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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">S5BhMFp79MTpXFrdS3nWqYd</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2016000100041</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2015005050137</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20150137</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>The Effect of Sleep Deprivation on Cardiac Function and Tolerance to Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Male Rats</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jeddi</surname>
            <given-names>Sajad</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Asl</surname>
            <given-names>Amir Nezami</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Asgari</surname>
            <given-names>Alireza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ghasemi</surname>
            <given-names>Asghar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Endocrine Physiology Research Center</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Endocrine Physiology Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran &#8211; Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">AJA Medical Sciences University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Medical Faculty of Aerospace and subaquatic Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Aerospace Medicine Research Center</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Aerospace Medicine Research Center, Medical Faculty of Aerospace and subaquatic Medicine, AJA Medical Sciences University, Tehran &#8211; Iran</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Nezami-Asl A</bold> , Aerospace Medicine Research Center, Medical Faculty of Aerospace and subaquatic Medicine, AJA Medical Sciences University, Tehran &#8211; Iran. E-mail: <email>sajad.jeddy62@gmail.com</email>
					</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, Analysis and interpretation of the data AND Writing of the manuscript: Jeddi S, Asl AN, Asgari A, Ghasemi A; Acquisition of data: Jeddi S; Statistical analysis: Jeddi S, Asgari A; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Asl AN, Asgari A, Ghasemi A.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>10</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>1</month>
        <year>2016</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>106</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>41</fpage>
      <lpage>48</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Sleep deprivation (SD) is strongly associated with elevated risk for cardiovascular disease.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>To determine the effect of SD on basal hemodynamic functions and tolerance to myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury in male rats.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Method:</title>
          <p>SD was induced by using the flowerpot method for 4 days. Isolated hearts were perfused with Langendorff setup, and the following parameters were measured at baseline and after IR: left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP); heart rate (HR); and the maximum rate of increase and decrease of left ventricular pressure (&#177;dp/dt). Heart NOx level, infarct size and coronary flow CK-MB and LDH were measured after IR. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was measured at start and end of study.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>In the SD group, the baseline levels of LVDP (19%), +dp/dt (18%), and -dp/dt (21%) were significantly (p &lt; 0.05) lower, and HR (32%) was significantly higher compared to the controls. After ischemia, hearts from SD group displayed a significant increase in HR together with a low hemodynamic function recovery compared to the controls. In the SD group, NOx level in heart, coronary flow CK-MB and LDH and infarct size significantly increased after IR; also SD rats had higher SBP after 4 days.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Hearts from SD rats had lower basal cardiac function and less tolerance to IR injury, which may be linked to an increase in NO production following IR.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Sleep Deprivation</kwd>
        <kwd>Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders</kwd>
        <kwd>Ventricular Dysfunction</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Ischemia</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Reperfusion Injury</kwd>
        <kwd>Nitric Oxide</kwd>
        <kwd>Rats</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Cardiac ischemia is the principle cause of human death worldwide<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> and its rate is rising because of co-morbid diseases, such as diabetes and obesity, and also aging.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref> Cardiac ischemia is often induced by the occlusion of coronary arteries and while reperfusion can salvage the ischemic heart from death, it can induce side effects, known as ischemia&#8209;reperfusion (IR) injuries.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>
				</p>
      <p>Sleep is a vital regulator of cardiovascular function, both in the physiological state and in disease conditions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref> Previous cohort and case-control studies have indicated that sleep disorders are related to an increased prevalence of cardiovascular disease and even an independent risk factor for the development of that disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref> Sleep disorders exert harmful effects on a variety of systems with obvious changes in the endocrine, metabolic and immune pathways that are related to unfavorable health outcomes, including diabetes, hypertension, and obesity that are documented to contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
				</p>
      <p>Nitric oxide (NO) is synthesized by NO synthase enzymes in the heart and plays a vital role in cardiac functions. Despite the evidence highlighting the role of ischemia in a rise in NO production,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref> no studies have yet examined the changes in the NO content in the hearts of sleep deprivation (SD) rats and its contribution to IR injury. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge, there is no study addressing the effects of SD on basal cardiac function and cardiac tolerance following IR injury. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of SD on basal hemodynamic functions and tolerance to myocardial IR injury in male rats. In addition, changes in NO metabolites (NOx) following IR injury were also assessed.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Animals</title>
