a de cigarro; PX-FC: fuma&#231;a de cigarro e pentofixilina. Houve intera&#231;&#227;o entre FC e PX para LDH (p = 0,02). OHDHA (p &lt; 0,001) e CS (p = 0,01). LDH: lactato desidrogenases; OHDHA: 3-hidroxiacil coenzima A desidrogenase; CS: citrato sintase. *Grupo exposto a FC &#233; diferente de PX-FC e C. Os dados s&#227;o expressos como a m&#233;dia &#177; 2 SE. N&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia: 5%.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-05-0396-60057-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Por fim, FC tamb&#233;m aumentou caspase 3, sem interfer&#234;ncia em BCL-2. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 3</xref>)</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Apoptose. C: grupo de controle; PX: grupo pentoxifilina; FC: grupo fuma&#231;a de cigarro; PX-FC: grupo fuma&#231;a de cigarro e pentoxifilina; GAPDH: Gliceralde&#237;do 3-fosfato desidrogenase. BCL-2 (B-cell lymphoma-2). &#8225; Grupos expostos a FC (a) s&#227;o diferentes de animais n&#227;o expostos a FC (p = 0,01). Os dados s&#227;o expressos como a m&#233;dia &#177; 2 SE. N&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia: 5%.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-05-0396-60057-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Sobre os efeitos de PX, o medicamento atenuou a &#225;rea do &#225;trio esquerdo e melhorou fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, aumentando +dp/dt no grupo FC (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>). PX recuperou as atividades de enzimas antioxidantes e melhorou o metabolismo energ&#233;tico em grupos expostos a FC. Independentemente da exposi&#231;&#227;o a FC, PX reduziu danos de estresse oxidativo, diminuindo LH (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figuras 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">2</xref>).</p>
        <p>PX n&#227;o teve influ&#234;ncia na inflama&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>) e apoptose (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar o papel da PX na remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida por exposi&#231;&#227;o a FC. FC induziu remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca associada a inflama&#231;&#227;o, estresse oxidativo, apoptose e metabolismo energ&#233;tico alterado. PX atenuou remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, reduzindo estresse oxidativo e melhorando bioenerg&#233;tica card&#237;aca.</p>
        <p>Considerando-se as consequ&#234;ncias do processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o, estudos anteriores mostraram que animais expostos a FC apresentaram diferentes padr&#245;es de remodela&#231;&#227;o, incluindo hipertrofia, dilata&#231;&#227;o, hipocinesia e disfun&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Os presentes dados mostraram que FC alterou a morfologia card&#237;aca, como evidenciado pela &#225;rea aumentada do &#225;trio esquerdo e hipertrofia dos mi&#243;citos. Al&#233;m disso, FC diminuiu +dp/dt, par&#226;metro de fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica card&#237;aca sob condi&#231;&#245;es controladas. Portanto, PX atenuou as vari&#225;veis morfol&#243;gicas e melhorou fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, sugerindo que este medicamento tem um efeito positivo na remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida por exposi&#231;&#227;o a FC.</p>
        <p>Considerando-se os mecanismos do processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o, h&#225; uma ampla variedade de anormalidades bioqu&#237;micas, celulares, intersticiais e moleculares que contribuem para altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas e disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Portanto, a raz&#227;o para o estudo do papel da PX na atenua&#231;&#227;o de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida por FC &#233; baseada no fato de que este medicamento tem propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias, anti-apopt&#243;ticas, anti-proliferativas e vasodilatadoras.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Na doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o, a PX melhorou marcadores inflamat&#243;rios e apopt&#243;ticos e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Al&#233;m disso, PX via oral no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio melhorou a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e reduziu citocinas inflamat&#243;rias p&#243;s cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Contudo, os efeitos da PX em cardiomiopatia por fuma&#231;a de cigarro ainda s&#227;o desconhecidos.</p>
        <p>Do ponto de vista dos par&#226;metros bioqu&#237;micos, nossos dados mostram que FC aumentou ades&#227;o molecular e citocinas Th2, como ICAM e IL-10.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Express&#227;o elevada de ICAM e IL-10 indica que uma les&#227;o imunologicamente mediada est&#225; presente neste modelo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Ao mesmo tempo, PX n&#227;o influenciou esses par&#226;metros inflamat&#243;rios. Na literatura atual, h&#225; alguns dados que mostram que PX reduziu citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, como a mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o celular-1, e aumentou citocinas anti-inflamat&#243;rias, como IL-10.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> H&#225; outros estudos em que PX n&#227;o teve influ&#234;ncia sobre a via de TNF-&#945;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Por&#233;m, foi sugerido que PX exerce efeitos biol&#243;gicos e imunomoduladores independentemente do n&#237;vel de citocinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o a anormalidades celulares, o presente estudo mostrou que FC aumentou atividade de caspase-3. PX foi descrita como um agente anti-apopt&#243;tico e anti-proliferativo. Por exemplo, administra&#231;&#227;o de PX inibe apoptose do mioc&#225;rdio ap&#243;s cardiomiopatia dilatada induzida por adriamicina, bloqueando o circuito apopt&#243;tico dependente de caspase-3.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Contudo, em nosso estudo, PX n&#227;o influenciou estes par&#226;metros.</p>
        <p>Este estudo mostrou que PX atenuou estresse oxidativo e melhorou metabolismo energ&#233;tico. Danos mediados por EROs foram observados no grupo FC, evidenciado por baixa atividade de SODe GPX seguida por n&#237;veis elevados de LH. PX reduziu LH em animais expostos ou n&#227;o a FC. PX aumentou atividade de SOD e GPX nos animais expostos a FC. Acredita-se atualmente que estresse oxidativo tem papel central na toxicidade card&#237;aca, enquanto defesas anti-oxidantes t&#234;m papel crucial na prote&#231;&#227;o de tecidos contra danos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Foi reportado que PX pode atenuar significativamente o estresse oxidativo card&#237;aco. Ratos alimentados com a dieta ocidental apresentaram hipertens&#227;o leve e o uso de PX aumentou atividades de antioxidantes e reduziu press&#227;o arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Al&#233;m disso, os efeitos terap&#234;uticos previamente descritos de pentoxifilina via &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase em tecido card&#237;aco em modelo emperimental de diabetes representam outra importante via do estresse oxidativo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao metabolismo energ&#233;tico, FC elevou LDH, o que pode ser respons&#225;vel por dano card&#237;aco ou metabolismo de glicose elevada. As atividades de CS e OHDHA foram reduzidas no grupo FC, sugerindo comprometimento da oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos gordos e respira&#231;&#227;o e densidade mitocondrial. O padr&#227;o anormal de bioenerg&#233;ticas card&#237;acas mostrou que esses dados tamb&#233;m foram previamente observados em modelos de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca seguida por disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> Apoio &#224; hip&#243;tese de que FC prejudica bioenerg&#233;tica card&#237;aca vem de estudos em que FC introduziu diminui&#231;&#227;o significativa nas taxas de respira&#231;&#227;o e fosforila&#231;&#227;o da mitoc&#244;ndria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A consequ&#234;ncia desta altera&#231;&#227;o &#233; a forma&#231;&#227;o de EROs e a baixa gera&#231;&#227;o de energia para relaxamento e contra&#231;&#227;o de mi&#243;citos.</p>
        <p>O papel da PX como antioxidante e modulador do metabolismo energ&#233;tico foi descrito em modelos diferentes da remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. No contexto de esteatose hep&#225;tica, os efeitos ben&#233;ficos observados em pacientes que receberam PX podem ser mediados por uma redu&#231;&#227;o no estresse oxidativo e na peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Num modelo de edema de pata, PX aumentou a atividade de SOD e GSH-PX, atenuando a peroxida&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;dios. Considerando a fun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial, &#233; poss&#237;vel que PX melhore respira&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico de pacientes ateroscler&#243;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> PX pode elevar os n&#237;veis intracelulares de AMP c&#237;clico (cAMP) e GMP c&#237;clico (cGMP).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
				</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limita&#231;&#227;o de Estudo</title>
          <p>O presente estudo tem algumas limita&#231;&#245;es, que devem ser abordadas devido &#224; falta de avalia&#231;&#227;o das vias totais de apoptose e inflama&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, diferentes doses de PX n&#227;o foram testadas. Por fim, s&#227;o dados experimentais que nos permitem fazer hip&#243;teses, mas n&#227;o recomenda&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Em conclus&#227;o, o presente estudo revelou que FC induziu remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, associada a inflama&#231;&#227;o elevada, estresse oxidativo, apoptose e metabolismo energ&#233;tico alterado. PX atenuou a remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, reduzindo estresse oxidativo e melhorando bioenerg&#233;tica card&#237;aca, mas n&#227;o agiu sobre citocinas card&#237;acas nem apoptose.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela FAPESP.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