        <p>In this study, 16 male Wistar rats (2-month old) were obtained from laboratory animal house of the Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences (RIES), Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences. All animals were housed in an animal room with temperature and light controlled conditions (22 &#177; 2&#186;C 12/12-h dark-light cycle), and had free access to food and water at all times.</p>
        <p>The proposal of this study was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of the RIES (Permit Number: 12 EC RIES 93/11/27), Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences (Tehran, Iran).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Induction of REM sleep deprivation</title>
        <p>Male rats were deprived of rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep for 96 hours. Rapid-eye-movement SD was induced by using the flowerpot technique.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Briefly, rats were placed on an inverted pot (platform of 7-cm diameter) surrounded by water reaching to a level of 1cm under the bottom of the pot. Tank's water was refreshed every morning. Prior to depriving rats of sleep, they were trained for 1-2 hours to stay steady on the platform and not to fall into the water. After training, on the day of experiment, they were taken from their home cage and placed individually in the water tank.</p>
        <p>For experiments, animals were randomly divided into 2 groups (n = 8 each): Control and SD.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Isolated heart preparation</title>
        <p>All animals were anesthetized with an intraperitoneal injection of ketamine and xylazine (50 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg, respectively). Once fully anesthetized, the thorax was opened and the hearts of control and SD rats were rapidly excised and embedded in an ice-cold perfusion buffer. The aortas were then cannulated and the whole preparation mounted in the Langendorff perfusion apparatus and perfused through the aorta with a Krebs-Henseleit solution containing (mM/L): NaCl 118, NaHCO<sub>3</sub> 25, KCl 4.7, MgCl<sub>2</sub> 1.2, CaCl<sub>2</sub> 2.5, KH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> 1.2, and glucose 11 at a constant pressure (75 mm Hg) and pH of 7.4. The Krebs solution was gassed with a combination of 95% O<sub>2</sub> and 5% CO<sub>2</sub> at 37&#186;C. All isolated hearts were stabilized for 20 minutes with the purpose of obtaining baseline data. After stabilization, hearts were subjected to global ischemia for 30 minutes followed by reperfusion for 45 minutes. Left ventricular hemodynamic parameters were measured via a latex balloon inserted in the left ventricle. The balloon capacity was adjusted to create 5-10 mm Hg of end-diastolic pressure in all hearts by filling it with water. Hemodynamic parameters [left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP), heart rate (HR), left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP), and the maximum rate of increase and decrease of left ventricular pressure (&#177;dp/dt)] were digitized and recorded by a data acquisition system (Power Lab, AD Instrument, Australia).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Measurement of NOx</title>
        <p>Following 45-min reperfusion, samples of left ventricular tissue were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -80&#186;C. NOx contents in heart homogenates were determined using the Griess method<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Briefly, after homogenization of samples in phosphate-buffered saline (1:5, w/v), the homogenates were centrifuged at 15,000 <italic>g</italic> for 20 min at 4&#186;C. The supernatants were removed from the homogenates and were deproteinized by addition of zinc sulfate (15 mg/mL). Tissue samples, 100 &#956;L of the supernatant were added to a microplate well, and 100 &#956;L vanadium (III) chloride (8 mg/mL) were added to each well (for reduction of nitrate to nitrite), followed by addition of 50 &#956;L sulfanilamide (2%) and 50 &#956;L NEDD (N-(1-naphtyl) ethylendiamine dihydrochloride) (0.1%). After 30-min incubation at 37&#186;C, the absorbance was read at 540 nm using the ELISA reader (BioTek, Powerwave XS2). NOx concentrations in heart homogenate samples were measured from the linear standard curve established by 0-100 &#956;mol/L of sodium nitrate. Heart NOx levels are presented as &#956;mol/L. Intra-assay coefficient of variation was 4.9%.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Measurement of infarct size</title>
        <p>At the end of the reperfusion period, infarct sizes were determined as described previously. The frozen heart samples were cut into thin slices (2-3 mm) and were incubated for 10 minutes in 1% of 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride in phosphate buffer solution 20 mM/L, pH 7.4 at 37&#186;C. The slices were immersed in 10% formalin for 24 hours to identify viable myocardium as red stained, easily discriminable from unstained necrotic tissue. The sections were then photographed using a digital camera (Samsung, Japan, version DV101). The infarct size was measured by Photoshop CS6 software (version 13) and expressed as percentage of the total area.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>
					</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Measurement of creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)</title>
        <p>Samples of coronary flow were collected for 5 minutes after start of reperfusion for measuring the myocardial enzyme leakage, CK-MB and LDH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> The CK-MB and LDH levels in the coronary effluent were determined by spectrophotometric method via CK-MB kit and LDH kit (Pars Azmoon, Iran) and the results were expressed as U/L.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>All values are expressed as means &#177; SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software (SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA; version 20). The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to check the normality of study data, and then parametric or non-parametric tests were used to analyze normal or non&#8209;normal data distribution, respectively.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Therefore, repeated measurement analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare hemodynamic parameters (LVDP, LVEDP, &#177;dp/dt, and HR) in different times. The Student <italic>t</italic> test was used to compare blood pressure, infarct size, heart NOx levels and coronary flow CK-MB and LDH between control and SD groups. Two-sided p-values &lt; 0.05 were considered statistically significant.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>After 96 hours of SD, the rats showed a significant increase in systolic blood pressure (SBP) compared to the control group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f01">
        <label>Figure 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Comparison of changes in systolic blood pressure in control and sleep deprivation groups. Values shown as mean &#177; SEM.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Effects of SD on hemodynamic parameters in isolated heart during the stabilization and IR periods are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>, and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref>. As seen, during the stabilization period, hearts from SD rats had significantly lower baseline LVDP and &#177;dp/dt, and higher HR (p &lt; 0.05) compared to the control group (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>). When there was ischemia, the LVDP, &#177;dp/dt, and HR rapidly decreased and stopped in the isolated hearts. In both groups, LVEDP was gradually increased during the 30 minutes of ischemia, however the SDgroup displayed a significant increase (p &lt; 0.05) compared to the control group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>). Compared with the control group, post-ischemic LVDP and &#177;dp/dt were significantly lower and HR was higher in the SD group (p &lt; 0.05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3-A</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">C</xref>, and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">D</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t01">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Cardiac function at the stabilization period (baseline data)</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left"/>
              <th align="center">Control</th>
              <th align="center">Sleep deprivation</th>
              <th align="center">p value </th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">LVDP<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
								</td>
              <td align="center">93.14 &#177; 4.9</td>
              <td align="center">75.5 &#177; 3.5</td>
              <td align="center">0.035</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Heart rate<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
								</td>
              <td align="center">262.2 &#177; 11.1</td>
              <td align="center">347.5 &#177; 19.7</td>
              <td align="center">0.003</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">dp.dt max<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
								</td>
              <td align="center">2897.1 &#177; 75.1</td>
              <td align="center">2367 &#177; 222.7</td>
              <td align="center">0.021</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">dp.dt min<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
								</td>
              <td align="center">2555.3 &#177; 227.6</td>
              <td align="center">1788.8 &#177; 105.9</td>
              <td align="center">0.046</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN01">
            <p>Data shown as mean &#177; SEM. LVDP: Left ventricular developed pressure; &#177; dp/dt: peak rates of positive and negative changes in left ventricular pressure;</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN02">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>p &lt; 0.05.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <fig id="f02">
        <label>Figure 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Change in left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP) (ischemic contracture) during experiment. Values shown as mean &#177; SEM (n = 8 rats)</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="f03">
        <label>Figure 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Recovery of cardiac function after ischemia-reperfusion injury. A. Left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP); B. Heart rate; C. Peak rates of positive changes in left ventricular pressure (+dp/dt); D. Peak rates of negative changes in left ventricular pressure (- dp/dt). Values shown as mean &#177; SEM (n = 8 rats)</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>IR induced a marked increase in the heart NOx level in the SD group compared with the control group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f04">
        <label>Figure 4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Change in NOx in control and sleep deprivation groups in heart after ischemia. Values shown as mean &#177; SEM (n = 8 rats)</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Coronary flow CK-MB and LDH levels were significantly (p &lt; 0.05) higher in the SD group compared to the control group (p &lt; 0.05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f05">
        <label>Figure 5</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Change in coronary flow CK-MB (A) and LDH (B) in control and sleep deprivation groups in start of reperfusion. Values shown as mean &#177; SEM (n = 8 rats)</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Sleep deprivation significantly increased the infarct size in SD rats compared to control rats (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 6</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f06">
        <label>Figure 6</label>
        <caption>
          <title>The alterations of infarct size in heart of control and sleep deprivation rats. Values shown as mean &#177; SEM (n = 8 rats)</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>The results of this study showed for the first time that SD for 96 hours induces negative inotropic and chronotropic effects on the hearts isolated from male rats and increases the IR-induced injury in those hearts, which may be linked to increasing the NO production after IR.</p>
      <p>In this study, SBP was higher in the SD group compared to controls. Several studies have found that experimental SD leads to increased blood pressure, which is in line with our findings. Neves et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> have shown that rats with 72-hour REM SD had higher blood pressure compared with controls. Joukar et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> have indicated that SD resulted in a significant increase in blood pressure in rats by using the similar method. De Mesquita and Hale<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> have also shown that SD in rats led to increasing blood pressure following 114 hours of REM SD. As stated by others, blood pressure could have increased during SD due to either increased sympathetic outflow to the heart or periphery, or changes in baroreflex sensitivity to a higher level, or a combination of both.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
      <p>Pre-ischemic and reperfusion HR were higher in the SD group than in controls, which is consistent with the reports by others. Sgoifo et al,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Carvalho et al,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> and Almeida et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> have reported that SD rats exhibited an increased HR and were vulnerable to ventricular arrhythmias. The mechanism of action of SD on HR during perfusion and reperfusion is not completely understood. In this regard, studies have shown that SD increases HR through various mechanisms. One possible cause for the significant increase in HR in SD rats before and after ischemia may have resulted from the immobility stress induced by the flowerpot technique. Sleep deprivation affects the basal activity of the stress system by increasing the corticosterone and adrenocorticotropic hormone concentrations and the subsequent response to an acute suppression in the cardiac autonomic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
      <p>We recorded lower baseline LVDP and &#177; dp/dt in the SD group, which indicate that SD could affect the normal heart function. The exact mechanisms of the SD effects on baseline cardiac functions are not fully understood and need further elucidation, but SD has been suggested to indirectly increase cardiovascular disease by increasing inflammation and cortisol secretion, altering growth hormone metabolism and changing the circulating levels of ghrelin and leptin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref> In addition, we showed for the first time that, after ischemia, hearts from the SD group displayed a significantly low hemodynamic function recovery compared to controls, indicating that these hearts are susceptible to the IR injury, as confirmed by the increase in the LDH and CK-MB levels in the coronary effluent and the rise in the infarct size.</p>
      <p>In this study, consistent with other studies on disease states, such as hyperthyroidism,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref> diabetes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> and maternal hypothyroidism,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> ischemia increased the CK-MB and LDH levels and the infarct size in the SD group, which showed heart cell necrosis. The heart cells contracted during long or severe ischemia and start of reperfusion, causing mechanical stiffness and tissue necrosis. Contracted cells put pressure on neighboring cells and cause their decomposition and development of contraction, leading to widespread necrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				</p>
      <p>In this study, the capacity of the balloon in the left ventricle was fixed during ischemia and reperfusion, so the increase in LVEDP resulted from stiffness in the left ventricular wall or ventricular contracture. Thus, SD could be said to increase contracture and accordingly to significantly increase the subsequent necrosis in the IR period in the heart of SD rats. Increasing Ca<sup>2+</sup> concentration in heart cells and ATP depletion have been reported to be important factors in ischemic contracture.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
      <p>The function of NO in the cardiovascular system after ischemia has not been fully enlightened. A few studies have considered a negative role for NO in myocardial IR injury, whereas others have reported a protecting role. Recent studies have shown that the NO level of myocardial cells is in a low range at baseline and increases during IR injury. While a low range increase in NO production may be cardioprotective, a vast increase appears to be injurious. At high levels, NO reacts with superoxide and produces peroxynitrite, which is a highly toxic agent that could induce apoptosis in heart cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref> Our results show that SD increases IR-induced injuries in rat hearts, which may possibly be linked to elevated NO levels after ischemia. Thus, it could be hypothesized that SD may lead to reperfusion injury by increasing the NO production.</p>
      <p>Regarding the limitations of this study, we used global ischemia, which has been commonly used in the Langendorff-perfused heart model. However, the use of the regional ischemia model has been reported to be clinically more relevant.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> In addition, our results are limited to male rats, while SD affects cardiac functions in both sexes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Based on our findings we conclude that the hearts of SD rats had lower basal cardiac function and less tolerance to the IR injury, confirmed by the increase in LDH and CK-MB levels in coronary flow. In addition, the rise in the infarct size may be due to an increase in the NO production after IR.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ack>
      <title>Acknowledgments</title>
      <p>The authors thank Ms. N. Shiva for the critical editing of English grammar and syntax of the manuscript.</p>
    </ack>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>O Efeito da Priva&#231;&#227;o de Sono na Fun&#231;&#227;o Card&#237;aca e Toler&#226;ncia &#224; Les&#227;o de Isquemia-Reperfus&#227;o em Ratos</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jeddi</surname>
            <given-names>Sajad</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Asl</surname>
            <given-names>Amir Nezami</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Asgari</surname>
            <given-names>Alireza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ghasemi</surname>
            <given-names>Asghar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Endocrine Physiology Research Center</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Endocrine Physiology Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran &#8211; Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">hahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">AJA Medical Sciences University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Medical Faculty of Aerospace and subaquatic Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Aerospace Medicine Research Center</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Aerospace Medicine Research Center, Medical Faculty of Aerospace and subaquatic Medicine, AJA Medical Sciences University, Tehran &#8211; Iran</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Nezami-Asl A</bold> , Aerospace Medicine Research Center, Medical Faculty of Aerospace and Subaquatic Medicine, AJA Medical Sciences University, Tehran &#8211; Iran. E-mail: <email>sajad.jeddy62@gmail.com</email>
					</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados E Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Jeddi S, Asl AN, Asgari A, Ghasemi A; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Jeddi S; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Jeddi S, Asgari A; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Asl AN, Asgari A, Ghasemi A.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>A priva&#231;&#227;o de sono (PS) acha-se fortemente associada a alto risco cardiovascular.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Determinar o efeito da PS nas fun&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas basais e toler&#226;ncia &#224; les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de isquemia&#8209;reperfus&#227;o (IR) em ratos machos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>A PS foi induzida com o m&#233;todo da plataforma &#250;nica por 4 dias. Utilizou-se o modelo de perfus&#227;o de cora&#231;&#227;o isolado de Langendorff, medindo-se os seguintes par&#226;metros nas condi&#231;&#245;es basais e ap&#243;s IR: press&#227;o desenvolvida no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDVE), frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) e taxa m&#225;xima de aumento e redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (&#177;dp/dt). O n&#237;vel card&#237;aco de NOx, o tamanho do infarto e os n&#237;veis de CK-MB e LDH no efluente coron&#225;rio foram medidos ap&#243;s IR. A press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) foi medida no in&#237;cio e no final do estudo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>No grupo PS, os valores basais de PDVE (19%), +dp/dt (18%) e-dp/dt (21%) foram significativamente mais baixos (p &lt; 0,05), e a FC (32%) significativamente mais alta em compara&#231;&#227;o aos dos controles. Ap&#243;s isquemia, os cora&#231;&#245;es do grupo PS apresentavam um significativo aumento da FC al&#233;m de uma menor recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica em compara&#231;&#227;o aos dos controles. No grupo PS, os n&#237;veis de NOx no cora&#231;&#227;o e de CK-MB e LDH no efluente coron&#225;rio, al&#233;m do tamanho do infarto, foram significativamente maiores ap&#243;s IR. O grupo PS tamb&#233;m apresentou maior PAS ap&#243;s 4 dias.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Os cora&#231;&#245;es do grupo PS apresentaram menor fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca basal e menor toler&#226;ncia &#224; les&#227;o de IR, o que pode estar relacionado ao aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de NO ap&#243;s IR.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-Chave:</title>
        <kwd>Priva&#231;&#227;o do Sono</kwd>
        <kwd>Dist&#250;rbios do In&#237;cio e Manuten&#231;&#227;o do Sono</kwd>
        <kwd>Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular</kwd>
        <kwd>Isquemia Mioc&#225;rdica</kwd>
        <kwd>Traumatismo por Reperfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica</kwd>
        <kwd>&#211;xido N&#237;trico</kwd>
        <kwd>Ratos</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Isquemia card&#237;aca &#233; a principal causa de morte humana no mundo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> e sua taxa cresce devido a comorbidades, como diabetes e obesidade, e ainda envelhecimento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref> A isquemia card&#237;aca em geral &#233; induzida pela oclus&#227;o das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias e, embora a reperfus&#227;o possa salvar o cora&#231;&#227;o isqu&#234;mico, ela produz efeitos colaterais, conhecidos como les&#245;es de isquemia-reperfus&#227;o (IR).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>
					</p>
        <p>O sono &#233; um regulador vital da fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, tanto no estado fisiol&#243;gico quanto nas doen&#231;as.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref> Estudos de coorte e caso-controle indicaram que os dist&#250;rbios do sono acham-se relacionados com elevada preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular, sendo at&#233; um fator de risco independente para o desenvolvimento daquela doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref> Os dist&#250;rbios do sono exercem efeitos nocivos em v&#225;rios sistemas, com altera&#231;&#245;es &#243;bvias nas vias end&#243;crina, metab&#243;lica e imune, relacionadas a desfechos de sa&#250;de desfavor&#225;veis, como diabetes, hipertens&#227;o e obesidade, que sabidamente contribuem para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
					</p>
        <p>O &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) &#233; sintetizado pela enzima NO&#173;sintase no cora&#231;&#227;o e desempenha papel vital nas fun&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas. A despeito da evid&#234;ncia enfatizando o papel da isquemia na eleva&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de NO,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref> nenhum estudo examinou as altera&#231;&#245;es no conte&#250;do de NO dos cora&#231;&#245;es de ratos submetidos a priva&#231;&#227;o do sono (PS) e sua contribui&#231;&#227;o para a les&#227;o de IR. Al&#233;m disso, at&#233; onde sabemos, n&#227;o h&#225; estudo sobre os efeitos da PS na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca basal e na toler&#226;ncia card&#237;aca ap&#243;s a les&#227;o de IR. Assim, este estudo teve por objetivo determinar o efeito da PS nas fun&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas basais e na toler&#226;ncia &#224; les&#227;o de IR mioc&#225;rdica em ratos machos. Al&#233;m disso, avaliaram-se as altera&#231;&#245;es nos metab&#243;litos de NO (NOx) ap&#243;s les&#227;o de IR.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Animais</title>
          <p>Este estudo utilizou 16 ratos machos Wistar de 2 meses de idade obtidos no biot&#233;rio do Instituto de Pesquisa em Ci&#234;ncias End&#243;crinas (RIES), da Universidade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas Shahid Beheshti. Todos os animais foram alojados em gaiolas, com controle de temperatura e luz (22 &#177; 2&#186;C, ciclo claro/escuro de 12 horas), tendo livre acesso a alimento e &#225;gua todo o tempo.</p>
          <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; Institucional de Cuidado e Uso de Animais do RIES (Protocolo: 12 EC RIES 93/11/27), da Universidade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas Shahid Beheshti, Teer&#227;, Ir&#227;.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Indu&#231;&#227;o de priva&#231;&#227;o do sono REM</title>
          <p>Os ratos foram submetidos &#224; priva&#231;&#227;o de sono REM ( <italic>rapid-eye-movement</italic>) por 96 horas. A PS REM foi induzida usando-se a t&#233;cnica da plataforma &#250;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Em resumo, os ratos foram colocados em um tanque com uma plataforma de 7 cm de di&#226;metro circundada por &#225;gua at&#233; 1 cm abaixo dessa plataforma. A &#225;gua do tanque foi trocada toda manh&#227;. Antes de serem submetidos &#224; PS, os ratos foram treinados por 1-2 horas para que ficassem firmes na plataforma sem cair na &#225;gua. Ap&#243;s o treino, no dia do experimento, eles foram retirados das gaiolas e colocados individualmente no tanque de &#225;gua.</p>
          <p>Para o experimento, os animais foram aleatoriamente divididos em dois grupos (n = 8 cada): controle e PS.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prepara&#231;&#227;o de cora&#231;&#227;o isolado</title>
          <p>Todos os animais foram anestesiados com inje&#231;&#227;o intraperitoneal de cetamina e xilazina (50 mg/kg e 10 mg/kg, respectivamente). Uma vez anestesiados, o t&#243;rax foi aberto, sendo o cora&#231;&#227;o dos ratos dos dois grupos rapidamente excisado e imerso em um tamp&#227;o de perfus&#227;o gelada. A aorta foi ent&#227;o canulada e toda a prepara&#231;&#227;o montada em um aparelho de perfus&#227;o de Langendorff. A aorta foi perfundida com solu&#231;&#227;o de Krebs-Henseleit, sob press&#227;o constante (75 mmHg) e pH de 7,4, contendo (em mM/l): NaCl 118; NaHCO<sub>3</sub> 25; KCl 4,7; MgCl<sub>2</sub> 1,2; CaCl<sub>2</sub> 2,5; KH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> 1,2; e glicose 11. A solu&#231;&#227;o de Krebs foi borbulhada com uma combina&#231;&#227;o de 95% O<sub>2</sub> e 5% CO<sub>2</sub>, a 37&#186;C. Todos os cora&#231;&#245;es isolados foram estabilizados por 20 minutos para a obten&#231;&#227;o dos dados basais. Ap&#243;s estabiliza&#231;&#227;o, os cora&#231;&#245;es foram submetidos a isquemia global por 30 minutos, seguindo&#173;se reperfus&#227;o por 45 minutos. Os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo foram medidos atrav&#233;s de um bal&#227;o de l&#225;tex inserido naquele ventr&#237;culo. Ajustou&#173;se a capacidade do bal&#227;o para, atrav&#233;s de seu enchimento com &#225;gua, criar press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final de 5-10 mmHg em todos os cora&#231;&#245;es. Os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos [press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDFVE), frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC), press&#227;o desenvolvida no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDVE), e taxa m&#225;xima de aumento e redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (&#177;dp/dt)] foram registrados em um sistema de aquisi&#231;&#227;o de dados (Power Lab, AD Instrument, Austr&#225;lia).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Medida de NOx</title>
          <p>Ap&#243;s os 45 minutos de reperfus&#227;o, amostras do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo foram imediatamente congeladas em nitrog&#234;nio l&#237;quido e armazenadas a -80&#186;C. Determinou-se o conte&#250;do de NOx nos homogeneizados de cora&#231;&#227;o com o m&#233;todo Griess.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Em resumo, ap&#243;s a homogeneiza&#231;&#227;o das amostras em solu&#231;&#227;o salina com tamp&#227;o fosfato (1:5, w/v), os homogeneizados foram centrifugados a 15.000 <italic>g</italic> por 20 minutos a 4&#186;C. Os sobrenadantes foram removidos e desproteinizados pela adi&#231;&#227;o de sulfato de zinco (15 mg/mL). Amostras de tecidos e 100 &#956;L de sobrenadante foram distribu&#237;dos na placa de microtitula&#231;&#227;o, e 100 &#956;L de cloreto de van&#225;dio (III) (8 mg/mL) foram adicionados a cada po&#231;o da placa de microtitula&#231;&#227;o para redu&#231;&#227;o de nitrato a nitrito. Seguiu-se a adi&#231;&#227;o de 50 &#956;L de sulfanilamida (2%) e 50 &#956;L de dicloridrato de N&#173;(1&#173;naftil)&#173;etilenodiamina (NEED) (0,1%). Ap&#243;s incuba&#231;&#227;o por 30 minutos a 37&#186;C, mediu&#173;se a absorb&#226;ncia a 540 nm, usando-se um leitor de ELISA (BioTek, Powerwave XS2). As concentra&#231;&#245;es de NOx no homogeneizado de cora&#231;&#227;o foram medidas a partir de uma curva linear padr&#227;o estabelecida com 0-100 &#956;mol/L de nitrato de s&#243;dio. Os n&#237;veis de NOx no cora&#231;&#227;o foram apresentados em &#956;mol/L. O coeficiente de varia&#231;&#227;o intra-ensaio foi 4,9%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Medida do tamanho do infarto</title>
          <p>Ao final do per&#237;odo de reperfus&#227;o, o tamanho do infarto foi determinado como descrito previamente. As amostras de cora&#231;&#227;o congeladas foram cortadas em finas se&#231;&#245;es (2&#173;3 mm) e incubadas por 10 minutos em solu&#231;&#227;o de cloreto de 2,3,5-trifenil tetraz&#243;lio a 1% em 20 mM/L de tamp&#227;o fosfato, pH 7,4 a 37&#186;C. As se&#231;&#245;es foram imersas em solu&#231;&#227;o de formol a 10% por 24 horas para identifica&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio vi&#225;vel corado em vermelho, facilmente diferenciado do tecido necr&#243;tico n&#227;o corado. As se&#231;&#245;es foram ent&#227;o fotografadas com uma c&#226;mara digital (Samsung, Jap&#227;o, vers&#227;o DV101). O tamanho do infarto foi medido com o programa Photoshop CS6, vers&#227;o 13, e expresso como uma porcentagem da &#225;rea total.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>
						</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Medida da creatina quinase (CK) e desidrogenase l&#225;tica (LDH)</title>
          <p>Amostras do fluxo coron&#225;rio foram coletadas por 5 minutos ap&#243;s in&#237;cio da reperfus&#227;o para medir a libera&#231;&#227;o das enzimas mioc&#225;rdicas CK-MB e LDH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Os n&#237;veis de CK&#173;MB e LDH no efluente coron&#225;rio foram determinados por espectrofotometria com os <italic>kits</italic> CK-MB e LDH (Pars Azmoon, Ir&#227;), sendo os resultados expressos como U/L.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Todos os valores foram expressos como m&#233;dias &#177; EPM. A an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica foi realizada com o programa SPSS (SPSS, Chicago, IL, EUA; vers&#227;o 20). O teste de Shapiro&#173;Wilk foi usado para avaliar a normalidade dos dados do estudo, sendo os testes param&#233;trico ou n&#227;o param&#233;trico usados para analisar a distribui&#231;&#227;o normal ou n&#227;o normal de dados, respectivamente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Logo, utilizou-se an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia (ANOVA) com repeti&#231;&#227;o de medida para comparar os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos (PDVE, PDFVE, &#177;dp/dt e FC) em momentos diferentes. Usou-se o teste <italic>t</italic> de Student para comparar press&#227;o arterial, tamanho do infarto, n&#237;veis de NOx no cora&#231;&#227;o e fluxo coron&#225;rio de CK-MB e LDH entre os grupos controle e PS. Valores de p bilateral &lt; 0,05 foram considerados estatisticamente significativos.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>Em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle, os ratos submetidos a 96 horas de PS apresentaram significativa eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f07">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Compara&#231;&#227;o das altera&#231;&#245;es na press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica nos grupos controle e de priva&#231;&#227;o de sono. Valores expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; EPM.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Tabela 1</xref>, a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 2</xref> e a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">Figura 3</xref> mostram os efeitos da PS nos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos do cora&#231;&#227;o isolado durante os per&#237;odos de estabiliza&#231;&#227;o e de IR. Durante o per&#237;odo de estabiliza&#231;&#227;o, os cora&#231;&#245;es dos ratos submetidos a PS apresentaram PDVE e &#177;dp/dt basais significativamente mais baixas e FC mais altas (p &lt; 0,05) em compara&#231;&#227;o aos do grupo controle (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Tabela 1</xref>). Na presen&#231;a de isquemia, houve r&#225;pida redu&#231;&#227;o e manuten&#231;&#227;o de PDVE, &#177;dp/dt e FC nos cora&#231;&#245;es isolados. Nos dois grupos, a PDFVE aumentou gradualmente durante os 30 minutos de isquemia, mas, no grupo PS, esse aumento foi significativo (p &lt; 0,05) quando comparado ao do grupo controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 2</xref>). No per&#237;odo p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mico, as PDVE e &#177;dp/dt foram significativamente mais baixas e a FC mais alta no grupo PS (p &lt; 0,05) do que no grupo controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">Figure 3-A</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">C</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">D</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t02">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca no per&#237;odo de estabiliza&#231;&#227;o (dados basais)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left"/>
                <th align="center">Controle</th>
                <th align="center">Priva&#231;&#227;o de sono</th>
                <th align="center">Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">PDVE<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">93,14 &#177;4,9</td>
                <td align="center">75,5 &#177; 3,5</td>
                <td align="center">0,035</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FC<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">262,2 &#177; 11,1</td>
                <td align="center">347,5 &#177; 19,7</td>
                <td align="center">0,003</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">+dp.dt<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">2897,1 &#177; 75,1</td>
                <td align="center">2367 &#177; 222,7</td>
                <td align="center">0,021</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">-dp.dt<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">2555,3 &#177; 227,6</td>
                <td align="center">1788,8 &#177; 105,9</td>
                <td align="center">0,046</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN03">
              <p>Dados apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; EPM. PDVE: Press&#227;o desenvolvida no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; FC: Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; &#177; dp/dt: Taxas m&#225;ximas de altera&#231;&#245;es positivas e negativas na press&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN04">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>p &lt; 0,05.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <fig id="f08">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Altera&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDFVE) (contra&#231;&#227;o isqu&#234;mica) durante o experimento. Valores expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; EPM (n = 8 ratos)</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        <fig id="f09">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca ap&#243;s les&#227;o de isquemia-reperfus&#227;o. A. Press&#227;o desenvolvida no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDVE); B. Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC); C. Taxas m&#225;ximas de altera&#231;&#245;es positivas na press&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (+dp/dt); D. Taxas m&#225;ximas de altera&#231;&#245;es negativas na press&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (- dp/dt). Valores expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; EPM (n = 8 ratos)</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        <p>A IR induziu um acentuado aumento no n&#237;vel de NOx no cora&#231;&#227;o no grupo PS em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
        <p>Os n&#237;veis de CK-MB e LDH no efluente coron&#225;rio foram significativamente mais elevados (p &lt; 0,05) no grupo PS em compara&#231;&#227;o aos do grupo controle (p &lt; 0,05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f10">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Altera&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de NOx no cora&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s isquemia nos grupos controle e de priva&#231;&#227;o de sono. Valores expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; EPM (n = 8 ratos)</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        <fig id="f11">
          <label>Figura 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Altera&#231;&#245;es no fluxo coron&#225;rio de CK-MB (A) e LDH (B) no in&#237;cio da reperfus&#227;o nos grupos controle e de priva&#231;&#227;o de sono. Valores expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; EPM (n = 8 ratos)</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf05-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        <p>A PS aumentou de maneira significativa o tamanho do infarto no grupo PS em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 6</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f12">
          <label>Figura 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Altera&#231;&#245;es no tamanho do infarto nos cora&#231;&#245;es de ratos nos grupos controle e de priva&#231;&#227;o de sono. Valores expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; EPM (n = 8 ratos)</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-106-01-0041-50137-gf06-pt.jpg"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Este estudo mostrou pela primeira vez que a PS por 96 horas induz efeitos negativos inotr&#243;picos e cronotr&#243;picos em cora&#231;&#245;es isolados de ratos machos, al&#233;m de aumentar a les&#227;o induzida por IR no cora&#231;&#227;o de ratos, o que pode estar ligado &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de NO ap&#243;s IR.</p>
        <p>Neste estudo, a PAS foi maior no grupo PS do que no grupo controle. V&#225;rios estudos relataram que a PS experimental eleva a press&#227;o arterial, o que est&#225; de acordo com os nossos achados. Neves et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> mostraram que ratos com PS REM por 72 horas apresentaram maior press&#227;o arterial do que os controles. Joukar et al,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> usando um m&#233;todo similar, relataram que a PS resultou em um significativo aumento da press&#227;o arterial em ratos. Al&#233;m disso, De Mesquita e Hale<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> mostraram que a PS REM em ratos por 114 horas levou a aumento da press&#227;o arterial. Outros autores informaram que a eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial durante a PS pode dever-se ao aumento da descarga simp&#225;tica para o cora&#231;&#227;o ou para a periferia, ou ao aumento da sensibilidade barorreflexa, ou a uma combina&#231;&#227;o dos dois.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
					</p>
        <p>A FC anterior &#224; isquemia e &#224; reperfus&#227;o foi maior no grupo PS do que no grupo controle, o que &#233; consistente com outros relatos. Sgoifo et al,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Carvalho et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> e Almeida et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> relataram que ratos submetidos a PS exibiam elevada FC e eram vulner&#225;veis a arritmias ventriculares. Os mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o da PS na FC durante a perfus&#227;o e a reperfus&#227;o n&#227;o est&#225; completamente esclarecida. Estudos mostraram que a PS aumenta a FC atrav&#233;s de v&#225;rios mecanismos. Uma poss&#237;vel causa para o significativo aumento da FC de ratos submetidos a PS antes e depois da isquemia pode ser o estresse da imobilidade induzida pela t&#233;cnica da plataforma &#250;nica. A PS afeta a atividade basal do sistema do estresse atrav&#233;s da eleva&#231;&#227;o das concentra&#231;&#245;es de corticosterona e horm&#244;nio adrenocorticotr&#243;fico e da subsequente resposta a uma supress&#227;o aguda no sistema aut&#244;nomo card&#237;aco e no eixo hipot&#225;lamo-hip&#243;fise-adrenal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					</p>
        <p>Registramos valores basais mais baixos de PDVE e &#177; dp/dt no grupo PS, indicando que a PS possa afetar a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca normal. Os exatos mecanismos da PS sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca basal n&#227;o foram elucidados por completo, mas sugeriu-se que a PS aumente indiretamente a doen&#231;a cardiovascular ao aumentar a inflama&#231;&#227;o e a secre&#231;&#227;o de cortisol, alterando o metabolismo do horm&#244;nio de crescimento e os n&#237;veis circulantes de grelina e leptina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref> Al&#233;m disso, este estudo mostrou pela primeira vez que, ap&#243;s isquemia, os cora&#231;&#245;es do grupo PS apresentaram uma recupera&#231;&#227;o significativamente baixa da fun&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; dos controles, indicando que esses cora&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o suscet&#237;veis &#224; les&#227;o de IR, como confirmado pelo aumento nos n&#237;veis de LDH e CK-MB no efluente coron&#225;rio e pelo aumento do tamanho do infarto.</p>
        <p>Neste estudo, &#224; semelhan&#231;a de outros estudos sobre condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas, como hipertireoidismo,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref> diabetes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> e hipotireoidismo materno,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> a isquemia aumentou os n&#237;veis de CK-MB e LDH e o tamanho do infarto no grupo PS, que apresentou necrose de c&#233;lulas card&#237;acas. Tais c&#233;lulas contraem durante a isquemia longa ou grave e o in&#237;cio da reperfus&#227;o, causando rigidez mec&#226;nica e necrose tissular. As c&#233;lulas contra&#237;das exercem press&#227;o nas vizinhas, causando sua decomposi&#231;&#227;o e desenvolvimento de contra&#231;&#227;o, disseminando a necrose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
					</p>
        <p>Neste estudo, a capacidade do bal&#227;o no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo foi mantida constante durante o per&#237;odo de IR, de modo que o aumento na PDFVE resultou de rigidez na parede ventricular esquerda ou de contra&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Em consequ&#234;ncia, pode-se dizer que a PS aumente a contra&#231;&#227;o e, portanto, aumente significativamente a necrose subsequente no per&#237;odo de IR nos cora&#231;&#245;es de ratos submetidos &#224; PS. H&#225; relato de que a crescente concentra&#231;&#227;o de Ca<sup>2+</sup> nas c&#233;lulas card&#237;acas e a deple&#231;&#227;o de ATP sejam importantes fatores da contra&#231;&#227;o isqu&#234;mica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
        <p>A fun&#231;&#227;o do NO no sistema cardiovascular ap&#243;s isquemia ainda n&#227;o foi completamente esclarecida. Alguns estudos aventaram um papel negativo para o NO na les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de IR, enquanto outros relataram um papel protetor. Estudos recentes mostraram que o n&#237;vel de NO nas c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas &#233; baixo nas condi&#231;&#245;es basais, aumentando durante a les&#227;o de IR. Enquanto um pequeno aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o de NO pode ser cardioprotetor, um grande aumento parece ser delet&#233;rio. Em altos n&#237;veis, o NO reage com super&#243;xido e produz peroxinitrito, que &#233; um agente altamente t&#243;xico e poss&#237;vel indutor de apoptose nas c&#233;lulas card&#237;acas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref> Nossos resultados mostram que a PS aumenta as les&#245;es induzidas por IR nos cora&#231;&#245;es de ratos, e essas les&#245;es podem estar ligadas aos elevados n&#237;veis de NO ap&#243;s isquemia. Assim, pode-se levantar a hip&#243;tese de que a PS leve &#224; les&#227;o de reperfus&#227;o atrav&#233;s do aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de NO.</p>
        <p>Quanto &#224;s limita&#231;&#245;es deste estudo, utilizou-se isquemia global, comumente usada no modelo de perfus&#227;o de cora&#231;&#227;o isolado de Langendorff. Entretanto, h&#225; relato de que o uso do modelo de isquemia regional seja clinicamente mais relevante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Al&#233;m disso, nossos resultados acham-se limitados a ratos machos, enquanto a PS afeta as fun&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas nos dois sexos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Em conclus&#227;o, os cora&#231;&#245;es de ratos submetidos a PS apresentaram, nas condi&#231;&#245;es basais, menor fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e menor toler&#226;ncia &#224; les&#227;o de IR, o que foi confirmado pelo aumento nos n&#237;veis de LDH e CK-MB no efluente coron&#225;rio. Al&#233;m disso, o aumento no tamanho do infarto pode ser atribu&#237;do ao aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o de NO ap&#243;s IR.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <ack>
        <title>Agradecimentos</title>
        <p>Os autores agradecem &#224; Sra. N. Shiva pela editora&#231;&#227;o em ingl&#234;s deste manuscrito.</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
